Indian Classical Drama

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Indian classical drama

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [wikipedia page]
The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The origin of dramatic
performance in Indian subcontinent can be traced back to as early as 200 BCE,[1] its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit
literature.[2] Buddhist philosopher Asvaghosa who composed Buddhacarita is considered to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist.
Despite its name, a classical Sanskrit drama uses both Sanskrit and Prakrit languages giving it a bilingual nature.[3] Sanskrit drama utilised stock
characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. Mahābhāṣya by
Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama;[4] this treatise on grammar provides a feasible date
for the beginnings of theatre in India.[5]
Kālidāsa in the 4th-5th century CE, was arguably one of ancient India's greatest Sanskrit dramatists. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa
(Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramōrvaśīyam (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala); the last w
Mahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into English and German. Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's
CONTEXT INFO
great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have written the following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and U
three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of Ramayana; the powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606–648) is credited with having written thre
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Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda. Other famous Sanskrit dramatists include Śhudraka, Bhasa, and Asvaghosa. Though numerous pla
still available, little is known about the authors themselves.
Contents
1 Beginnings
2 Theory
2.1 Natya Shastra
3 Plays
3.1 Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
3.2 Bhāsa
3.3 Kālidāsa
3.4 Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta
3.5 Other major plays
4 Performances
5 Modern Sanskrit Plays
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
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Beginnings
Shatapatha Brahmana (~800–700 BCE) has verses in chapter 13.2 written in the form of a play between two actors.[7] Early Buddhist literature provide
existence of Indian theatre; the Pali suttas (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer to the existence of troupes of actors (led by a chief
stage. It is indicated that these dramas incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form of performance, alongside dancing, singing, and story rec
The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from c.200 BCE.[10][11] The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indi
of theatre;[12] the Vedas (the earliest Indian literature, from between 1500 and 600 BCE) contain no hint of it; although a small number of hymns are co
rituals of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.[13] The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may h
drama;[14] this treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India.[15]
Since the time of Alexander the Great, the Indian subcontinent came into direct contact with Greek culture; this has led to a scholarly debate about how
drama had upon the development of Indian theatre.[16]
Theory
Natya Shastra CONTEXT INFO
Main article: Natya Shastra
Major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates
and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni; the Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dan
architecture, costuming, make-up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of
indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the nec
recitation) in an hereditary process, its aim was both to educate and to entertain.
Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may als
thought of as being analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".[19] The performers were
physical technique.[20] There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentim
inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women; some performers played characters their own age, while others pla
than themselves. Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharm
though the major focus is on the latter.[21]
The theory of rasa described in the text has been a major influence on the modern theatre of India as well as Indian cinema, particularly Bollywood.
Plays
Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
Main article: Mrichakatika
One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays, this play was composed by Śudraka in the 2nd century BC. Rife with romance, sex, royal intrigue and comed
numerous twists and turns; the main story is about a young man named Charudatta, and his love for Vasantasena, a rich courtesan or nagarvadhu. Th
royal courtier, who is also attracted to Vasantasena; the plot is further complicated by thieves and mistaken identities, and thus making it a greatly hilar
widespread admiration when staged in New York in 1924; the play was made into a 1984 Hindi movie Utsav, directed by Girish Karnad. The Indian pla
Rouge! may have been based on The Little Clay Cart.
Bhāsa
Main article: Bhāsa
The plays written by Bhāsa were known to historians only through the references of later writers, as the manuscripts themselves were lost. Manuscript
discovered in an old library in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) in 1913 by the scholar Ganapati Sastri. A 14th play was later discovered and attribute
disputed.
CONTEXT INFO
Bhāsa's most famous plays are Svapna Vasavadattam (Swapnavāsadatta) ("Vasavadatta's dream"), Pancharātra, and Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam (
some other plays being Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Dūtavākya, Karnabhāra, Dūtaghatotkacha, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyāyoga and
Karnabhara is a critically acclaimed play and it is being subjected to lot of experimentation by the modern theatre groups in India.
Bhāsa is considered to be one of the best Sanskrit playwrights, second only to Kalidasa, he is earlier than Kalidasa and is dated to the 3rd or 4th centu
Kālidāsa
Main article: Kālidāsa
Kālidāsa (4th-5th century CE[26][27]) is easily the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit, and occupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that Sha
literature, he deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes; three famous plays by Kālidāsa are Vikramōrvaśīyam ("Vikrama and Urvashi"), M
Agnimitra"), and the play that he is most known for: Abhijñānaśākuntalam ("The Recognition of Shakuntala"). The last named play is considered to be
a millennium later, it would so powerfully impress the famous German writer Goethe that he would write:
"Wouldst thou the young year's blossoms and the fruits of its decline
And all by which the soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed,
Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself in one sole name combine?
I name thee, O Shakuntala! and all at once is said. "
Kālidāsa also wrote two large epic poems, Raghuvaṃśa ("The Genealogy of Raghu") and Kumārasambhava ("Birth of Kumara"), and two smaller epic
Seasons") and Meghadūta (The Cloud Messenger), another 'perfect' work.
Kālidāsa's writing is characterized by the usage of simple but beautiful Sanskrit, and by his extensive use of similes, his similes have earned him the sa
(Kālidāsa owns simile). The full śloka reads: "upamā Kālidāsasya, Bhāraver arthagauravam | Daṇḍinah padalālityam, Māghe santi trayoguṇah |
Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta
Amongst Sanskrit plays, the historical play Mudrarakshasa is unique because it contains political intrigue and is full of life, action and sustained interes
prior to 800 C.E. In the play, Chandragupta Maurya is ruling from Pataliputra, having deposed the last of the Nanda kings. Rakshasa the minister of Na
master. Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta succeeds in winning over Rakshasa to his master's side.[28]
Other major plays
Other great plays include Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika by Sri Harsha (7th century CE), Mahendravikramavarman's Mattavilasa Prahasana,
CONTEXT INFO
Kulasekhara's Subhadradhananjaya and Tapatisamvarana, Neelakantha's Kalyana Saugandhika and Sri Krishna Charita.
King Udayana in Bhasa's

Swapnavasavadattam Koodiyattam
—the only surviving ancient
Sanskrit theatre. (Artist:Mani
Damodara Chakyar)
Performances
Sanskrit plays were very popular and were staged in ancient times all over India. Now the only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is Koodiyattam
the Chakyar community; this form of Sanskrit drama is thought to be at least 2000 years old and is one of the oldest living theatrical traditions in the wo
that of Bhasa, Sri Harsha, Shaktibhadra etc. are performed in Koodiyattam. Guru Nātyāchārya Vidūshakaratnam Padma Shri Māni Mādhava Chākyār
like Kalidasa's Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra; Bhasa's Swapnavāsadatta and Pancharātra for the first time in the history o
Koodiyattam and rejuvenated the only surviving Sanskrit drama theatre in India.
One of the hypotheses (as yet without consensus) of the origins of the "Trivandrum plays" of Bhasa is that these 13 plays were adapted from their orig
for choreography in the Koodiyattam tradition.
Modern Sanskrit Plays
Manmohan Acharya, a modern Sanskrit playwright has written many plays and dance dramas; some worth-mentioning plays are Arjuna-Pratijnaa, Shr
Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih, Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara-sakuntalam and Raavanah.[29]
Famous Indian Dance Drama,

Tantram [30] by Srjan, Script written
by Vanikavi
Vidyadhar Shastri wrote three Sanskrit plays viz. Purnanandam, Kalidainyam and Durbala Balam.
Prafulla Kumar Mishra has written the plays Chitrangada and Karuna.
See also
CONTEXT INFO
Classical Indian musical theatre

Koodiyattam
Theatre in India
Urubhanga
Notes
1. ^ According to later Buddhist texts, King Bimbisara (a contemporary of Gautama Buddha) had a drama performed for another king. This would be as early as the 5th century BCE, but t
from the 3rd-4th centuries CE.[9]
References
1. ^ Robert Barton, Annie McGregor (2014-01-03). Theatre in Your Life. 10. ^ Robert Barton, Annie McGregor (2014-01-03). Theatre in Your Life. 21. ^ Richmond (1998, 518
CengageBrain. p. 218. ISBN 9781285463483. CengageBrain. p. 218. ISBN 9781285463483. forwards".
2. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii). 11. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516-517). 22. ^ Robert E. Goodwin (1
3. ^ Rachel Van M. Baumer; James R. Brandon (1993). Sanskrit Drama 12. ^ Richmond (1998, 516). Introduction, pg. xviii
in Performance. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-81-208- 13. ^ Richmond (1998, 516). 23. ^ Moriz Winternitz, Histo
0772-3. 14. ^ Richmond (1998, 517). 24. ^ Keith, Arthur Berrieda
4. ^ Richmond (1998, 517). 15. ^ Richmond (1998, 517). Development, Theory &
5. ^ Richmond (1998, 517). 16. ^ Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin, 25. ^ Kroeber, Alfred Louis.
6. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii). Development, Theory & Practice (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 26. ^ Kalidasa at Encyclopæ
7. ^ ML Varadpande (1990), History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, 1992), p.57-68 27. ^ Sheldon Pollock (ed.,
Abhinav, ISBN 978-8170172789, page 48 17. ^ Richmond (1998, 517). Reconstructions from S
8. ^ Rachel Van M. Baumer and James R. Brandon (ed.), Sanskrit 18. ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 517). 28. ^ Macdonell A.A. A histo
Drama in Performance (University of Hawaii Press, 1981), pp.11 19. ^ Richmond (1998, 517). 29. ^ http://www.narthaki.co
9. ^ Sanskrit Drama in Performance, p.11 20. ^ Richmond (1998, 518). 30. ^ youtube video
Sources
Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii-xx).
---, ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-58822-5.
Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. History of the Theatre. Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-41050-2.
Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. ISBN 978-81-208-0772-3.
Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1900). "The drama" . A History of Sanskrit Literature. New York: D. Appleton and company.
Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516-525).
Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0-8248-1322-2.
Further reading
Wilson, Horace Hayman (1827). Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus. V.Holcroft at The Asiatic Press, Calcutta.
Dhanamjaya (1912). The Dasarupa or Treatise on Ten Forms of Drama - A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy. Translated by George C.O. Haas. Columbia University.
Nandikeśvara (1917). The Mirror of Gesture - Being the Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikeśvara. Translated by Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy; Gopala Kristnayya Dug
Schuyler Jr, Montgomery (1965). A bibliography of the Sanskrit drama, with an introductory sketch of the dramatic literature of India. AMS Press Inc., New York.
Baumer, Rachel Van M.; James R. Brandon (1993). "A Sanskrit Play In Performance by Shanta Gandhi". Sanskrit drama in performance. 2. Motilal Banarsidass Publ
External links
Works related to Indian classical drama at Wikisource
Sanskrit
Language Vedic Sanskrit · Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit · Grammar (Nouns · Pronouns · Compounds · Verbs) · Vedic grammar · Prosody
Literature Literature (Drama · Epics) · Vyākaraṇa · Category:Sanskrit literature · List of Sanskrit poets
Related topics Sanskrit revival · Sanskrit studies · Sanskrit Wikipedia · Sanskrit Wikisource
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Latin literature includes the essays, poems and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of Latin literature dates to 240 BC. Latin literature would f
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their motives. The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period; the short love lyrics of Catullus are noted for their emotional intensity. Catullus wrote po
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Old English literature or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses literature written in Old English, in Anglo-Saxon England from the 7th century to the decades after the No
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literature, Anglo-Saxons wrote a number of Anglo-Latin works.
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paleography and the physical manuscripts themselves more scholars debate such issues as dating, place of origin and the connections between Anglo-Saxon culture
Ages, literary merits. A large number of manuscripts remain from the Anglo-Saxon period, with most written during its last 300 years. Manuscripts written in both L
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There were considerable losses of manuscripts as a result of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century. Scholarly study of the language began when the m
and antiquarians such as Matthew Parker, Laurence Nowell and Sir Robert Bruce Cotton. Old English manuscripts have been prized by collectors since the 16th centu
their aesthetic beauty with their uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements. There are four major poetic manuscripts: The Junius manuscript known as the C
collection of poems on biblical narratives; the Exeter Book is an anthology, located in the Exeter Cathedral since it was donated there in the 11th century. The Vercelli B
Manuscript, sometimes called the Nowell Codex, contains prose and poetry dealing with monstrous themes, including Beowulf. Seven major scriptoria produced a g
Winchester.
In addition, some Old English text survives on other ornate objects. Regional dialects include: Northumbrian. An example of the dominance of the West Saxon dialect
and British Museum collections, which outline grants of land in Kent and Mercia, but are nonetheless written in the West Saxon dialect of the period. Early English m
margins of the texts; these include corrections and expansions of the main text, as well as commentary upon it, unrelated texts. The majority of these annotations ap
later. Old English poetry falls broadly into two styles or fields of reference, the heroic Germanic and the Christian. All Old English poets are anonymous. Although there
prosody, the rules of Old English verse are understood only through modern analysis of the extant texts; the first accepted theory was constructed by Eduard Sie
alliterative patterns.
His system of alliterative verse is based on accent, the quantity of vowels, patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme
exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages. Two poetic figures found in Old English poetry are the kenning, an formulaic phrase that describ
litotes, a dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect. Alternative theories have been proposed, such as the theory of John C. Pope, which use
patterns. J. R. R. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the feat
Avesta
The Avesta is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the otherwise unrecorded Avestan language. The Avesta texts fall into several d
usage; the principal text in the liturgical group is the Yasna, which takes its name from the Yasna ceremony, Zoroastrianism's primary act of worship, at which the Yas
portion of the Yasna texts are the five Gathas, consisting of seventeen hymns attributed to Zoroaster himself; these hymns, together with five other short Old Avestan t
the Old Avestan language. The remainder of the Yasna's texts are in Younger Avestan, not only from a stage of the language, but from a different geographic region
include the texts of the Visperad; the Visperad extensions consist of additional invocations of the divinities, while the Vendidad is a mixed collection of prose texts dealin
Today, the Vendidad is the only liturgical text, not recited from memory. Some of the materials of the extended Yasna are from the Yashts, which are hymns to the indi
Vendidad, the Yashts and the other lesser texts of the Avesta are no longer used liturgically in high rituals. Aside from the Yashts, these other lesser texts include t
Siroza, various other fragments. Together, these lesser texts are conventionally
CONTEXT INFO called "Little Avesta" texts; when the first Khordeh Avesta editions were printed in the
book of common prayer for lay people. The term Avesta is from the 9th/10th-century works of Zoroastrian tradition in which the word appears as Zoroastrian Middle Per
that context, abestāg texts are portrayed as received knowledge, are distinguished from the exegetical commentaries thereof; the literal meaning of the word abestāg
from *upa-stavaka is from Christian Bartholomae, who interpreted abestāg as a contraction of a hypothetical reconstructed Old Iranian word for "praise-song".
The surviving texts of the Avesta, as they exist today, derive from a single master copy produced by collation and recension in the Sasanian Empire. That master copy
archetype'; the oldest surviving manuscript of an Avestan language text is dated 1323 CE. Summaries of the various Avesta texts found in the 9th/10th century texts o
significant portion of the literature in the Avestan language has been lost. Only about one-quarter of the Avestan sentences or verses referred to by the 9th/10th centu
surviving texts; this suggests that three-quarters of Avestan material, including an indeterminable number of juridical and legendary texts, have been lost since then. O
most valuable portions of the canon, including all of the oldest texts, have survived; the reason for this is that the surviving materials represent those portions of the Ave
therefore known by heart by the priests and not dependent for their preservation on the survival of particular manuscripts.
A pre-Sasanian history of the Avesta, if it had one, is in the realm of myth. The oldest surviving versions of these tales are found in the ninth to 11th century texts of Zo
follows: The twenty-one nasks of the Avesta were created by Ahura Mazda and brought by Zoroaster to his patron Vishtaspa. Vishtaspa or another Kayanian, Daray ha
the treasury, the other in the royal archives. Following Alexander's conquest, the Avesta was supposedly destroyed or dispersed by the Greeks after they translated th
make use of. Several centuries one of the Parthian emperors named Valaksh then had the fragments collected, not only of those, written down, but of those that
Denkard transmits another legend related to the transmission of the Avesta. In that story, credit for collation and recension is given to the early Sasanian-era priest
collected, of which he approved only a part as authoritative.
Tansar's work was supposedly completed by Adurbad Mahraspandan who made a general revision of the canon and continued to ensure its orthodoxy. A final revisio
under Khosrow I. In the early 20th century, the legend of the Parthian-era collation engendered a search for a'Parthian archetype' of the Avesta. In the theory of Friedric
the Avestan texts was assumed to be due to preservation via written transmission, unusual or unexpected spellings in the surviving texts were assumed to be reflectio
era transcription from the
Japanese literature
Early works of Japanese literature were influenced by cultural contact with China and Chinese literature written in Classical Chinese. Indian literature had an influence t
Japan. Japanese literature developed into a separate style, although the influence of Chinese literature and Classical Chinese remained until the end of the Edo perio
Western trading and diplomacy in the 19th century and Eastern literature have affected each other and continue to do so. Before the introduction of kanji from China, th
is believed that Chinese characters came to Japan at the beginning of the fifth century, brought by immigrants from the mainland of Korean and Chinese descent. E
Chinese model, before transitioning to a hybrid of Chinese characters used in Japanese syntactical formats, resulting in sentences that looked like Chinese but were rea
Chinese characters were further adapted, creating what is known as man'yōgana, the earliest form of kana, or Japanese syllabic writing. The earliest literary works in Ja
these include the Kojiki, a historical record that chronicles ancient Japanese mythology and folk songs. One of the stories they describe is the tale of Urashima Tarō; t
as the golden era of literature in Japan. During this era, literature became centered on a cultural elite of nobility and monks; the imperial court patronized the poets, mos
waiting. Reflecting the aristocratic atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and sophisticated and expressed emotions in a rhetorical style. Editing the resulting anthologi
pastime; the iroha poem, now one of two standard orderings for the Japanese syllabary, was developed during the early Heian period. Genji Monogatari, written in the e
Murasaki Shikibu, is considered the pre-eminent novel of Heian fiction.
Other important writings of this period include the Kokin Wakashū, a waka-poetry anthology, Makura no Sōshi. The Pillow Book was written by Sei Shōnagon, Murasak
an essay about the life and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's court. Another notable piece of fictional Japanese literature was Konjaku Monogatarishū, a collect
volumes; the volumes cover various tales from India and Japan. The 10th-century Japanese narrative, Taketori Monogatari, can be considered an early example of pr
the story, Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the Moon, sent to Earth for safety during a celestial war, is found and raised by a bamboo cutter. She is taken back to her
depiction of a disc-shaped flying object similar to a flying saucer. During the Kamakura period, Japan experienced many civil wars which led to the development of a wa
related stories.
Work from this period is notable for its more somber tone compared to the works of previous eras, with themes of life and death, simple lifestyles, redemption through
Monogatari, an epic account of the struggle between the Minamoto and Taira clans for control of Japan at the end of the twelfth century. Other important tales of the per
and Yoshida Kenkō's Tsurezuregusa. Despite a decline in the importance of the imperial court, aristocratic literature remained the center of Japanese culture at the beg
literary works were marked by a nostalgia for the Heian period; the Kamakura period saw a renewed vitality of poetry, with a number of anthologies compiled, such as
the early 1200s. However, there were fewer notable works by female authors during this period, reflecting the lowered status of women; as the importance of the imper
CONTEXT INFO
feature of Muromachi literature was the spread of cultural activity through all levels of society.
Classical court literature, the focal point of Japanese literature up until this point disappeared. New genres such as renga, or linked verse, Noh theater developed amon
as the Nihon Ryoiki were created by Buddhist priests for preaching; the development of roads, along with a growing public interest in travel and pilgrimages, brought
literature from the early 13th to 14th centuries. Notable examples of travel diaries include Fuji Tsukushi michi no ki. Literature during this time was written during the pe
part to the rise of the working and middle classes in the new capital of Edo, forms of popular drama developed which would evolve into kabuki; the jōruri and kabu
became popular at the end of the 17th century, he is known as Japan's Shakespeare. Many different genres of literature made their début during the Edo Period, help
growing population of townspeople, as well as the development of lending libraries.
Ihara Saikaku (16
19th century in literature
Literature of the 19th century refers to world literature produced during the 19th century. The range of years is, for the purpose of this article, literature written from 179
in literature in this period parallel changes in the visual arts and other aspects of 19th-century culture. Literary realism is the trend, beginning with mid nineteenth-centu
late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors, toward depictions of contemporary life and society as it was, or is. In the spirit of general "realism," realist authors
banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or stylized presentation. George Eliot's novel Middlemarch stands as a great milestone in the realist
nineteenth-century realism's role in the naturalization of the burgeoning capitalist marketplace. William Dean Howells was the first American author to bring a realist a
States.
His stories of 1850s Boston upper-crust life are regarded among scholars of American fiction. His most popular novel, The Rise of Silas Lapham, depicts a man who
own mistakes. Stephen Crane has been recognized as illustrating important aspects of realism to American fiction in the stories Maggie: A Girl of the Streets and T
credited with pioneering a systematic realism in French literature, through the inclusion of specific detail and reacurring characters. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy,
regarded by many critics as representing the zenith of the realist style with their unadorned prose and attention to the details of everyday life. In German literature, 19th
name of "Poetic Realism" or "Bourgeois Realism," and major figures include Theodor Fontane, Gustav Freytag, Gottfried Keller, Wilhelm Raabe, Adalbert Stifter, The
Benito Pérez Galdós, Nikolai Leskov, Guy de Maupassant, Anton Chekhov, José Maria de Eça de Queiroz, Machado de Assis, Bolesław Prus and, in a sense, Émile Z
an offshoot of realism.
Leopoldo Alas Louisa May Alcott Hans Christian Andersen Machado de Assis Jane Austen Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer Elizabeth Bar
Brontë Emily Brontë Georg Büchner Ivan Bunin Lord Byron Hall Caine Lewis Carroll Rosalía de Castro François-René de Chateaubriand Anton Chekhov Kate Cho
Fenimore Cooper Stephen Crane Eduard Douwes Dekker Emily Dickinson Charles Dickens Arthur Conan Doyle Alexandre Dumas, père Paul Dunbar José Maria Eça
Eliot Ralph Waldo Emerson Gustave Flaubert Margaret Fuller Elizabeth Gaskell Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Nikolai Gogol Manuel González Prada Juana Manuela
Haggard Ida Gräfin Hahn-Hahn Thomas Hardy Francis Bret Harte Nathaniel Hawthorne Friedrich Hölderlin Heinrich Heine Victor Hugo Henrik Ibsen Washington Irvin
Kipling Caroline Kirkland Jules Laforgue Giacomo Leopardi Mikhail Lermontov Stéphane Mallarmé Alessandro Manzoni José Martí Clorinda Matto de Turner Herm
María de Pereda Benito Pérez Galdós Marcel Proust Aleksandr Pushkin Fritz Reuter Arthur Rimbaud John Ruskin George Sand Mary Shelley Percy Shelley Stendhal
Harriet Beecher Stowe Alfred, Lord Tennyson Henry David Thoreau Leo Tolstoy Ivan Turgenev Mark Twain Juan Valera y Alcalá-Galiano Paul Verlaine Jules Verne Le
Oscar Wilde William Wordsworth Émile Zola José Zorrilla Golden Age of Russian Poetry French literature of the 19th century.
1800s - 1810s - 1820s - 1830s - 1840s - 1850s - 1860s - 1870s - 1880s - 1890s - 1900s - 19th century#Literature History of modern literature#19th century Kailyard sch
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Japanese literature [videos]
Early works of Japanese literature were heavily influenced by cultural contact with China and Chinese literature, often written in Classical Chinese. Indian literature also h
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modern Italian. Italian literature begins in the XII century when in …
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Persian and Arabic literature, and used the Ottoman Turkish …
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From this Article
CONTEXT INFO
King Udayana in Bhasa's Swapnavasavadattam Koodiyattam —the only surviving ancient Sanskrit theatre. (Artist: Mani Damodara Cha
Famous Indian Dance Drama, Tantram by Srjan, Script written by Vanikavi
YouTube Videos
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for the beginnings of theatre in India.[5]

Get everything you need to

drama had upon the development of Indian theatre.[16]

Natya Shastra CONTEXT INFO

Main article: Natya Shastra

though the major focus is on the latter.[21]

Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart)

Main article: Mrichakatika

Main article: Bhāsa

Main article: Kālidāsa

Other major plays

King Udayana in Bhasa's

Modern Sanskrit Plays

Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih, Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara-sakuntalam and Raavanah.[29]

Famous Indian Dance Drama,

Classical Indian musical theatre

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_classical_drama&oldid=924149405"

Old English literature

Ihara Saikaku (16

19th century in literature

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Chinese literature [videos]

Ancient Greek literature [videos]

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A scene from Manasa Mangal. Michael Madhusudan Du

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First-ever Nepali language Poet Bhanubhakta Acharya Poet Motiram Bhatta

Mahakavi Laxmi Prasad Devkota A statue of Nepali writer Pa

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Nasreddin Hoca Karagöz and Hacivat

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Jane Austen Edgar Allan Poe

Charles Dickens Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872

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Cato the Elder Cicero

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Àngel Guimerà Image: Tirant lo blanc

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Sumerian inscription on a ceramic stone plaque.

Yasna 28.1 (Bodleian MS J2)