Unit 1 Introduction

Understanding psychology
Concepts
The word psychology is taken from Greek word “psyche” and “logos” where
psyche means soul and logos means discourse. Literally, psychology is the study of
structure and element of mind.

 Structuralism: philosopher WILHEM GRANTT EDWARD had explained

psychology as the study of structure and element of mind.

 Functionalism: This philosophy explains psychology as the study of function

of consciousness.

 Behavioural: philosopher observed psychology as the study of behaviour

that can be observed.

However Baron defined,” psychology as the science of behaviour and cognitive

process”. According to Baron, ”psychology is the science because it involves in
observation and experimentation to build theory.”

Overall, psychology is the scientific study of human or animals behaviour and

cognitive or mental process not encompassing just what they do but also study
activities, feelings, thoughts, emotions, perception etc. and develop theories to
guide behaviour.

Goals of psychology
Every science has goal. The goals of physical science is to learn how the universal
works? Astrology as a part of science aims to draw the unique picture of the
universe and what will happen in the future.

Psychology is the science of behaviour study. Its main goals is o disclose

curiosities of human being. However major goals are as follows:
 1. Description: It involves observation of behaviour and noting everything
about it. It describes what is happening, when it happen to whom, and
what circumstances it happened? It deals what is abnormal and unhealthy
and what is healthy behaviour by using observation case study, etc.

2. Explanation : Explanation is concern with identifying the causes of what,

when to who or under what circle transaction it happened. It seeks the
answer of question like why is it happening. It conduct experiment and
develop theories to explain behaviour.

3. Prediction: It refers to determines future activities or behaviour. It deals

about when will it happen again? Behavioural is predicted based on
description and explanation.

4. Control: control refers to the changing and modification of behaviour.

However there is some conflict between psychologists regular control
because some psychologists deals it as “brain washing”. Controlling isn’t
brain washing rather changing undesirable behaviour to desirable
behaviour.

Perspectives in Psychology
Perspectives are outlooks or perceptions. Psychology perspective offer different
outlooks and emphasis on different factor or explain and predicting and
controlling human behaviour. Some common perspectives are as follows:

1. Behavioural perspective:

John B.waston was first American psychologist to advocate behavioural

perspective of psychology. He explained that study of psychology focuses not on
consciousness or experience but focuses on behaviour that can be treasured and
observed. He conducts his experiment by taking the animals and extended to
human beings. He strongly argued that one can gain complete understanding of
human behaviour by changing and modifying the environment in which he
operates. He wanted to establish stimulus response relationship to determine the
behaviour explained by PAVLOVE. He was supported by another American
psychologist B.F SKINNER. Skinner argued that inner state can’t be studied
scientifically so, it is not the area of psychology. The psychology should focus on
the study of overt behaviour with various limits. Nowdays , the contribution of
behaviour perspectives has been applied in treating diseases, curb, aggression
and ending drug addictions.

2. Cognitive perspective

Behaviourlism rejected the subjective study of ”mental life” in psychology to

make it as a science. So, Gestalt psychologist, a notable group of, psychologists of
German supported “mental process” and developed a new perspective of
psychology. The Cognitive perspective of psychology deals the psychology truly is
a science of behaviour and mental process. The cognitive perspective is a new or
contemporary process in psychology deals about emotions, intelligence,
perception, learning , language, etc. It focuses on the study of how people feel,
think and understand the core. The cognitive psychologist attempt to investigate
internal, mental state in objective and scientific manner. They compare the
mental process with electronic computer and defines the process of collecting,
transmitting, storing and retrieving information of human and animal behaviour.

3. Biological perspective

It is also called psychological perspective. It states about biological base of

behaviour of mental process. Biologic psychologist advocated that biological base
or events such as genetic influences horniness, brain chemical etc. Influence
human behavior and mental process. It also study about neurotransmitter, where
it refers to the chemical substance in brain that determines normal or abnormal
behavior. Use of drugs alerts neurotransmission and influence or change
behavior. Biological psychologist also studies on effect of gene and environment
on human personalities whether genetic factor and environment determine
individual’s differences.

4. Psychodynamic perspective

It is the brain child Sigmund Freud. It involves cosmetic modification over psycho
analysis. It is used to treat abnormal behavior and neurotic diseases. It focuses on
the study of human "psyche" or "mind" is divided into three layers: conscious ,
subconscious and unconscious. It argues that innate(inborn) or unconscious mind
largely influences conscious behavior. The motivation of behavior steams from
innate(forces) and conflict in which we aren't aware of that and beyond over
control. Such instinct displays in disguised form such as in dream, tongue slip , day
dreaming and other problems. The psychodynamic concept focuses on
unconscious mind influences conscious behavior , childhood experience
influences future personality development. It gives more emphasis on
development of self-sense and improved technique of motivation behind person's
behavior but put less emphasis on sex and sexual behavior.

5. Socio-cultural perspective

It is the fusion of social psychology and cultural psychology. Social psychology

studies about groups, roles of societies, rules in the society and relationship
between social members where as cultural psychology studies about norms,
values, beliefs, expectations etc held by social members. The socio cultural
perspective attempts to understand how individuals and others behave or think
not only he/she is alone group, with friends, in crowd but in the culture where
he/she lives. In other words, it studies the influence of gender, ethnicity, religion,
other cultural factors on personality behavior ,attitude etc. The socio-cultural
perspective also focuses on the study of cultural relativity. Cultural relativity
means the differences and individuals in terms of gender, ethnicity, and religion
are simply different but it doesn't make them superior or inferior to each other. It
also argues that individuals differences are rampant or everywhere in terms of
culture, ethnicity, and other practices but all people or individual are alike. It
helps to accept multi-cultural values in the society and understand between each
other.

6. Evolutionary perspective

Evolutionary perspective is based on the work developed by Charles Darwin. It

involves the combination of psychological concepts and evolution of human
beings. The evolutionary perspective focuses on the study of biological base of
human being for universal mental characteristics all individuals shared. It also
focuses on how physical structure and behavior influence human organism to
adapt in the environment. It seeks to explain mental strategy and traits and apply
different behavior perspective such as selection of mate, aggression, caring etc. It
describes human mind as information processing system where information are
obtained from environment and develop behavior as output which was theorized
in Darwin experiment of natural selection. Most of the experiment of
evolutionary perspective were done to establish the relationship between male
and women. For example, why male shows direct (action) aggression such as
hitting or kicking and female shows indirect aggression such as gossiping or
scolding. The study found that the difference in aggression was due to maternal
love of female because indirect aggression is less injurious or harmful than direct
aggression.

7. Development perspective

It is related to the growth and development of lifespan. It is scientific study of

how and why human beings Change the over course of their life? It examines that
how much nature and nurturance determine human behavior and thinking
process. Most of the developmentalist believe that human behavior and mind is
the product of genetic endowment and experience from environment. Earlier
they were more interested to study the child development process because there
is rapid development of children behavior than old aged person. However,
modern developmentalist also pay attention on the development of adults and
old aged person. The study of development perspective has two aspects:
1.pure aspect: pure aspects concern with the study of thinking process of children
and thoughts when they grown up.
2. Applied aspect: Applied aspects studies the behavior of disturb children who
shows deviate behavior. It also studies why the thoughts deviate children are
different from adults deviants.

Psychology 2000: New Trend In Millennium

Psychology is tremendously diversify field of study. It has large space of
specialization and area scope of psychology has been extended to the study of
adult development gender discrimination helps psychology criminal investigation ,
Neuro science, etc. In the 21st century the psychology is paying attention on
different issues such as multi-culturalism , evolutionary perspective and
exportation of psychology.
1) psychology and diversity
It is a multi cultural perspective in psychology. Traditionally psychology as taken
as psychic unity where principle of psychologies are applied in all culture and
ethnic diversities. Nowadays researcher developed different perspectives such as
cross-culture psychology and indigenous psychology, etc and argues that psychic
unity no longer prevails. They focus on the importance of cultural and ethnic
diversity and advocate such diversity as human heritage. They also explained that
they are embedded knowledge and have impact on understanding human
behavior. The study of cultural and ethnic diversity is not useful for conducting
research rather important for counseling the communities of societies. Therefore
practional psychologist should be aware of the importance of cultural ,ethnic and
linguistic diversity in psychology.
2) Evolutionary perspective
Evolutionary perspective is a new brand of psychology. It applies principle of
evolutionary, biology articulated by Charles Darwin. It suggests that human beings
are the subject to the process of evolution and they possess many evolved
psychological mechanism, that influences on our behavior. It studies about
human mind, not only body and seeks to explain mental strategies and traits .
Such as why we like? Why attractiveness influences selection of lifemate, why the
fear of snake is universal etc.
3)Exportation of psychology
Traditionally psychology was limited to the study of human behavior and human
mind. Nowadays the application of psychology principles aren't only limited to the
experiment and the prediction and control of human behavior rather it has been
extended (export) to diverse field such as selection, training to police department,
criminal investigation, improving community awareness etc.
 Applications of psychology in Everyday life
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental process of human
beings. The study of psychology is not important only for psychologist but also for
anthropologist, sociologist, political leaders, managers and so on. The viour of
normal to abnormal, intelligence to dull, child to old, rich to poor, etc. The
application of psychology therefore can be extended beyond the study of only
behaviour and mind and can be summarized as under:

1 .Counseling

Counseling refers to guiding, giving advices and suggestions to others to solve

problems. Counseling psychology is a new branch of psychology related to the
personal or emotional problem, educational problem and vocational problem.
Individuals suffers from mild neurotic problems such as drug addiction ,
depression, juvenile delequants can get benefits from counseling. Further
educational psychology as a branch of psychology helps the students to develop
self-understanding , self-control and exploring their hidden talents. It also
prevents them from dyslexia syndrome. vocational psychology helps in individual
to select appropriate vacation and assist in job satisfaction.
2. Exploring diversity
Diversity refers to the heterogeneity. Such heterogeneity in terms of races,
religion, ethnicity, gender will create problem or misunderstanding in human
behavior. Psychology has contributed different newer field or branches of
psychology. Such as cultural psychology, cross-cultural psychology, indigenous
psychology, women psychology etc. Which explains about differences based on
diversity. The study of psychology principle helps to explore such diversity and
manage unity among the diversity.
3. Industrial application
The study of psychology has great application in industrial field. In the initial year
psychology principles were applied only in selecting and placing human resources.
They were intelligence and aptitude test to select human resources. Nowadays
the application of psychology principles are extended to different areas such as
career orientation , motivation, training, performance evaluation, equipment
designing etc.
4.Established human relation
Psychology plays crucial role for establishing cordial relation between the person
of society, organization and family. It enables each person to understand their
internal strength and weaknesses. It also provides knowledge to people about
how others are perceiving them. Therefore it helps to reduce misunderstanding ,
discrimination, prejudice. So it helps to established good relationship between
parents, friends, and others members of community.
5. Care for abnormal disease
Abnormal disease refers to mental problems created by somanti complaints or
disorders .Such problems are generate from stress such as blood pressure , heart
attack, diabetes ,etc. To some extend physical treatment will not be adequate to
cure such disease if required psychological treatment of the patient.
6. Solving political problems
Politics refers to the way of gaining or losing power. Politics become global and
characteristics by negatively, conflict and confrontation. The psychology can be
contributed a branch which is called social psychology developed new concept
about positivity in the society or positive psychology. The study of positive
psychology helps to develops peace and harmony between the political
philosophers and leaders. So it helps to minimize political problems.
7. Training for organism
Organism involves the combination of different cells in human body that
determines our behavior. In psychology different learning principles such as of re-
enforcement, principle of extinction have been developed which helps to change
the human organisms and develop desirable behavior from undesirable behavior.

Research methods on psychology

Introduction

Psychology uses scientific methods for the systematic study of an organism

behaviour. The research methods in psychology determines how the
psychologists actually go about the tasks of adding to knowledge about human
behaviour. There basic three procedures are used in psychology:
 1. Observation

Observation is a basic methods of science in which the natural world, or various

events or process in it are observed and measured in a very careful manner.

It consists of the perception of an individuals behaviour under natural condition

by other individual and interpretation and analyses the perceived behaviour by
them.

It helps to infer mental process of other through the observation of others

external behaviour.

Following three methods are used under the observation.

A) Naturalistic Observation:

Naturalistic observation is also called objective observation or systematic

observation. It is one of the oldest method of scientific method.

The collection of information by the careful observation of events in the natural

setting is called natural observation. In other words, naturalistic observation is a
research method in which behaviour is studied in the place where it usually
occurs.

This means, it is the way of looking human or animals behaviour in their normal
environment.

Under this methods researchers observe people or animals behaviour in their

work places, homes, play ground, recreation centres etc.

However, if animals or people know that they are being observed, will not behave
normally, that is called observation effect.

So, observer should observe others without knowing them that they are being
observed.
Some time researchers might use one way mirror or they can actually become
participants in the group to observe others behaviour, i.e. called participative
observation.

But in naturalistic observation, observers may be blind observer because they

may see what they want to see.

Advantages:

 Useful for generating hypothesis.

 Provides information about behaviour in natural environment.

Disadvantages:

 Sometime yields biased results.

 May be difficult to do unobtrusively and costly.
 Does not allow conclusion about cause and effect relationship.

B. Case Studies

Case study in psychology refers to the study of one individual in a great detail. It is
an in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people.

In other word case study is a research method in which detail information about
individual is used to develop general principles of behaviour.

It gathers detail information of specified individuals. These information are used

to formulate principles or research conclusion that will be applied to all human
beings.

It contains the information of family back ground, home life, neighbourhood

activities, experiences at school, past life, health and so on.

This method is based on the idea that more we know about individuals the better
we will be able to understand and help them.

It includes psychological testing where researcher use carefully designed

questionnaires and gain some insights of individuals or groups personality.
The goal of case study is not only to learn about few individuals being examined
but also use insights gained from the study to improve understanding people in
general.

Freud developed his theories through the case study of individual patients.

Advantages:

 Useful for diagnosis, therapy, and other practical case problems.

 Yield data that other methods can not provide.

 Provide good way to generate hypothesis.

Disadvantage:

 Sometimes gives incomplete information.

 Sometime relies only on self-report which may be misleading.

 Can lead biased result due to its subjectivity.

 Does not allow conclusion about cause and effect relationship.

C. Survey

There is no straight forward way of finding out what people think, feel and do
than asking them directly. For this survey is the most important method. Survey
research uses the random sampling that represents entire population.

Survey is a method in which people are chosen from larger population and asked
series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts or attitude.

It is a way of getting information about specific type of behaviour, experience or

events.

In other words survey involves asking standardized questions to large group of

people who represents the sample of population.
 In this method researchers prepare a set of questionnaire, asks series of
questions about the topic they are studying. Survey is conducted through
interview, on telephone, the internet or with questionnaire.

Advantages:

 Provide a good way for hypothesis formulation.

 Yield a lot of information.
 Since it is cheap and easy to do, it can provide a lot of information about
many people.
 Provides information about behaviour that can not be observed.
 Accurate prediction of large scale trends can be made.

Disadvantages:

 Lie intentionally.
 Gives answers based on wishful thinking rather than truth.
 Fail to understand the questions asked in survey.
 Forget past experience they need to describe.

2. Correlation

Correlation is a measure of relationship between two or more variables. A

variable is something that can change or vary such as score on test, temperature,
attitude, behaviour etc.

Correlation is a statistical tool which helps in prediction of behaviours

relationship. It reveals how closely two variables vary together and how well one
predicts other. It predicts whether and to what extent different variables related
to each other.

Under this method researchers use mathematical formula and determine

relationship that is called correlation coefficient, denoted by r. The correlation
coefficient represent two things: direction of relationship and its strength.
For example if researcher found that smoking and life expectancy are related,
they can decide either life expectancy go up or down as smoking increases, that is
called direction of relationship.

Correlation coefficient can be positive or negative. If two variables increase in the

same direction the correlation is positive and vice versa.

The strength of relationship between variables will be determined by the range of

correlation.

The correlation always ranges between +1 to -1. if the correlation coefficient is

equal to +1 or close to it, the relationship is strong.

If the coefficient of correlation is zero or -1 or close to it the relationship

between variables is weak.

Advantages;

 Large amount of information can be acquired quickly.

 Can be used in the field as well as laboratory setting

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to establish cause and effect relationship.

3. Experimental Method

The experiment method is considered most scientific and objective method of

studying human behaviour.

An experiment is an investigation in which hypothesis is scientifically tested. In

experiment independent variables (cause) is manipulated or altered and
dependent variable (effect) is measured and any extraneous variables are
controlled. In this method, the researcher tries to establish cause and effect
relationship. The experimental method has following elements:
  Identifying Problem

It is finding causes of behaviour or problems and asking question on oneself as

why people act as they do? Or why do people smoke? Or why do students show
oddly behaviour?

 Hypothesis formulation:

Hypothesis are assumption made to test the problem. It can be positive or

negative based on information available in literature. Hypothesis may be proved
or disproved. Such as smoking harmful for physical and mental health.

 Variables

The crux of the experiment is the use of two or more variables. A variable as its
name it implies something that varies. Ideally, it is something that can be
measured. While conducting experiment, the experimenter decides variable in
the experiment.

Variables are independent, dependent and intervening or extraneous.

Independent variable refers to a variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
or that can affect other. Dependent variable is a variable that represents
measurable response or behaviour of the subject in the experiment. It is that
variable influenced by other.

Intervening or extraneous variables are other conditions or factors that influence

cause and effect relationship which are to be controlled. It is also called
confounding variable. One way to control such variable is random assignment.
Further it requires developing operational definition. Operational definition refers
to the definition of variable that allows it to be directly measured.

 Experimental and Control group

Experimental research requires two groups to compare. These groups are

experimental and control. Members are assigned in groups randomly so that each
member has equal chance of being in either group. One group will receive some
special treatment called experimental group. And other group receive no
treatment or placebo (Fake) is called control group.

The researcher then can compare the experimental group and control group to
find out whether the manipulation of independent variable affect the dependent
variable.

Result of comparison between variable are tested with hypothesis. Changes only
in experimental group proves the effect of the manipulation of independent
variable. However, changes in both groups show the impact of extraneous
variables.

BIAS IN RESAERCH

Bias is the distortion of results by a variable. Common types bias in experiment

are as follows:

sampling bias refers when sample studied in an experiment does not correctly
represent the population.

Experimenter bias occurs when researchers preferences or expectations influence

the outcome of their research. Researchers see what they want to see rather
what is actually there.

A method called double blind procedure can help experimenter to prevent this
bias from occurring. In double blind procedure neither experimenter nor the
participants know who fall in the experimental group and who fall in the control
group.

Placebo effect is the effect on subject receiving fake treatment. It occurs when
subjects believe they are getting a real drug treatment even though they are not.

A single blind experiment is an experiment where the subjects do not know they
are receiving real or fake treatment. It helps to reduce placebo effect.
 Unit 2: PERCEPTION, SOCIAL THOUGHT AND BEHAVIOR
Concept

Different individuals have different styles of thinking, beliefs, feelings and

objectives etc. and almost every individual behave accordingly.

Because of these factors, different people take different meaning for the same
thing. This means, for some particular thing is right where for other same thing is
totally wrong. This shows that people have different ways of judging the things
which is called perception.

Thus, perception is the way by which an individual looks the thing, takes the
things and develops views towards the things, objects or situations through sense.
It is a process of obtaining knowledge of external objects and events by means of
sense.

According to Robbins and others,

“Perception can be defined as the process by which individuals organize and

interpret their sensory impression in order to give meaning to their
environment.”

According to Fred Luthans,

“Perception is a complex cognitive process that yields a picture of the world, a

picture that is quite different from reality.”

We can safely conclude the perception as the psychological, subjective and

intellectual process through which a person collects, selects data from
environment, organizes, interprets, experience it obtains meaning from it.

It is based on people thoughts, beliefs, emotion or mood, expectations or feelings.

However, perception is different from reality where the perceptual world may
real, close to reality or some time abstract.
 Factors Influencing Perception
Perception is a complex cognitive or psychological process that yields a unique
picture of the world, a picture which is different from reality. Perception is
influenced by nature and nurture. Nature is related to heredity and nurture is
related to environment. Perceptual mechanism of individuals is affected by
following factors.

1. Internal Factors:

Internal factors are the factor related to the perceiver and are personal
characteristics of individuals. The major internal factors influencing perception
are as follows:

i) Needs and Motives:

Individuals’ perception is determined by their inner needs and motives. They take
the same thing differently according to their needs and motives. Similarly people
select different item to meet their needs than addressing reality.

Further, people with satisfied needs perceive the object entirely different from
those whose needs are not satisfied. This means people will perceive only those
items which suit their wishful thinking.

ii) Self-Concept: Self-concept means understanding oneself or self-

understanding. Perception is guided by the notion that beauty lays in beholders
eyes. The way people view the others and rest of the world depend on how s/he
thinks himself or herself. So, they perceive those aspects which they find match
with their characteristics.

iii) Beliefs:

Beliefs are the descriptive thoughts held by individuals about someone or

something. Individuals censor stimulus based on their beliefs and cannot think
beyond their beliefs.
iv) Past Experience:

People’s perceptions are very much influenced by their past experience. A person
with successful past experience will perceive the thing positively and vice versa.

V) Current Psychological State:

It refers to the present position of a person such as interest, emotion and mood
etc.

Normally a person with stable emotion and good mood perceive the things in a
different manner as compared to a person who loses the stability or not in a good
mood. Mood swing distort persons perception.

vi) Expectations:

The perception is based on the principle that “individuals see what they want to
see than what is reality.” They perceive the same thing in different manner
according to their expectations.

This means, optimistic persons perceive the information in favorable ways

whereas pessimistic person perceive the same thing in unfavorable ways.

2. External Factors

External factors refer to the factor related to the target and situation. They
include following sub factors:

i) Size: The bigger the size of the external stimulus or target greater the possibility
of catching the attention of perceiver. For example, a full-fledged advertisement
of a motor cycle in the newspaper attracts more attention of perceiver than the
same type of advertisement placed at the corner of same paper.

ii) Intensity:

An intense external stimulus catches more attention of individuals than weak one.
For e.g.; a bright light, strong odor or loud noise attracts more attention than
weak ones.
iii) Frequency

Frequency means repetition or repeated external stimulus attracts more

attention than single one therefore most of the advertiser repeat their advertising
message to attract the more attention of customers.

iv) Motion

A moving object is more appealing than stationary. For example; the two
advertisement of same product is given in television and a front page of
newspaper at a time. Usually, customer Pay their first attention to television than
newspapers.

v) Status

Status also influences the person's perception. A higher status of external object
catches more attention than lower status. For e.g. when

a person introduce with two personalities such as prime minister and minister at a
time, but a person retain the name of PM in his/her memory than other ministers.

Vi) Contrast

It refers that object which does not blend in environment An external stimuli
which is contrasted with other stimulus catches more attention than those
stimulus which blend in the environment. For example: out of 5 persons in a
group ,4 persons walking normally and 1 is crutching the person who crutches
catches more attention than others.

vii) Novelty and familiarity

An external object which is novel or new or more familiar than other attracts
more attention of perceiver. For example; when delivering two different classes,
one is using traditional method where other is using overhead projector, the later
method will catch more attention than former one.
viii) Situation

It refers to the time and place. Individuals perceive the same thing in different
manner based on the time and situation. For example, when a manager sees
his/her sub-ordinate is talking with his/her enemy the manager will perceive sub-
ordinate negatively. However, if the same a manager sees that sub-ordinate is
talking with minister the manager will perceive sub-ordinate positively.

Perceptual Organization
Concept

A notable group of psychologist of German who first worked in the field of

perception and developed certain principle called Gestalt principle of perceptual
organization where gestalt means whole in German. This principle is based on
idea that people have natural tendency to force patterns onto whatever they see.

They defined Perceptual organization is concerned with process of organizing the

inputs into identifiable whole objects.

A person’s perceptual process organizes the incoming information into

meaningful whole. In other words, assembling the selected information that is
incoming into meaningful whole is called perceptual organization. So, it is a
process of harnessing the stimulus and determining their shape.

1. Figure and Ground relation

We divide the world around us in to two parts figure which has definite shape and
location in space and ground which has no shape, seems to continue behind the
figure.

This means, the meaningful and significant portion of target or external object is
called figure and the insignificant or meaningless portion is called ground.

There is no hard and fast formula to separate figure and ground. It is a subjective
process and determined by our needs and expectation.
 2. Grouping

It is a way of describing discrete stimuli together in the perceived world.

It is arranging the information or inputs in the same group based on their

proximity and similarity. Thus, selected information is grouped on the basis of
similarity and proximity.

 Similarity

It is a tendency to perceive things that looks similar as being part of the same
group. For e.g. why sports team wear uniform that all are the same color because
it allows people viewing the game to perceive them as one group when they are
scattered around the field.

 Proximity

Proximity refers nearness states that a group of stimuli that are close together will
be perceived as whole pattern of parts belonging together.

It states that objects or shapes that are close to one another appear to form
group even the shape, size and objects are radically different.

For example, in a class room to students exited together, the class teacher tends
to perceive that their departure are closely related where as reality might not be
so.

3. Closure

It is bridging the gap. It is a tendency to see complete figure or form even a figure
is incomplete.

It means individuals internally make complete the incomplete information. Very

often when people face with incomplete information have tendency to fill in the
gap themselves. Generally, we fill in the missing parts and make it complete to
derive the complete meaning, this process is called closure. For example we
understand mgmt. as management.
 4. Simplification

To make the information more meaningful and understandable people go

through the simplification process. It is done to avoid the information overload. In
the process, people just selects important and rejects less important information.

5. Continuity

It is a tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous patterns

rather than with a complex broken-up pattern. It says that we perceive
continuous flowing lines more easily than broken lines. Dots in lines are not
simply taken as dots but continued and form a complete lines.

6. Contiguity

It is a tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as they
being related. Usually first occurring event is seen as the cause of second event.
Example: An employee coming late and receiving a pat on the back by employer.
The context is that he worked till late night for the organization. The
organizational participants perceive in this context. It is also called perceptual
context.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
CONCEPT

Retinal image over perceived objects may vary from distance, angel and
illumination. Despite such variation in image, people perceive objects in constant
or stable manner. That is called perceptual constancy.

Perceptual constancy, also called object constancy, or constancy phenomenon. It

is the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard
shape, size, color, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective,
distance, or lighting.

It is a phenomenon in which physical objects are perceived as unvarying or

consistent despite changes in their appearance or physical environment.
 1. Size Constancy

It is the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same size regardless
of its distance from the viewer. It explains the perceived size on the objects
remain same when the distance is varied.

In other words, size constancy refers that familiar objects do not change in
perceived size when viewed from different distance.

Our retina cast bigger image of closer objects and smaller image of far or distant
objects but the size of object remains constant.

When a person goes away, the image of retina grows smaller, we see the person
small, but perceive that person as being normal size.

2. Shape Constancy

It is the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant even its
shape changes on the retina.

In shape constancy, we perceive familiar objects as having constant form even

while our retinal of them change.

For example: When you stand in front of door, its image on the retina is rectangle.
When you move to the side, the image become trapezoid but you see it as
rectangle.

3. Brightness Constancy

Brightness constancy is the tendency to perceive objects as having a constant

brightness when they are viewed under different condition of illumination.

This means, we perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same when
the light condition changes.

For example coal looks black even in very bright moon and sun light, they see
snow white under the same condition.
 Illusion
Illusion refers to incorrect perception. Perception that provides false
interpretation of sensory information is called illusion.

In other words, illusions are perceptions that do not correspond to reality. Illusion
is, "the perception of something objectively existing in such a way as to cause
misinterpretation of its actual nature.

A perceptual illusion occurs when any of the sense organs “transmit misleading
information to the brain.”

Two types of illusion:

1. Physical process:

Illusion perceived without any existence of stimulus is called physical illusion.

Such illusions emerge due to the distortion of physical condition includes mirages,
in which we perceive something that they are not really there such as water on
the dry road ahead caused by the refraction of light.

2. Cognitive process

Illusions occur in the presence of stimulus is called cognitive illusion. It is simply

misconception or misinterpretation of situation or stimulus.

Sometime it is also called visual illusion where visual illusions are the physical
stimuli that constantly produce errors in perception that do not reflect the
physical reality of stimulus accurately. They are usually result of errors in the
brain’s interpretation of visual stimuli.

There countless illusions related to cognitive process, which can be broadly

divided in to two categories:

 Illusion of size
 Illusion of shape or area
 a. Illusion of size:

Illusion of size occurs because perceptually distort the length of various lines.
Learning also plays important roles in such illusion. Theory of misapplied
constancy suggests that illusion of size occurs when we interpret certain cues and
perceive some parts are farther away than others.

Muller lyer illusion is one example of size illusion. It is an illusion of line length
that is distorted by inward turning or outward turning corners on the end of lines,
cause line of equal length to appear to be different. The symbols create illusion.

In following lines length that is distorted by inward turning or outward turning

corners on the end of lines, cause line of equal length to appear to be different.
The symbols create illusion.

b. Illusion of shape or area

Illusion of shape or area suggests that the geometrical stimulus is an important

cause to mislead perception.

Moon illusion is a common form of such illusion. The moon looks bigger at
horizon than highest point in the sky.

Moon in the high sky is alone with no cues for depth surrounding. But on the
horizon, the moon appears behind the trees and houses, hills and mountains.

The moon is seen as being behind these objects and seem to bigger than objects
or cues. Another cause is that vertical distances are perceived as very longer than
horizontal distance . Therefore, moon is perceived smaller at the zenith. Further
people receive an object as moving when it is really still that is known as motion
illusion. Due to the movement of some other external stimulus , we perceive that
stars in the sky are moving .
 Persons Perception
CONCEPT

Person’s perception is called personal perception or social perception . It is

applied in social psychology. It is the procedures by which individuals think about,
approve, and assess other individuals. It is the study of how people form
impressions of and make inferences about other people.

In other words , the mental processes we use to form judgments and draw
conclusions about the characteristics and motives of other people are called
person perception.

Person perception is an active and subjective process that always occurs in some
interpersonal context

Person perception, is the way a person forms judgments and makes conclusions
concerning the characteristics and motives of others.

Kelly Attribution theory

Attribution refers to the way of judging others based on cause and effect
relationship. It is the process of explaining one’s own behavior and behavior of
others. The attribution theory of perception was developed by Harold Kelly It tries
to identify causation of behavior.

It explains the ways by which individuals response the same situation differently
depending on meaning attributed on their behavior.

It suggests to indicate whether the behavior is caused internally (disposition) or

externally (Situation) therefore there are two causation of behavior.

Internal cause or attribution

The internal cause or internal attribution are the individuals disposition which are
stemmed or generated from within individual and they can be controlled by the
individual such as personality, attitude, motivation, emotion, belief, ability, etc.
External cause or attribution

The external cause or attribution refers to situations which stemmed from

situation or other persons and they are beyond one's controlling ability such as
environment, situation, other person luck, god, etc.

The external and internal causation lead following tendency.

Distinctiveness High External

Low Internal

High External
Individual consensus Internal
Low
Behavior

High External

consistency Low Internal

i)Distinctiveness:

The distinctiveness refers to that situation where an individual display different

behavior for different situation. If there is high distinctiveness, behavior is
externally but if the distinctiveness is low, the causation is internal.

ii) Consensus:

The consensus refers to the situation where the individual shows similar type of
behavior to respond same situation. High consensus represents the external
causation and vice-versa.
iii) Consistency: It refers to the tendency that the person respond the same way
overtime. If the response is same that is internal cause where the response is
different causation is external.

Attribution errors:

Person's perception in the organization is based on attribution given on their

behavior. However, research on attribution theory identifies following two
interesting errors of attribution which are as follows:

i) Fundamental attribution error

It refers to tendency of over estimating the internal factors or cause or under

estimating external factors or causes when judging other people or events.

ii) Self serving bias

It a tendency of individual to compare his/her success with their personal efforts

or labor and putting the blame for innocent luck, god or chance to their failure.

Impression Formation
An idea, feeling, or opinion about something or someone, especially one formed
without conscious thought or on the basis of little evidence is called impression.

Impression formation is the process by which we form an overall impression of

someone’s character and abilities based on available information about their
traits and behaviors. It is forming the first knowledge the a person has about
another person. It is subconscious form of people’s opinions about other people
they met.

We form impression based on perceptual accentuation, primacy and recency

effect.

Perceptual accentuation is the tendency to see what we want to see in the other
people where as primacy effects explains rapid formation of impression on the
basis of first impression and recency effect of impression focuses on last word
others speak or we hear and form impression about others.
 PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND BIAS
Perceptual process is a way of judging the world. In fact, perceptual process will
not be always perfect. Most of us use short-cut way to judge or make decisions
about others behaviors. Below presented are few errors that emerge in course of
human perception.

1. Selective perception:

Every individuals confronts with thousands of stimuli in their daily life and they
are able to assimilate all stimuli at a time. so, they select relevant stimulus and
neglect other stimuli is known as selective perception. It is also called perceptual
accentuation.

It is the process of filtering out most of stimuli and paying attention most
important ones. However, it is influenced by personal background, self interest,
knowledge, experience etc. Usually, people see what they want to see than what
actually is?

2. Halo effect

It is drawing general impression of individual based on single dominant

characteristics. In other word, this is the process of judging or evaluating others
behavior based on his or single characteristics.

Just on the basis of one attribute such as intelligence, cooperativeness, sociability

etc. individual behavior or mental process is evaluated favorably or unfavorably.

Halo effect works mostly under three conditions when the target shows unclear
behavioral expression, traits are not frequently encountered by the perceiver and
when the traits have morale implication.

3. Stereotypes

It is also called generalizing or grouping. It generalizes how people of a given

group, race, religion etc. will appear, think, feel or act.
It is the process of assigning traits to people based their membership in social
category.

In other words, it is judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the

group to which that person belongs. It is putting people in pigeon hole.

 Examples:

• Fat women are = Jolly/ happy.

• Americans are = ambitious
• Japanese are = industrious
• Chinese are = inscrutable
• Nepalese are = lazy
• Gurkhas are = brave
• Swarthy color people are like killer.

The above examples are not always true, but true in general not in particular.

4. Contrast effect

It is also called comparison effect. It states that evaluation of one person is

determined by the other persons who have recently encountered who rank
higher or lower in the same characteristics.

This type of error is commonly found in when managers go through employee

interview, performance appraisal etc.

5. Projection

This is also very common type of perceptual error. It refers to the tendency of
people to see their own traits in other people.

It means when people make judgment about others, they project their own
characteristics into others. As saying goes, to an honest man every body is
honest.
Primacy effect

Primacy effect is the tendency to quickly form opinion of people on the basis of
first information received about them. It suggests “first impression is the last
impression.”

So it is also called impression effect. The first impression exposed by a person

tends to be given more impression than later information.

First bench students = intelligent and disciplined.

Last bench students = weak and undisciplined.

Recency effect

It is the tendency of an individual to give more priorities on the last words that a
person speaks or he or she hears.

The recent information has stronger influence than the first information because
latest information or events are more easier to recall than first information.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Social behavior is very broad topic which focuses on how individuals responses to
their environment.

It looks on how people interact with and relate to each other in the social context.

There are different ways through which people manage others behavior.

1. Attitude
Attitude is the complex of cognitive factors which involves the collection of
beliefs, feelings, opinions, emotions and intentions directed towards certain
person, object or situation.

It is a tendency of person to respond positively or negatively towards a certain

idea, object, person, or situation. So, attitude is an evaluative statement either
favourable or unfavourable ways about people, object and events.
According to Robbins et.al. “Attitudes are evaluative statements either
favourable or unfavourable about objects, people, or events.”

Attitudes are relatively enduring feelings, beliefs, sentiments, emotions and

behavioral tendencies directed towards specific people, group, issues, ideas and
object. People developed attitudes from their parents, teachers, friends and
reference groups.

TYPES OF ATTITUDE

common types of attitudes are:

1) Cognitive component: When an individual develops attitudes based on

beliefs, feeling or knowledge is called cognitive components of attitudes. It
is an evaluative statement of beliefs towards persons, person, situations;
events etc. such as American are ambitious.
2) Affective Component: Affect refers to the mood or emotions. The affective
components include the collection of sentiments, emotions or moods.
When an individual develops feeling towards situation, object, person or
event based on their beliefs is called affective components such as I like
this, or I prefer that etc.
3) Behavioral Component: It refers to the action taking component of
attitude. Due to the certain sorts of feelings of individuals towards
situation, objects, person or event, individuals decide to take action that is
termed as behavioral component such as resignation from the job, transfer
from one job to another job etc.

Attitude Formation

Attitudes are actually made up three different parts i.e. feelings, thoughts and
action where individuals form such attitude in following ways:

1. Direct Contact:

One way in which attitude is formed is by direct contact with the person, idea,
situation or object that is focus of attitude.
2. Direct instruction:

Direct instructions either by parents or other individuals help to form attitude.

Parent may tell their children cigarette smoking is harmful their health. On the
basis of such instruction a child may form negative attitude towards cigarette.

3. Interaction with other:

Sometime attitudes are formed because of the person is around other people
with that other people. If a persons’ friend holds the attitude that smoking
releases form tension, other people think that smoking release from tension.

4. Vicarious learning

Many attitudes are learned through the observation of others’ people’s action
and reaction to various objects, people or situation.

2. Persuasion ( a way for changing attitude)

Persuasion is the pressure to convince others to change their attitude of
behavior.

In other words, the process through which one or more persons attempt to alter
the attitudes of one or more others is called persuasion.

It is the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position
or course of action of another person through the argument, pleading and
explanation.

persuasion process can be explained through the question “who says to whom by

what means?”

Approaches to persuasion

Persuasion as a technique to change attitude of people. Commonly following two

approaches are used in persuasion to change attitude.
 1.Cognitive approach of persuasion: The cognitive approach of persuasion
deals about the process of persuasive message. It explains two distinct
ways by which we perused others.

Message
Target

2.Central route processing: Central route refers to the careful consideration of

the content of persuasive message. It is also called systematic persuasion.
Targets who are highly involved, motivated and attentive use central route
processing, which leads to more lasting change.

3.Peripheral route processing : It refers to the use of simple rules of thumbs or

shortcut In persuasive message. Targets who are uninvolved, unmotivated and
unattentive are more likely to use peripheral route. It leads to short-term change
in attitude.

Cognitive Dissonance

Dissonance means inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to the inconsistency

between two or more attitude and behavior of an individual. In other word it is
the situation where an individual perceive inconsistency or incompatibility
between his or her beliefs, emotions, attitude and behavior.

The concept of cognitive dissonance was developed by Leon Fistinger in the late
1950s. According to this theory people want to maintain stability or stable state
by minimizing the dissonance.

This theory also explained that any type of inconsistency or dissonance is

uncomfortable or painful to individual and they want to reduce inconsistency or
contradictory with a view to minimize discomfort felt by them.

Individual follow following activities to reduce inconsistency:

 • First we try to change our behavior or action.
• Second, we seek new information to support our inconsistency in attitude
or behavior.
3. PREJUDICE

Prejudice come from prejudgment. Almost all attitudes are prejudice to some
extent.

Prejudice refers to an unjustified attitude usually unfavorable towards some

persons, objects, casts, religious group.

Prejudice is powerful negative attitude towards the members of specific social

groups based solely on their membership in that group.

Baron defined the prejudice as negative attitude towards the members of social
group based on the membership on this group.

So prejudice is a negative attitude that a person holds about the members of a

particular social group. However, discrimination is the consequences of prejudice
where members of social groups are treated differently.

SOURCES OF PREJUDICE

Prejudices stems from following major sources:

1. Direct intergroup conflict: A realistic conflict theory explains that prejudice

stems from the competition between social groups that fosters the feeling of
antagonism between each other.

2. Social categorization

There is tendency of dividing the social world in to distinct category as US and

THEM. That is the feeling of in-group and out-group in terms of race, religions,
gender, age, ethnic background, occupation etc. Such a categorization stimulate
prejudice.
Role of social learning:

Prejudice are learned attitude. People learn prejudice from other people through
the process of social learning. Children learn attitude from friends, teachers,
parents and other expressing prejudiced view. Further, mass media is an
influential source for prejudice formation.

Cognitive factors

Stereotypes are generalized belief and expectation about specific group and its
member. Stereotype views held by held by individual about specific group can
lead to prejudice between the group.

TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE PREJUDICE

Prejudice is common in social life and rampant in most societies, but it can be
reduced. Baron proposed following techniques to reduce prejudice a:

1. Learning not to hate

It is breaking the cycle of prejudice. It suggests that prejudices are not inborn but
learned from later life or acquired. So the useful way to reduce prejudice involves
discouraging the transmission of negative views and encouraging more positive
attitude towards others.

2. Direct inter group contact

Intergroup contact is more effective in reducing prejudice if the groups have

equal status. Research consistently show that increasing amount of interaction
between people can reduce negative stereotyping. But only certain types of
contact are likely reduce prejudice and discrimination. Situation in which contact
is relatively intimate, the individuals are of equal status, or participants must
cooperate with one another or are dependent on another are more likely to
reduce prejudice.

3. Re-categorization: It is redrawing the boundary between us and them will

reduce prejudice. Gaertner and colleagues developed the common in-group
identity model and explains that when members of different social groups come
to see themselves as members of a single social entity, their attitudes toward the
former out-group members become more positive and unfriendly attitude
towards the group seems to weaken away.

Beside the above mentioned techniques prejudice and discrimination can be

reduced by developing super-ordinate goal, educational techniques, making the
norms against prejudice etc.

Social Influence
Social influence is an effort made by an individual to change the attitude, belief,
perception and behavior of others. It shows how people interact with others and
how they are interacted by them,

Baron, “social influences are efforts by one or more persons to change the
attitude or behavior of one or more others”.

Thus social influence is the process through which the real or implied presence of
others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings and behavior of
an individuals. There are three common forms of social influences i.e. conformity,
compliance and obedience.

A) Conformity

Conformity refers to changing one’s own behavior to match that other people. It
is behaving in the ways that are liked and accepted by friends, societies, groups or
groups.

Baron, “Conformity is a type of social influence in which individuals change their

attitude or behavior in order to adhere existing social norms.”

Thus, conformity means adjusting one’s behavior to align with norms of groups or
existing social norms. Social norms are the rules indicating how individuals ought
to behave in specific situation. it has two basic forms, descriptive norms and
injunctive norms.
Descriptive norms tells us what most people do in given situation. They inform us
about what is generally seen as appropriate or adaptive behavior in that situation.

Injunctive norms specifies what should or should not be done, not merely what
most people do?

ASCH’S CLASSIC STUDY ON CONFORMITY

Solomon Asch conducted his classic study of conformity by having participants

gathered in a room.

They were told that they were participating in an experiment on visual judgment.

They were then a white card with three black lines of varying lengths followed by
another white card with only one line on it.

The task was to determine which line on the first card was most similar to the line
of second card.

In the only one the last person in the group was real participant. The all others
were confederates, people following special direction from experimenter who
were instructed to pick incorrect line from the comparison lines.

If you were there, what would you do?

Would you go along with the majority opinion, or would you "stick to your guns"
and trust your own eyes?
Results:

Asch measured the number of times each participant conformed to the majority
view. On average, about one third (32%) of the participants who were placed in
this situation went along and conformed with the clearly incorrect majority on the
critical trials.

B) Compliance

Compliance is a part of consumer psychology. When people change their behavior

according to the request or direction of other person that is called compliance. It
is accepting others requests, direction, suggestion or agreeing with others
behavior.

According to Baron“Compliance is a form of social influence in which one or

more persons acquiesce to requests from one or more others.”

Thus compliance is changing one’s behavior as a result of other people directing

or asking for the change which refers to the art of responding favorably to an
explicit or implicit request offered by others.

Strategies for gaining compliance

Compliance refers to the art of responding favourably to as explicit or implicit

request offered by others. Common strategies for gaining compliance are as
follows:

1. Tactics based on liking:

It is an ingratiation tactics. It involves gaining compliances by causing others to

have positive feelings about us before we attempt to influence them. It is using all
possible suitable tactics in a particular situation in order to foster the positive
effect of target person.

There are two major tactics based on liking; self enhancing tactics and other
enhancing tactics.
Self enhancing tactics are designed to enhance our personal demand. This tactics
include making ourselves attractive as possible, showing friendliness towards
target person and associating ourselves with positive events or people the target
person already.

Other enhancing tactics refers to flattering target person, agreeing with them or
showing interest on them.

2. Tactics based on commitment or consistency:

It is a foot in the door tactic. It is a technique for gaining compliance in which a

small request is followed by a much larger one.

It involves asking or requesting for a small commitment first and after gaining
compliance asking for bigger commitment.

When a person accepts free sample from salesman, the salesman further request
to buy goods.

Lowball tactic is also a part of this tactics to gain compliance of other people. It
refers that once commitment is made, the cost of commitment is increased. The
cost does not mean money, but mean time, efforts and other kinds of sacrifice.

3. Tactics based on reciprocity:

It door in the face technique. Under this, large request is followed by a smaller
one to gain compliance. Targets are asked for large commitment first and when
that is refused than asked for a smaller more reasonable commitment.

It is guided by norms of reciprocity that when someone does something for a

person that person should do something for the other in return.

Under this, large request is followed by a smaller one to gain compliance. Targets
are asked for large commitment first and when that is refused then asked for
smaller one more reasonable commitment.
 4. Tactics based on scarcity:

It is playing hard to get tactics. It is based on the notion that something very hard
to obtain that will be perceived more valuable. Dew drops are perceived more
important on deserts than mountain. This tactic is concerned with gaining
compliance in which individual try to create impression that are very popular or
very much in demand.

C) Obedience

A change in behavior in response to command of other is called obedience. In

other words, obedience is changing own’s behavior at the direct order of the
authority figure. Individuals act according to the orders, usually form an authority
figure. An authority figure is a person with social power who has right to demand
certain behavior from people.

Baron defined “obedience is a form of social influence in which one or more

individuals behave in a specific way in response to direct order for someone.”

In short, obedience is the tendency to comply with commands of those in

authority. It is the form of social influence in which one individual issues order to
another to behave a specific way and other one follows.

MILIGRAMS EXPERIMENT

Social psychologist Stanley Miligram conducted an experiment in 1992. In his

experiment, three people were present, a real participant, a research assistant
and experimenter who gives order in white coat. The regular participant was
given role of teacher and research assistant was given the role of learner where
subjects (teachers and learners) are randomly assigned in group.

The teacher was given a sample 45-volt shock from the chair in which learner was
strapped during the experiment. The task of learner was simple memory test of
paired works.

The teacher was seated infront of a machine through which the shocks would be
administered and levels of shocked changed.
For each mistake made by the learner, the teacher was instructed to increase the
level of shock by 15 volts. The learner was confederate and actually shocked, was
given script to show discomfort, ask for experiment to end, screaming or even
falling silent as if unconscious or deal.

As the teacher became reluctant to continue administering the shocks, the

experimenter forced to continue the shock.

Conclusion

Before the Stanley Miligram experiment, experts thought that about 1-3% of the
subjects wouldn’t stop giving shocks. Still, 65% never stopped giving shocks. None
stopped when the learner said he had heart trouble. Further studies determined.

 Women are about the same obedience as men

 Distance to the victim affects to the obedience

 Distance to the person ordering you affects the obedience

 The appearance of the authority person and his rank can increase or
decrease the obedience.
 Unit 3: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Concepts

The word motivation comes from latin word “movere” which means to move. so,
motivation is the mover of behavior. It is synonymously used with the word
desires, wants, wishes, needs, drive, motive, and incentives.

It is a hypothetical concept like other cognitive process and can’t be seen and
touched. Psychologically, it refers to the activation, urge and internal carving from
within the organism.

Motivation can be defined as internal state that activates and gives direction to
our goals. It is an internal process which actively guides and direct human
behavior.

Pallando defined ,”It as psychological and psychological factor account for

arousal (energizing) ,direction and persistent of behavior.”

Pinder defined ,”Motivation refers to the forces within the person that affect
his/her direction, intensity and persistent of voluntary behavior.”

So, motivation is a process that account to individual intensity, persistent and

direction of efforts towards attainment of goals.

Motivation Cycle

Motivation cycle is a transition of states within an organism that propels the

organism toward the satisfaction of a particular need.
1 .Need

A need is lack or deficit of what we want. It’s a state of physical deprivation that
causes tension within an organism. The tension caused when the organism is
deprived of basic necessities of life as food, water, and sleep.

It causes the internal environment of an organism to be imbalanced.

The imbalance caused by the need arouses the organism to maintain its balance.
The tendency to restore balanced condition in body is known as homeostasis. For
any goal directed behavior, need is the first condition or stimulating factor.

2. Drive

Need leads to drive, which is the second step towards achieving goal.

Drive can be defined as the state of tension or arousal produced by need. The
drive can also be considered as the original source of energy that activates an
organism. For instance, when an organism is hungry and/or thirsty, the organism
seeks to reduce this drive by eating and/or drinking.

Drive acts as a strong persistent stimulus to push an organism towards its goal. It
is the state of heightened tension leading to restless activity and preparatory
behavior.

3. Incentives

The incentive is something in the external environment that satisfies the need
and reduces the drive .

Incentive is an appropriate objects or situation towards which motivated behavior

is directed. Incentives alleviate a need and reduce drive. It can provide
satisfaction for aroused drive.

For example: behavior like eating food is an incentive that reduces the drive of
the person caused by the need to fulfill his hunger. The reduction of behavior
then cuts off and restores balance in an organism.
4. Goal/ Reward

The reduction of tension in the body can be considered as the goal of any
motivated behavior.

Let’s go back to the example of a hungry man. A hungry man eats food, and his
body restores to a balanced condition. This then reduces the tension. This
reduction of tension as a result of an energized activity is called goal.

Once the goal has been completed, the organism is again ready for another goal-
motivated behavior. Goals might be both positive or negative. Positive goals are
the ones that an organism tries to attain, such as sexual companionship, food,
victory etc. negative goals are the ones that an organism tries to escape from or
avoid, such as embarrassing situations, punishments.

These four steps continue on and on throughout the life-course of an organism.

Because the needs are never ending, it leads to drive, which then lead to
incentive and the goal.

Types of motives

Motives are the reason behind our actions what compels us to do and what we
do. Motives vary from unlearned physical needs to highly organized system of
learned ideas. Psychologists have categorized needs into two broad categories:

a) Primary Motives

Primary motives are also called physiological motives. Primary motives are inborn,
unlearned and biological. They are natural and vital which the individual brings
with him or her upon his or entry into the world.

They are important for our survival without which we can’t live. These are
universal needs which balance the body and if remain unsatisfied, may lead
different behavioral disturbances .

Hunger, thirst, rest and sleep, sex, maternal behavior etc. all are primary motives.
 b) Secondary Motives

Secondary motives are social motives or psychological motives. These are

acquired or learned motives and developed through social contact and
experience. These motives are not directly related to biological survival of the
individuals, they spend much of their time to satisfy these motives.

These motives are equally important because individual’s happiness and

wellbeing depend on the satisfaction of these motives. Power, prestige, need for
affiliation, security and status are important secondary motives.

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

Drive Reduction Theory was developed by the psychologist Clark Hull in 1943, as
the first theory for motivation. The term drive refers to the state of tension or
arousal caused by biological or physiological needs.

According to the drive reduction theory biological needs arising within our bodies
create unpleasant state of arousal and propels the organism to satisfy the need
and reduce tension and arousal.

In this theory there are two kinds of drives. Primary drives are those that involve
survival needs of the body such as hunger and thirst whereas acquired or
secondary drives are those that are learned such as need for money or social
approval.

When there is primary motive, the body is in the state of imbalance. This
stimulates behavior that brings the body back in to the balance or homeostasis.

Thus motivation is basically a process in which various biological needs push us to

action designed to satisfy these needs.
According to this figure biological needs (food, water, oxygen) lead to the arousal
of drive (hunger, thirst), which activate efforts to reduce them. Behavior that
succeed in reducing a drive are strengthened and are repeated when the drive is
aroused again.

Behavior that fails to reduce the drive are weakened and less likely to recur when
the drive is aroused once again.

AROUSAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Arousal theory of motivation is an alternative theory of motivation that deals

about drive. This theory focuses on arousal i.e. our general level of activation.

According to this theory, arousal varies throughout the day, from low levels
during the sleep and too much higher when we are performing strenuous tasks or
activities we find exciting.

This model suggests that what we seek is not minimal level arousal but rather
optimal level that is best suited to our personal characteristics.
 If our stimulation or activity levels become too high we try to reduce them. If
levels of stimulation or activity are too low, we will try to increase them by
seeking stimulation.

Despite drive reduction theory works well to explain the action people take to
reduce tension created by needs, it does not explain all human motivation like
why do people take food when they are not really hungry?

The major assertion arousal theory is that the level of arousal of an individual
directly influences his/her performance. This phenomenon is also referred to as
the Yerkes-Dodson Law.

It is a law stating performance is related to arousal. Moderate level arousal lead

to better performance than the levels of arousal that are too low or too high. This
effect varies with the difficulty of tasks.

Easy tasks demands somewhat high moderate level for optimal performance
where as difficult tasks require a low moderate level arousal.
According to this theory increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but
only up until the optimum arousal level is reached. At that point, performance
begins to suffer as arousal levels increase.

Individuals maintain optimum level of arousal by increasing or reducing it.

Students who experience test anxiety ( a high level of arousal) may seek out ways
to reduce that anxiety in order to improve test performance. Students who are
not anxious at all may not be motivated to study well, lowering their test
performance.

Expectancy Theory
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation was suggested by Victor H. Vroom in 1964.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory is a process theory.

This theory suggests that motivation is not primarily matter of being pushed from
within various urges or drives but it is being pulled by expectation of desirable
outcomes.
It states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of how much an individual
wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will
lead to expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance
will lead to reward (Instrumentality).

a.Expectancy (E→P)

Expectancy refers to the "effort-performance" relation. It is the perception that

better efforts will result in better performance. If we believe that our effort will
lead to performance, we will put more effort and vice versa.

b.Instrumentality (P→O)

Instrumentality refers to the "performance-reward" relation. It is the belief that

better performance will result better reward. If we believe that our performance
will lead to reward or outcome we will be motivated to work.
c.Valence:

Valence means "value" and refers to the preference of an individual’s on an

outcome. If we believe that outcomes satisfies our desires we will be motivated
to work.

Equity Theory

A behavioral psychologist John Stacy Adams developed equity theory in early

1960. It is the most rigorously developed social exchange theory of motivation. It
is also called social comparison theory of motivation.

It explains that employees try to maintain a balance between what they give to
an organization (inputs) against what they receive (outcomes), and compare one’s
inputs-outcomes ratio with the colleagues (referent). If they identify inequities in
the input/output ratios of themselves and their referent group, they will seek to
adjust their input to reach their perceived equity.
As a social comparison theory, individuals compare their output input ratio with
the same ratio of referent person where referent are people with whom we
compare our own situation.

Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work such as time, loyalty, effort,
tolerance, flexibility, enthusiasm, personal sacrifice, skill, experience, training,
knowledge, trust in superiors etc. and outputs are everything we take out in
return or what an organization has given to people in lieu of their contribution
such as salary, job security and employee benefits, but extend to less tangible
aspects such as praise, sense of achievement, praise and reputation.

According to Adam, individuals compare their ratio with 'referent' and determines
the reward condition. The reward condition can be over rewarded, under
rewarded and equal rewarded.

If they find that are equal or over rewarded they will be motivated and vice
versa. However, feeling of inequity leads following situation:

 Change their inputs.

 Change their outcomes.

 Distort the perception.

 Choose the different referent.

 Leave the field.

Goal setting theory

In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. It states
that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to
higher and better task performance.

In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what
needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be put in.
The goal setting theory can be explained through an acronym SMART- F to
remember.

 SPECIFIC

Specific goals lead to greater output and better performance. Because such a goal
itself seems to act as an internal stimulus.

 MEASURABLE

Goals must be quantifiable in terms of measurement in percentage so that a

vision of attainment and progress is sensed.

 ATTAINABLE

Attainable means achievable in a given period of time. this means, goals should
set by considering ability and capacity.

 REALISTIC

Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a feeling of pride
and triumph when he attains them, and sets him up for attainment of next goal.
The more challenging the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the more is
the passion for achieving it.

 TIME BOUND

There should be appropriate fixed time to accomplish the task so that individuals
remain active and alert.

FEEDBACK

Feedback is a means of gaining reputation, making clarifications and regulating

goal difficulties. It helps employees to work with more involvement and leads to
greater job satisfaction.

Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behavior and
contributes to higher performance than absence of feedback.
Followings are the major conclusions of goal setting theory;

• Specific goals works as internal stimulus and produce higher levels of

performance.

• Challenging goals energizes individuals and direct attention towards tasks

and more motivate people

• Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behavior

and contributes to higher performance than absence of feedback.

• Opportunities to participate in goal setting foster the commitment.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow expounded the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in 1943. Maslow
started his formulation with that man is a wanting animal with a hierarchy of
needs of which some are in lower scale and some are in a higher scale.

According to Maslow a satisfied need is not a motivator. Unsatisfied needs propel

individuals to act in certain ways. This theory is based on the assumption that
there is a hierarchy of five needs within each individual. These five needs are as
follows

1. Physiological needs

These are the basic needs of air, water, food, sex, clothing and shelter. In other
words, physiological needs are the needs for basic amenities of life. These needs
must be equated with pay rate, pay practice and the physical condition of the job.

2. Safety needs

The next in order of needs is safety need, the need to be free from danger, either
from people or free from environment. It includes physical, environmental and
emotional safety and protection. For instance- Job security, security against
disease, misfortune, old age, industrial injury, health security, etc.
 3. Social needs

It is a need in which individuals develops desire to work in a cohesive group and

feel sense of belongingness. Once safety needs are met, s/he feels the need to
love and be loved and to belong and identified with group. Thus, Social needs
include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, and friendship.

4. Esteem needs-

Esteem needs are also called ego needs. It reflects the desire for status and
recognition, respect and prestige in the work group. It can be of two types:
internal esteem needs (self- respect, confidence, competence, achievement and
freedom) and external esteem needs (recognition, power, status, attention,
participation and admiration).

5. Self-actualization need

This is an upper level needs. It is also called self realization need. It includes the
urge for becoming capable or inept to become or the potential to become. It also
includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social- service, creativity and being
aesthetic. The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable.

Maslow grouped the five needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and
Lower-order needs.

• The physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-order needs.
These lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally.

• The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs constituted the higher-

order needs. These higher-order needs are generally satisfied internally,
i.e., within an individual.

According to Maslow, only one level of need can be operative at a time and
individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs is
significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. So, this theory
involves the satisfaction-progression analysis.
 McClelland achievement theory
In 1961 David McClelland et.al proposed a book 'The Achieving Society' and
expounded a new theory of motivation.

They advocated that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time from
parents, teachers, colleagues, neighbors etc.

They described three types of motivational needs- achievement, affiliation and

power where motivation and effectiveness of a person in any jobs are influenced
by these three needs.

McClelland's theory sometimes is referred to as the three need theory or as the

learned needs theory.

• Need for Achievement (n-Ach):

People with a high need for achievement (nAch) set challenging (not impossible)
goals, calculate possible risk, assume the responsibility and put sincere efforts for
the attainment of goals..

They avoid money as motivator but seek opportunities for advancement and
expect strong feedback of accomplishment or progress in the job.

High n-ach individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success,
ideally a 50% chance. They prefer either to work alone or with other high
achievers.

• Need for Affiliation (n-Aff):

People with a high need for affiliation (nAff) want to maintain friendly
relationships with other people and strictly avoid all sorts of conflicts and
confrontations.
These people are team players; need to feel accepted by other and ready to
follow the norms of their work group. People with a high need for affiliation
prefer work that entails significant personal interaction.

They perform well in customer service, client interaction situations and public
relation activities.

• Need for Power (n-Pow):

This refers the desire for influencing others and exercise control.

People with high need for power generally seek position of leadership, speak
more and suggest more to other. They are outspoken and hard-headed.

Emotion
Any desirable or undesirable feeling occurred quickly and profoundly in response
to an event or situation is called emotion. Emotions are the short but intense
feeling directed towards object, persons or events. They are the reaction to
person or event and expressed a variety of ways such as anger, fear, joy, love,
happiness, sadness, surprise etc. People frequently express emotion through their
thoughts, behavior and physiological reaction.

"An emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct

components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral
or expressive response."(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007)

Thus, emotions are intense feeling directed towards persons, object, or events
that create state of readiness for behavior. People differ from each other based
on their emotions and every one reacts the situation in different way such as a
teacher used to scold that student who does not complete his/ her assignment
but the same teacher appreciate to other student who complete the assignment
regularly.
 Types of Emotion:

Emotions are intense feeling directed towards persons, object, or events that
create state of readiness for behavior. Psychologists classified emotions on
different bases. Broadly emotions are two types primary and secondary.

1. Primary emotion and secondary emotion

Primary emotions are in- the- moment emotional responses to a pleasant or

unpleasant stimulus. This means, primary emotions can be extremely pleasant
and they can also be extremely unpleasant. Primary emotions provide
information about our current situation and get us ready or motivated to act in
some way. Some primary emotions are Joy, Happiness, Satisfaction, Fulfillment,
Peace, Fear, Shame, Sadness, Hurt, Guilt, Frustration, Dissatisfaction,
Disappointment etc.

• Secondary Emotions

Feeling which is not acknowledged or displayed commonly across societies are

called secondary emotions. Secondary emotions are the emotions we have in
response to a primary emotion not being recognized or expressed.

Secondary emotions do not pass quickly. They tend to stick around for a long
time. As a result, they often lead us to try to avoid our emotions and cause
damage to ourselves and our relationships.eg. love, envy, Disapproval, Disdain,
Hatred, Coldness, Hostility, Paranoia, Distrust, Jealousy, Worry, Anxiety,
Insecurity, Low Self Esteem, Self-hatred, Depression, Anger etc.

2. Positive and negative emotion

A desirable feeling of an individual, events, things or objects which develops

pleasant consequences is called positive emotion.

In other words, positive emotion refers to the extent to which an individual

subjectively experiences positive moods. It is a pleasurable and positive
experience.
These emotions are markers of people's overall well-being or happiness, but they
also enhance future growth and success.

Joy, happiness, alertness, appreciation etc. are positive emotions,

A desirable feeling of an individual, events, things or objects which develops

pleasant consequences is called positive emotion.

In other words, positive emotion refers to the extent to which an individual

subjectively experiences positive moods. It is a pleasurable and positive
experience.

• Negative emotions

Intense but undesirable feeling directed towards some persons, object or

situation is called negative emotion. It is usually an unpleasant or unhappy feeling
which is evoked in individuals to express a negative affect towards an event or
person. Negative emotions are considered unhappy leading to mental ill health.
Fear, anger, Coldness, Hostility, Distrust, Jealousy, Worry, Anxiety, Insecurity, Low
Self Esteem, Self-hatred, Depression, Anger etc.

3. Felt Emotion and Displayed Emotion

Natural and spontaneous emotion is felt emotion. They are real, true emotions of
individuals.

Emotions that are guided by fixed rules and regulations set by organization is
called displayed emotion. They are expressed in relation to time, situation or
nature of jobs. They are learned or acquired to please others. Organizations need
employees to disguise their true emotions and display emotions that are effective
to their jobs. It is similar to chanting god’s name by keeping a knife in the pocket,
i.e. mukha ma Ram Ram bagali ma chhura.

Emotional Labor

Emotional labor refers to the effort, planning and control needed to express
organizationally desired emotion during the interpersonal transaction. It forces
employees to follow “displayed rules” and curtail their real individual emotion.
According to Robbins, emotional labor is a situation in which an employee
expresses organizationally desired emotion during interpersonal transaction at
work.

Every employee including the chief executive of the organization must abide the
rule. For example nurses must show devotion and dedication with the eagerness
to help the patient throughout the time.

However, emotional labor is difficult to persons when s/he has to protect one
emotion that is opposite to what s/he is feeling. This conflicting situation is known
as emotional dissonance. In emotional dissonance employees display different
emotions that are quite different from the true feeling.

 External Constraints on Emotions

There are certain rules, disciplines and acceptable standard ways to express
emotion. People must abide rules otherwise they are treated as wild.

For example, a student must behave like student, expected to listen, concentrate
and participate well in the classroom.

However, an appropriate emotion in one situation may not be appropriate in

other situations; the cause behind it is the external constraints on emotion.
Basically there are two major external constraints on emotion.

1.Organizational Influence:

Organizations have their own criteria for employees to express their emotion. The
expression of emotion may differ from organization to organization. However,
negative emotions such as anger, fear, stress etc. are not always accepted where
positive emotions like love, joy etc. are always wanted. Further intense emotion
such as laughing too hard is prohibited ate because it hampers the work.

2.Cultural Influence:

cultural learning influences the expression of emotion more than what is

experienced. Emotions are highly interrelated and guided by the culture. Some
culture encourage free emotional expression, where as other culture teach
people to disclose little of their emotion in public. Employees need to smile and
act friendly in the United States when interacting with the clients. Whereas
smiling is seen as a sign of inexperience for Israeli supermarket cashier.

Application of Emotion in Organization Behavior

Emotional expressions are directly related in influencing behavior. Well managed
emotional situations also maintain control over employees in the organization.
Therefore, emotions have great significance in the organization and can be
applied in following ways.

1.Selection:

Business organizations are hiring people who have large amount of emotional
intelligence. People with high levels of emotional intelligence are considered
socially intelligent; perform well in social and business settings. They do not
control only their emotion but also can impress other as a valuable person in the
organization. These persons are healthy competitors in the profession and can fit
themselves in any organization.

2.Creativity:

People who are in good mood or have positive emotion tend to be more creative
than people in the bad mood or negative emotion. They produce more idea,
others think their ideas are original and they tend to identify more creative option
to problems. It seems that people who are experiencing positive emotions are
more flexible and open in their thinking.

3.Decision Making:

Organizational behavior researcher found that emotions have an important effect

on decision making. People who are experiencing positive emotions are more
likely to use their heuristics to help make good decision quicker than those who
do not have. Positive emotion also enhances problem solving skills so that
positive people find better solution to problems.
4.Motivation:

Emotion and motivation are closely related concept that affects organization’s
goals. Motives are often accompanied by emotions. People with positive emotion
are more excited and stimulated to the job and perform well. If an employee finds
that the job is more interesting, s/he will be more motivated to work on the job
without caring about dinners.

5.Leadership:

Leadership refers to the ability of a person to entice or influence others. Leaders

influence, acceptance and rejections are determined by the expression of their
emotion in the speech. When a leader feels excited, enthusiastic and active, s/he
may be more energize subordinates and more successful in influencing others and
applying their vision in the both political and corporate sectors of organizations.

6.Negotiations:

Negotiation is an emotional process. An effective negotiation should be cheerful

and happy nature and can handle negotiation even complicated circumstances.
Negative emotions are not supported by counterparts and impair negotiation.

7.Customer Service:

A workers emotional state also influences customer service. Employees who

have positive emotions or good mood are more likely to communicate in friendly
manner, show warmth, be positive and behave with fine gesture which will
enhance customer interest and appreciation.

It will help employees to experience and develop better skills. Sometime

employee’s emotion may transfer to the customers and cause matching effect
between employees and customers which are called emotional contagion
(catching of emotion from others).

8.Job attitude:

Job attitude is the feeling of employees towards their job. If a person has positive
feeling in and about the job, they remain in the job for longer time. People who
experience a bad day at work experience bad mood even back home, they feel
irritating. When people with the good day at work experience they will have
pleasant feeling at home. When managers in good mood, employees cooperate
more, show more positiveness and willingness.

9.Deviant workplace behavior:

Deviant workplace behavior is an antisocial behavior where employees often

violets organizations norms, threatens it or both. Evidence suggests that people
who feel negative emotion, particularly those who feel angry or hostile are more
likely to engage in deviant behavior than those who do not have negative
emotion.

10.Forgiveness in organization:

Forgiveness refers to the study of positive organizational scholarship (POS). POS

focuses on positive than negative i.e. what goes right than what goes wrong?
What is inspiring than distressing? Positive emotion will build feeling of
forgiveness in the organization, fosters high quality of relationships and increase
social connection among organizational members.

Gender and Emotion

Emotional expression between the male and female is a hot topic of discussion
and interesting matter in psychology. Most often people say that women are
more emotional than man; however man could be described more emotional
than women. In reality, the expression of emotion depends on types of emotion,
how it is measured, where it is expressed and other lots of factors. From
evolutionary perspective, there are some sex differences in emotion. Some of the
facts obtained from empirical about sex and emotional expressions are as follows:

1. Women do appear to react more negatively to unpleasant experiment, react

with more fear disgust, sadness, physical violence, where men express greater
happiness to happy situation.
 2. Women tend to be able to recognize and process negative emotion of
others better than man.

3. Men and women tend to differ in average levels of depression. Feeling of

depression is high in women than man.

4. Women are associated with negative emotionality than man.

5. Women attribute more importance in personal values including values

related love and altruism.

Interpersonal conflict
Conflict refers to the disagreement , misunderstanding or antagonist feeling
between two or more persons. Interpersonal conflict refers to the
misunderstanding between two or more persons where emotion , differences in
individuals emotion will be the main cause for interpersonal conflict. Such conflict
can be trivial in the beginning but it will take vital form if it is not solved in time.
Managers of the organization must be sincere to solve conflict in time.
 UNIT 4 : LEARNING
Concept

Learning simply refers acquiring the ability to do something that we have not
done before. Learning can be defined as the process of changing, developing and
maintaining skill, knowledge, and attitude of people. Learning is often defined as
a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of experience. In other
word learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or
weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.

According to Baron, “Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior (or

behavior potential) resulting from experiences.”

Myers, “Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organisms’ behavior due

to experience.”

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge & attitudes. It involves new ways
of doing things and it operates in individuals attempts to overcome obstacles or
to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behavior. It
enables individuals to satisfy interests to attain goals.

Importance of Learning

“Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at death.”

Einstein. It reflects the importance of learning. Further learning is important
because it boosts confidence, is enjoyable and provides happiness, leads to a
better quality of life and helps boost personal development. The importance of
learning is as follows:

 Make life meaningful

Learning is essential to all organisms and without learning, a living soul is of no

use. One who doesn’t understand his environment at least will be dead in no
time.

 Adapt in new environment

Learning helps to adapt to a new environment. If only we know how to change
our ways according to changes in our locale, will we survive. We have to adapt
ourselves every day to new people, places, jobs and relations, only learning can
assist us in this.

 Understand basic necessity

Learning helps us understand basic necessities of life, and gives us a way of

acquiring and mastering them.

 Improve skills and knowledge

Greater learning can provide you with deeper knowledge of a subject, which
cannot be imparted from bookish education. Managers attempt to design a
learning element to maintain or improve desired levels of skills and knowledge of
employees.

 Behavioral development

Learning can help persons or managers to check the dysfunctional behavior and
boost up functional behaviors by applying new rewards and interventions.

 Multiple impact

Every activity in organization is influenced by learning. Almost all dimensions of

individual’s behavior or organizational performance such as knowledge, skills,
attitudes, values, personalities, loyalties, job performance are responsive to
learning.

Theories of Learning
There are four major theories of learning classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, cognitive and social learning or observational learning.

1) Classical Conditioning
Conditioning refers to automatic response over the situation through repeated
activities. The classical conditioning theory of learning was developed by Ivan
Pavlov a Russian psychologist.

This theory is also called respondent condition or Pavlovian theory of learning.

According to this theory when a stimulus is paired with another stimulus that will
create a response which is called condition learning. It involves the stimulus
response connection and deals that stimulus elicit response that is a form of
learning.

 Experiment

Pavlov presented a piece of meat, the dog produced saliva. Then Pavlov rang the
bell but the dog did not make any response.

Subsequently, Pavlov presented a piece of meat with ringing the bell at a time.
The dog again produced saliva.

Again, Pavlov rang the bell with holding the meat, the dog also produced saliva.

Pavlov paired the sound of bell with the flash digit the dog also produced saliva.

Finally, When the Pavlov used only flash light the dog produce the same response.
In his experiment, he termed meat is an Unconditional stimulus and the saliva
produced due to the presentation of meat is an unconditioned response. The
sound of bell and flash of light are conditioned stimulus where as the response of
dog is conditioned response.

So, Pavlov concluded that when conditioned stimulus is paired with

unconditioned stimulus that will eventually lead to a response which is called
conditional response.

The classical conditioning theory explains simple and reflexive behavior. It deals
when something happens, people reacts in specific ways. However, human
behavior is complex and it can’t explain all aspects of human behavior.

 Basic elements of classical conditioning

  Unconditioned stimulus (UCS):

A stimulus that naturally, automatically and reliably triggers a particular response

without previous learning for example food, or smell of food.

 Unconditioned response (UCR):

An automatic and unlearned response triggered by UCS is called UCR for example
flow of saliva when food is presented. It is an unlearned and occurs because of
genetic wiring in nervous system.

 Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An initially neutral stimulus that does not automatically cause a response until it
becomes linked to unconditioned stimulus. This means unconditioned stimulus
and conditioned stimulus are associated with each other.

 Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is called conditioned

response. It is the response to conditioned stimulus.

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov experiment revealed five major processes or principles of classical
conditioning:

 Acquisition

Acquisition is the process by which a conditioned stimulus acquires the ability to

elicit conditioned response through repeated pairing of an unconditioned
stimulus with the conditioned stimulus.

 Extinction

It is a process through which a conditioned stimulus gradually loses the ability to

evoke conditioned response when it is no longer followed by the unconditioned
response. This means, previously learned responses decreases in frequency and
eventually disappear.
When the dog produce saliva at the ringing of bell, but if the bell is repeatedly
rang without presenting any stimulus, that will produce extinction.

However, the extinguished conditioned response can be re-emerged with no

further conditioning after a period of rest, that is called spontaneous recovery.

It is reappearance of a weakened conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus

after an interval of time following extinction.

 Stimulus generalization

Generalization is the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the

original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. In Pavlov
experiment, even though that was learned to salivate in response to specific bell
that also salivates when there is a slight change in the sound of bell.

 Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli. It is the process by which organisms learn to respond to certain
stimuli but not others. If two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that
one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not. When the dog
salivates at ringing bell, but using another stimulus like flash light without any
conditioning, the dog will not produce saliva.

 Higher order conditioning

It is also called second order conditioning. When a strong conditioned stimulus is

paired with a neutral stimulus that cause neutral stimulus to become second
stimulus is called higher order or second order conditioning. In the Pavlov
experiment, when neutral stimulus flash light is paired with a strong conditioned
stimulus bell, the dog produced the same result. (i.e. NS + CS = CR)
 Application of Classical Conditioning Theory
 Creating phobia or fear

Classical conditioning is useful to create phobia and anxiety in human being.

Watson and his assistant classically conditioned 9 month baby "Little Albert"

Albert was originally not fearful of any of the items. Watson then allowed Albert
to play with the rat, but as Albert played, Watson suddenly banged a hammer on
a metal bar. The sound shocked Albert and caused him to cry.

Each time Albert touched the rat, Watson again banged the hammer on the bar.
Watson was able to successfully condition Albert to fear the rat because of its
association with the loud noise.

Several times Albert started to cry at the sight of the rat even there is sound
eventually, Albert was conditioned to fear other similar objects that resembles a
rat such as a rabbit and even white mustache etc.

Here, loud noise is a UCS and noise due to loud noise is UCR where as white rat or
rabbit is the conditioned stimulus and fear from rat is a conditioned response.

 Treatment of phobia and fear:

Classical conditioning can be used to reduce fear that is called counter

conditioning.

First the child was presented his favorable food (UCS), the food evoke pleasant
feeling (UCR).

The caged rat was slowly inched closer as closer to the child (CS).

Eventually pleasant feeling evoked by the food became associated with the rat,
the fear diminished (CR).

The way which we follow to reduce fear and learned phobia is called systematic
desensitization.
It is a treatment for phobias in which the individual is trained to relax while being
exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli.

 Taste aversion.

Classical conditioning has been used as a successful form of treatment in changing

or modifying behaviors, such as substance abuse and smoking. Some therapies
associated with classical conditioning include aversion therapy. Aversion therapy
is a type of behavior therapy designed to encourage individuals to give up
undesirable habits by causing them to associate the habit with an unpleasant
effect.

It has been applied in human life to avert drug addiction, alcoholic addiction,
smoking etc.

Some substances are mixed in the usual diet or food so that when take alcohol,
the person becomes ill after consuming drugs and alcohol. They learn that the
illness is caused by alcohol or drug and will stop to use alcohol.

 Biological preparedness:

Classical conditioning is also applied by the psychologist to prepare biologically to

take some foods which caused them nausea or vomiting them. It was applied by
psychiatrist Dr. Garcia to cancer patients in order to avoid conditioned taste
aversion. Because, in some patients radiation or chemotherapy causes nausea or
vomiting only thinking food they had consumed before therapy. He suggested
that:

To arrange meal schedule so that there will be less chances of association

between eating those dishes and illness.

To use familiar food they prefer on regular basis before treatment than eating
new or unusual food.

To eat mild or some tasteless food so that flavor aversion does not develop.
  Study of sensory capacity

The principle of classical conditioning are useful to determine the sensory

capacities of infants, handicapped persons or animals.

Suppose in a clinic, a child came for treatment who does not respond to any type
of sound stimuli.

The problem can be detected through the classical conditioning procedures. If a

child is presented a number times with a bell and pinprick.

A bell is sounded before a pin tries to prick the child, the child may withdraw his
foot sensing that the sound of the bell is followed by pinprick.

If the child withdraws his foot, he can hear normally. If the child does not respond
to the sound of bell, he has some sorts of sensory problems and requires further
treatment.

2) OPERANT CONDITIONING
The operant conditioning theory was developed by an American Psychologist B.F.
Skinner. Skinner was deeply influenced by J.B Walton's psychology and Edward L.
Thorndike laws of effect.

Operant refers to the volunteer behavior such as walking, working, eating,

talking, sleeping, etc. So, the learning applies to voluntary behavior is called
operant conditioning.

According to this theory human being involves in voluntary behavior that

produce specific response. The response finally determines their further behavior.
If the consequences are rewarding the response will be repeated and will grow in
strength. It is guided by the Thorndike law of effect that states that if response is
followed by pleasurable consequences, it will tend to be repeated and followed
by unpleasant consequences, it will not be repeated. So, the relationship between
reward and response is the essence of operant conditioning.
By this theory, skinner concluded that individual's behavior is developed,
controlled and changed by the consequence or behavior is the function of it's
consequence. It is also called instrumental theory or re-enforcement theory or
response stimulus model.

• Experiment
Skinner developed special testing environment called operant conditioning
chamber or skinner box. The box was typically sound proof with a bar or
key inside it. If it is pressed pecked it will releases food or water as reward.
The chamber was large enough to allow animals to move within it.

Skinned used a rat and pigeon in his experiment. He placed the rat in a box called
Skinner box. When a rat is placed, the rat was started to move around the box
suddenly pressed on the liver. The lever delivered a pellet of food. Then, the rat
repeatedly presses the lever and got the food over and again. In this theory the
rat learned that when the lever is pressed that would deliver the food.

In this theory, the food is the consequence or reward where repeated pressing
the lever is behavior. So, the behavior is determined by reward. Therefore, it is
also called reward stimulus theory. By this theory skinner concluded that
individuals learn to get what they want and avoid to learn what they do not want.
 Major concepts of Operant Conditioning Theory
Common concepts of Operant Conditioning theory are as follows:

 Reinforcement

Reinforcement is the central concept of operant conditioning. It is the process by

which a stimulus increases the probability the preceding behavior will be
repeated. It increases the likelihood that learned behavior will be repeated. It
increase the strength of response and increases its probability of being repeated.

It involves either presentation or withdrawal of pleasant consequences that

consequence is called reinforcer. There are basic three types of reinforcers:

 Positive and Negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is the presentation of pleasant consequences or stimulus

that make the behavior more likely to be repeated. It strengthens desirable
behavior by providing rewards at every time. Food pallet or grain is a positive
reinforcer to the rat or pigeon that pressed the bar. Appreciation, medal,
monetary reward etc. are the positive reinforcer to human being.

Negative reinforcement refers to the unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to

an increase in probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the
future. It is reinforcement of response by the removal, escape from or avoidance
of unpleasant stimulus to strengthen desirable response or weaken undesirable
response.

 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

The stimulus used to reinforce a certain behavior can be either primary or

secondary.

A primary reinforcer, also called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that

has innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of rein forcers are not learned.
Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch, and pleasure are all examples of primary
rein forcers.
Money is one of the best examples of a secondary reinforcer: It is only worth
something because you can use it to buy other things—either things that satisfy
basic needs (food, water, shelter—all primary rein forcers) or other secondary
rein forcers.

• PUNISHMENT

• SHAPING

 Extinction

Extinction, in operant conditioning, refers to when a reinforced behavior is

extinguished entirely. The rate of responding or pressing the bar when the
reinforcement or food is consistently absent. The extinction process occurs when
the rat does not get any food after pressing the bar and it diminishes the
tendency to press the bar or lever.

 Spontaneous Recovery:

It is the recurrences of conditioned response after the extinction. The phenomena

of spontaneous recovery is also applied in operant conditioning. When the rat
receives food after the lapse of time it starts to press the lever to deliver food
again.

 Stimulus generalization

It is quite similar both in classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Skinner

trained a pigeons to peck at a key illuminated by yellow light, later, same pigeons
were tested with light of varying wavelengths, the result shoed the generalized
effect. As the light became less similar to the original, the pigeons were less
inclined to peck the key.

 Stimulus discrimination

Like the classical conditioning, rat and pigeon learn to discriminate between the
stimuli. The rat was trained to press the bar when green light is on. The rat
presses the bar only when the green light is on and does not press the bar when
there is no green light. The light becomes discriminating stimulus for response.
Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning theory:

Both the classical conditioning and operating theories try to bring changes on
human behavior. Despite the similarity the difference between these two theories
are mentioned below.

 a) Determinants: In the classical conditioning, stimulus are the

determinants of behavior where as in operant conditioning, reinforcement
of rewards are the determinants.

 b) Reward: In classical conditioning reward is presented every time where

as in operant conditioning reward is attached to the behavior.

 c) Types of behavior: Classical condition explains elicited or passive

behavior where as operant conditioning explains emitted or active
behavior.

 d) Approach: Classical conditioning is a reactive approach where as operant

conditionings is a proactive approach of learning.

 e) Model: Classical conditioning is based on stimulus responses (S"R) model

whereas operant conditioning based on response stimulus (R"S) model.

 f) Pre-requisite: In classical conditioning stimulus is pre-requisite for

clearing whereas in operant condition consequences or re-enforcement is
pre-requisite per learning.

Cognitive Theory of Learning

Concept

Cognitive theory is related to the term cognition which refers to act of thinking,
perception, use of intuition, experience to gain knowledge.

The cognitive theory of learning was developed by American Psychologist Edward

C. Tolman According to this learning is not caused by stimulus response (S -R)
interaction rather it is the result of individual's cognition and environmental cues.
It is based on stimulus – stimulus connection. One stimulus leads to another
stimulus.

When an individual's behavior is directed towards objective they confront

different environmental situation and find their ultimate objectives. So, learning is
the consequence of human brain, or thinking and knowing but not the stimulus
response or response stimulus reaction.

 Experiment

Tolman experimented taking a rat and complex maze. He used three groups of
rats in the same maze with or without reward. The rat was trained to run through
a complicated maze.

The first group was reward group where reward (food) was placed at the end of
maze. The second group was non-reward group, never received reward and third
group was no-reward/reward group, did not receive food reward until the
eleventh day of training.

Tolman put a food at the corner of the maize and placed the rat, that rat moved
straight forward as soon as the rat reached to the station or choice that got
confusion but the rat was able to use environmental cues through sense of organs
and followed right path. Finally, that rat got the food.

However, the rat in a reward group found the reward at lower rate of error
whereas rat with non-reward and reward cum non-reward showed higher errors
and similar levels of performance

By this theory Tolman concluded that when the rat got the food learning took
places.

 Application of cognitive learning

1. The cognitive theory combines characteristics of both classical conditioning

and operant conditioning theory. Therefore, it has a broad area of
application. It can be applied in following ways:

2. Key in overcoming many negative impact of personality.

 3. Cognition always precedes behavior and emotions therefore changing our
thoughts may lead to change in our behavior.

4. It is useful in increasing short term and long term memory of students.

5. The concept of cognitive theory can be equally applied in human resources

management and industrial training.

6. The map used in cognitive theory can be used to identify the material
stored in the store room. So it promotes efficiency and saves time.

7. The cognitive theory is also useful in social life. By using the cognitive map,
we can reach new destination. It is more applicable in tourism industry.

Observational learning theory

Concept

Observational learning Theory is the result of empirical research on human

behavior. It was developed by Albert Bandura.

According to this theory neither stimulus from environment (Classical and operant
theory) nor the self-determination (Cognitive theory) determine the learning,
rather, learning occurs through the direct observation and experience of an
individual.

Bandura combined classical conditioning, operant conditioning and cognitive

theory of learning to develop the new way of learning.

According to Bandura, individuals are the social being who live in the society and
have a contact with different person such as father, mother, colleague friends,
teachers, managers and other celebrities. They earnestly observe their behavior
and put in practice that behavior which they like or prefer most that family
creates the new way of behavior.
 • Experiment

Bandura experimented with preschool child, a model and “Bobo” doll. In the
experiment room, a model interacted with doll in a room in front of child.

In one condition the model interacted with toy in a non-aggressive manner

completely ignoring the presence of Bobo doll.

In other condition, the model became very aggressive with the doll, kicking it,
yelling at it, throwing it in the air and hitting it with a hammer.

When each child was left alone in the room where a camera filming was set and
given opportunity to play with the toy. He found through the camera that children
who were exposed to the aggressive model, they were beating up the doll in
exact imitation of the model. The children who saw the model ignore the doll, did
not act aggressively.

He concluded that learning can take places without actual performance and
labeled latent learning. He further explained that observational learning require
the presence of four elements or steps via attention, retention, motor
reproduction and reinforcement.

 Attention process:

Attention is the first basic process in observational learning. The learner must pay
attention over different activates of model. Normally people or learner pay more
attention to that model they perceive as similar to them and they perceive as
attractive.

 Retention process:

It is keeping the model’s behavior in memory. The learner must be able to store
and retain the observed model in the mind and develops image of the model so
that s/he can retrieve at any time when that is required.
  Motor reproduction process:

It is the imitation process and translating memories into behavior. The learner
must be capable of reproducing or imitating the action of model. In this stage,
the most liked or preferred model is put into practice. In other words, individuals
apply that model which sine has given the preferences.

 Reinforcement:

It is the motivational process. When the individual gets support or appreciation by

applying the preferred model she will repeat the model over and again and vice-
versa.

Social learning stress on reinforcement facilities. It emphasized that people are

not only influenced by their experience but also by the observed consequences
that is called vicarious learning.

Application of Observational Theory

There are many possible uses of observational learning. It has both negative and
positive impact. The application or usefulness of observational learning are as
follows:

 Observational learning is the main method to learn about our culture,

customs, tradition and environment.

 Observational learning helps to advocate productive behavior. For example,

observing parents behavior, children perform many tasks.

 Observational learning can be applied to reduce or treat phobia, anxiety

and fear of children through modeling.

 Observational learning can be useful to prevent the global organization and

individual from cultural shock.

 Observational learning may contribute to the development of unhealthy

behavior including smoking, alcohol, drug addiction among adolescents.
 Sometime it may be impacted by wrong model.
 UNIT 5: MEMORY AND FORGETTING
Concept

Memory is the term given to the structures and process involved in the storage
and subsequent retrieval of information. Memory is our cognitive system for
storing and retrieving information. It is the process by which we encode, store
and retrieve information.

Memory a basic cognitive function by which we draw on our past experiences in

order to use this information in the present consciousness.

According to Baddeley ,“Memory is an active system that receive information from

sense, organizes and alter it as it stores it away and retrieve the information from
storage.”

Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and
retrieved. Memory is a system or process by which result of learning are stored
for the future use.

Memory process

Memory is essentially the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Three
processes are involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. All three of
these processes determine whether something is remembered or forgotten:
 1. Encoding

It is getting information in. The first step in the memory process is to get sensory
information in to the brain that is called encoding.

Encoding is a set of mental process that people perform on sensory information

to convert information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system.

Like the computer key board entries and transform symbols to electronic process
which may be stored in computer disk, our sense of organs collects information
and converts in to neural events that can be stored and used by the brain.

For example, people hear a sound their year turn the vibration in the air in to
neural message from auditory nerves, which make it possible for the brain to
interpret that sound.

2. Storage

The next step in the memory is to hold the information for some period of time
that is called storage. It is the retention of information in the brain. Memory has
been often called store house. Some information are stored for one period of
time, use very less and discarded while other are frequently used and stored
more permanently. The encoded information recorded in the nervous system is
called memory trace. Some memory traces are isolated and being used in practice
frequently, they will be pushed out of memory and then forgotten.

This period of time will be actually different lengths depending up on the stage of
memory being used such as sensory memory, short term memory and long term
memory.

Sensory memory stores information only the fraction of a second whereas short
term memory retains for 12 to 20 seconds but long term memory retains
information unlimited time.

3. Retrieval

Once, information are stored in computer, it can be obtained whenever we want.

So, the way of bringing the stored information in conscious mind is called
retrieval. It is the final stage of memory process where stored information can be
used.

Psychologists have explained three distinct ways of retrieving information i.e.

recall, recognition and relearning method.

Recall is bringing past experience in to present consciousness in the absence of

stimuli. Where information are retrieved in the presence of stimulus we have
already experienced is called recognition. It is the process of relearning of
forgotten information where individuals’ feel easier than before.

Atkinson-Shiffrin modal model of memory

The Atkinson-Shiffrin modal model of memory was first developed by Richard

Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.

Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that once information enters the brain, it must be
either stored or maintained and that the information which is stored goes into
three distinct memory systems: the sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory.

Let's look at each of these components more carefully.

 • Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is also called sensory registration. The sensory memory is the
first memory system that information passes through. The sensory register
perceives and retains information that is received via the five senses for a very
short amount of time, i.e. a few seconds.

Though we have sensory registers for all five senses, only two have been well-
studied. Research has primarily focused on iconic memory, (visual memory) and
echoic memory, (auditory memory).

It's estimated that we can hold information in iconic memory for less than one
second, while we can keep information in echoic memory for up to five seconds.

We can think of sensory memory as a holding bin that keeps information until we
decide which items we want to pay attention to.

Most information that is not attended to is forgotten. Paying attention allows us

to move information from sensory memory to short-term memory.

• Short term memory (STM)

Information moves from sensory memory to the next stage of memory through
the process is called short term memory.

Short-term memory is where we keep the content of our current thought. We can
think of short-term memory as where we store information that we can actively
work with and use.

It's estimated that we can hold information in short-term memory between 18

and 20 seconds, though there are techniques that we can use to increase this.

For example, many people remember phone numbers by repeating them over
and over in their heads until they can write them down or dial them. By
continually repeating the numbers, you are rehearsing, which extends the length
of time that you can recall the numbers. This brings up another point: the more
that we repeat or use information, the more likely it is to move into long-term
memory.
Short-term memory has a limited capacity. Maintenance rehearsal and chunking
methods are useful to keep short term memory.

• Long term memory (LTM)

The third stage of memory is long term memory. Long term memory is the system
of memory in to which all information is placed to be kept more or less
permanently.

Long term memory is a storehouse which consists of facts, images, thoughts,

feelings, skills, experiences, words languages, sentences, ideas, concepts etc. it
has limitless capacity. LTM makes possible to retain information for long time. if
there is LTM same things need to be learned over and again.

Long-term memory has an almost infinite capacity, and information in long-term

memory usually stays there for the duration of a person’s life. Information can be
transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory by elaborative
rehearsal. However, this doesn’t mean that people will always be able to
remember what’s in their long-term memory—they may not be able to retrieve
information that’s there.

Contemporary approaches to memory

 Working memory

Working memory is formally called short term memory. It is a memory system

that holds information we are processing at the moment.

It is a set of active temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and

rehearse information.

It is not only like a box in which information is placed but it is a working active
system that process information it contains at any moment. Working memory
central executive processor that is involved in reasoning and decision making.

The central executive coordinates three distinct storage and rehearsal system the
visual store, verbal store and episodic buffer.
Visual store specializes visual and spatial information, verbal store holds
information relating to speech, words and numbers. The buffer contains
information that represents episodes or
events.

 Declarative Memory

Declarative memory is a mental data base of facts and rules. It is a type of long
term memory containing information that is conscious and known. Declarative
memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces, events, and
concepts.

Remembering the first female president of republic Nepal, the rules for playing
football, and what happened in the last game of the inter BBA football, tour
program. Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit because it
involves conscious, intentional remembering.

Some psychologist use explicit memory as synonym to declarative memory,

explicit memory is a conscious recollection or retrieval of information for example
recalling the words lists.
Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic.

1. Semantic Memory

Semantic memory is recall of general facts. A memory system that stores general,
abstract knowledge about the world information we can’t remember acquiring at
specific time and place is semantic memory.

Semantic memory stay very long, highly organized and very little forgetting in
rule and meaning while using them. Such memory includes meaning of words,
typical events in everyday life and other countless facts we learned during our
school years

2. Episodic Memory

Episodic memory is recall of personal facts. It consists of memories of particular

events, time and places. In other words, It is the memory of factual information
that we have acquired at specific time. it is a memory that allows you to go back
in time and to remember specific thoughts or experiences you had in the past.
Remembering what happened in the last tour managed BBA program.

 Procedural Memory

Procedural memory is also called non declarative memory. It is a type of long

term memory that includes memory for skills, procedures, emotional association,
habit and conditioned response that may or may not be conscious, but memories
are implied because they affect conscious behavior.

Procedural memory is usually considered implicit memory because people don’t

have to consciously remember how to perform actions or skills. It recalls how to
do things such as swimming or driving a car.

It makes people able to do something who are not able to express in the words.
Such people suffered from Alzheimer’s disease can’t tell other how to walk, fasten
clothes or shoes but they can do these activities.
Procedural memories make people never forgetting and it would be rare to find
someone who has lost procedural memory.

Improving Memory
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of past we can not operate
in the present or think about the future. Without memory we could learn nothing.
So we need to improve our memory. A varieties of strategies are available to
enhance human memory. Common strategies are as follows:

• Rehearsal

Practicing material or information over and again is called rehearsal. It helps

people to remember materials . The more people rehearse information, the more
likely they are to remember that information.

• Over learning

Over learning, or continuing to practice material even after it is learned, also

increases retention.

• Distributed Practice

Learning material in short sessions over a long period is called distributed practice
or the “spacing effect.” It is a spaced learning or part learning, where learning
materials are distributed in to small units for study by which difficult and lengthy
materials can be memorized better way than cramming or massive learning.

• Minimizing Interference

People remember material better if they don’t learn other, similar material right
before or soon after their effort. One way to minimize interference is to sleep
after studying material, since people can’t learn new material while sleeping.

• Deep Processing

People also remember material better if they pay attention while learning it and
think about its meaning rather than memorize the information by rote. One way
to process information deeply is to use a method called elaboration. Elaboration
involves associating the material being learned with other material.

• Chunking

It is a grouping principle, where information or materials are combined into

meaningful segments or chunks, people can remember long sequences of
numbers, such as social security numbers, cell numbers by chunking them into
two-, three-, or four-digit segments. Like 98520- 62- 123.

• Narrative methods

Narrative methods involve making up a story to remember a list of words. For

example, people could remember the colors of the rainbow in the right order by
making up a short story such as this:

Red Smith stood next to an orange construction cone and flagged down a yellow
cab.

He told the Anu she was feeling very green and asked to be taken to a hospital.

The Anu took him to a hospital, where a nurse in a blue coat guided her to a
room with indigo walls. She smelled a violet in a vase and passed out.

• Imagery

Images are taken powerful aid to memory and provide capacity to individuals
relate events mentally to form new concept. So, a process by which all items or
materials being experience or learned are visualized is called imaginary.

If a learner learns the material by developing image, s/he can remember better.
Students form mental picture about their notes and perform better in exam.

• Method of Loci

Loci is a Latin term for place. It is mnemonic device used to visualize each of item
that a person wants to remember in different spatial location. Individuals use
different location and linked the location with information or materials so that
they can recall information in better way.

• Peg Word Method

It is a technique for memorizing lists. The peg word is similar to loci but it uses
familiar lists of items or numbers than locations as memory cue to visualize the
information or materials.

For example, in case of managerial application of emotion one is a selection, two

is creativity, three is a decision making, four is motivation, five is leadership, six is
negotiation, seven is customer service, eight is job attitude, nine is deviant
behavior, and, ten is a forgiveness. They then visualize each item on their list
being associated with selection, a creativity, decision making, and so on.

Provision of speed dialing system in mobile is also example of peg word method.

• Acronyms

Acronyms are words made out of the first letters of several words. For example,
to remember the colors of the spectrum, people often use the name ROY G. BIV,
which gives the first letters of the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet in the right order.

FORGETTING
CONCEPT

Individuals preserve countless information in long term memory and recall or

retrieve when they need to use. When they failed to recall or retrieve or bringing
out information retained in the memory that is called forgetting. So forgetting is a
passive mental process and failure to recall the past memories and experiences.

According to Munn, “Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability

to recall or recognize something learned earlier.”

According to Drever, “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience

when attempting to do so or to perform action previously learned.”
 Forgetting refers to the loss of information encoded and stored in the long term
memory or failure of an individual to revive consciousness. It is failure to retain
what has been acquired.

Causes of Forgetting
What cause us to forget? Psychologists have proposed several explanations to
deal about causes of forgetting. The most common cause of forgetting is the
failure of encoding. Other causes are below:

1. Decay

Decay means decline or fade. It is the oldest and commonly accepted explanation
of forgetting. Decay is the loss of information in memory through its nonuse or
disuse. It explains that forgetting takes place through the passage of time due to
the fading of memory trace. Memory trace involves some sorts of physical
changes when new material is learned and simply old material fade away over a
time.

This means, with the passage of time, the normal metabolic processes and
chemical reaction of the brain cause decline or decay of the memory.

People might easily remember their first day in junior high school but completely
forget what they learned in class last Tuesday.

However psychologists argued that forgetting is more complicated than simply

fading or decaying of memory traces.

2. Inhibition

Inhibition means interference. It refers to the phenomenon by which information

in memory disrupts the recall of new memory.

Psychologists developed interference theory and explained that passage of time is

not the failure of memory but it is the interference of memory by other similar
memories.
When students learn similar theories around the same time, they become often
confused.

Cognitive psychologists explained two kinds of inhibitions i.e. retroactive

inhibition and proactive inhibition.

 Retroactive Inhibition

When the new learning interferes with the old one is called retroactive inhibition.
There is difficult in the recall of information learned earlier because of the later
exposure of different material.

Sometime it is important to remember old telephone and address but new

address and new phone numbers only one that comes to mind.

 Proactive Inhibition

When earlier information learned interferes or disrupts the recall of new

information is called proactive inhibition.

Old memories that are already stored may be recalled instead of specific, recent
memory we are seeking.

It can been seen in different areas such as when we entered in the new year, we
tend to write old date.

3. Memory Dysfunction

Sometime forgetting occurs due to the some problems with the brain is known as
memory dysfunction. It refers loosing memory by the dysfunctional consequences
of our brain. Memory dysfunction occurs in following two ways:

 Alzheimer diseases

Alzheimer is a brain disease that causes memory loss and other cognitive
impairment. Alzheimer's is a disease that robs people of their memory. At first,
people have a hard time remembering recent events, though they might easily
recall things that happened years ago.
People with Alzheimer's might forget their loved ones. They might forget how to
dress themselves, feed themselves, and use the toilet.

 Amnesia

Amnesia is a loss of memory without any mental difficulties. Amnesia is a deficit

in memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Amnesia
can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic
drugs. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of
damage that was caused. It is the loss of memory stemming from injury, illness,
drug abuse or other causes. There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde
amnesia and anterograde amnesia.

1. Retrograde Amnesia:

Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired

before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. In some
cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may
lose only a few months of memory. It is the loss of memory of events that
occurred prior to an amnesia-inducing events. People suffering from such
amnesia may be unable to remember from specific periods in their lives.

2.Anterograde Amnesia

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-
term memory into the long-term memory.

It is the inability to create new memories due to brain damage, while long-term
memories from before the event remain intact. The brain damage can be caused
by the effects of long-term alcoholism, severe malnutrition, stroke, head trauma,
encephalitis, surgery, Korsakoff Syndrome or other trauma. People with this type
of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time.

For example if a person meets some persons for the first time after the onset of
amnesia, s/he can’t remember that person who was familiar with him or her.

These two types are not mutually exclusive; both can occur simultaneously.
 Unit 6: Thinking and Problem Solving
Thinking concept
Thinking is a process of creating knowledge and activating brain and mind to
produce thoughts. Thinking is the process accumulating information and
developing mental image and forming concept about objects. Thinking is a
cognitive or mental process, function of conscious mind that goes on in the brain
when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and
communicating other.

Thinking includes memory and more than it. When people think, they are not only
aware of information in the brain but also are making decisions, comparing the
information to other information and using it to solve problems.

According to Robert Feldman, “Thinking is the manipulation of mental

representation of information.”

So, thinking is the human process of using knowledge and information to make
plans, interpret and model the world, and constructively interact with and make
predictions about the world in general.

Components /Elements of Thoughts

Thinking uses tools and instrument of various kinds. Some of these are images,
concepts and propositions.

1. Mental Images

Mental images are mental pictures of our past experiences. When we think of
certain objects or events, we visualizes them in their absence. Images can be
auditory, olfactory, visual, gustatory, cutaneous and kinesthetic.

If call mental picture of picnic with your friends, where you listened good music
(auditory), enjoyed delicious food (gustatory), smelled the flower around the
picnic spot (olfactory), good scenario (visual), danced with your with each other’s
hand (cutaneous) and so on. Mental image helps tasks for better results and make
plan better.

Despite thinking mental image plays better roles in thinking but all thinking such
as abstract thinking do not require mental image.

2. Concepts

Concepts are mental grouping of similar things, events and people that is used to
remember and understands what things are, what they mean and categories of
groups are they belonged to.

In other words, concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects,
events or activities. People use concepts to think about objects or events without
having to think about all specific examples of category. For example flower is a
concept, but individual flower is not concept. Mother is a concept but my mother
is not a concept.

Concepts help to reduce mental efforts make communication easier with the
relative use. They organize complex phenomena in to simpler, easily
understandable and useable categories and help to solve our problems. It is
developed through reasoning. Concepts also varies in hierarchies, grow gradually,
differ from culture to culture and individual to individual.

CREATIVITY

Creativity is the ability to produce new idea. In other words, it is the phenomenon
whereby something new or somehow valuable is formed. creativity provides new
knowledge and new invention which help to improve quality of human life. It
enables people to look at the same things in different ways. Research suggests
that remembering information, association, synthesis, transformation etc. are the
primary sources of creativity.

Robert E. Franken: Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize

ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems,
communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others.
So, creativity is the process of solving problems by combining ideas behavior in
new ways.

Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is a way of looking at problems or situations from a fresh

perspective that suggests unorthodox solutions.

Creative thinking encompasses open-mindedness, flexibility and adaptability and

is essential to critical thinking. Creative thinking bridges the gap between what is
dreamt and what is desired; Creative thinking can be seen as a prerequisite to
understanding, judging and implementing the change .

Creative thinking are convergent thinking and divergent thinking. Convergent

thinking is a type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one
answer. It is logical, factual, conventional and focused on problems until a
solution is found.

Divergent thinking is the ability to generate multiple possibilities in a given

solution. It is more related to the creativity. Divergent thinkers use a variety of
thoughts to solve problems.

Steps in Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is a process in which the individual generates an original,
unusual and productive ideas which are novel. Creative thinking goes through
different four steps via preparation, incubation, illumination and verification.

• 1. Preparation

This stage consists of purposeful study and enquiry in order to collect experience
and information needed to solve problem. The plan of action is formulated by
means of collecting and analyzing the information.
 • 2. Incubation

In the second stage, necessary connections are made in order to “lay” the idea –
like when an egg is getting “incubated” and getting the heat it needs to turn into a
full-blown chicken. In fact, this stage is an absence of creative thinking about the
problem.

There is a period of rest when creative thinker finds that problems can not be
solved easily. In this stage, you have the idea, but you’re just giving it some steam
and energy in order for it to fully materialize.

• 3. Illumination

It is in short, the “lightbulb” moment. It is the moment when "connections

automatically, subconsciously collide and then reach the threshold of
consciousness.

Sudden idea occur through insight and it provide better solution to the problem.
Thinker gets a insightful solution.

• 4. Verification

It is testing the correctness of the solution is the last stage of creative thinking. It
is necessary to evaluate, test and perhaps review new ideas. It is necessary to
determine whether a new idea is appropriate to apply, correct and workable. This
step evaluates the solution to see if it is satisfactory.

• 5. Reasoning

Man’s life is full of never ending problems which have no prepared formula to
solve, thus we encounter reasoning in everyday life. Reasoning is drawing
conclusion from the information available to us in order to each specific
conclusion.

In the process of reasoning, individuals reason from the past experience to solve
problems. It may involve imagination, concepts, percepts and languages.
For example, if we perceive an object lying on the table, if we go on deeply
thinking about that particular object, we fall in to the reasoning process. However
people have different reasoning ability. Reasoning ability is divided in to every day
reasoning and formal reasoning.

 Everyday reasoning

It involves thinking that we come across in everyday affairs. It may involve simple
and not too complex activities which need to solve. Such as evaluation of reports,
planning, meeting people to solve problems etc.

 Formal reasoning

It is also called syllogistic reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set
of assumptions. It these assumptions are true, then reasoning is correct, it can be
made by literature, past experiences, observation and so on.

• Premises ; fat women are lovely.

• Premises ; Sarita is a fat.

• Premeises; Sarita is lovely.

PROBLEM SOLVING
Concept
A problem is basically a conflict situation in which a person experience frustration
in achieving goals. The frustration may be a barrier to a goal, or frustration may
be a conflict of goals. The process by which individuals try to minimize frustration
is called problem solving.

Problem solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover,
analyze and solve problems.

According to Ciccarili and Mayer, “Problem solving is a process of cognition that

occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.”
Problem-solving is a mental process or a phenomenon dedicated towards solving
problems by discovering and analyzing the problem. It is a process dedicated to
finding not just any solution, but the best solution to resolve any problems.

STEPS IN SOLVING PROBLEMS

Life is collection of problems. Problem solving is an routine duty of human beings.

It requires clear and step by step procedure to follow. Psychologists have
developed certain steps to solve the problem. However there is lack of unanimity
between them. The common steps in solving problems are as follows:

 Identification of the problem: It explains the issues, obstacles and goals

related to it. The tools, techniques and needed operation needed to be
finalized.

 Formulation of potential solution: It describes different alternatives to be

drawn for possible solution. The alternatives need to be critically examined.
Information stored in long term memory and other sources may help to
generate possible alternative solution.

 Evaluating alternative: It describes each alternative to be judged with its

outcomes, eliminating poor choices, reducing error, saving time and effort,
enhancing closer to the goal.

 Enhancing the consequences of the each goal: It explains every alternative

are analyzed on the basis of outcomes it draws. The one that has more
positive valences are chosen while more negative results are neglected.

 Implement the potential solution: It generating all possible ways to

implement the solution you have chosen. It also involves making strategy
and plan to put in to action.

 Implement the solution: It involves selecting best solution, examining it

with implementing perspective and applying into action.
 Methods of Solving Problems
Problems are the impediments that creates troubles in human life. Different
strategies are applied to solve problems which are as follows:

1) ALGORITHM

Algorithms are mathematical formula. The specific and step-by-step procedure

involved in figuring out the correct answer to any problem is called algorithm. The
step by step procedure involved in solving a mathematical problem using math
formula is a perfect example of a problem-solving algorithm. Algorithm is the
strategy that results in accurate answer; however, it’s not always practical. The
strategy is highly time consuming, and involves taking lots of steps.

2) Heuristics

Heuristics refers to mental strategy based on rule-of thumb. It is an educated

guess based on the prior experience that helps to narrow down the possible
solution of the problem.

It is rule of thumb that reduces cognitive effort required for problem solving. It
breaks the problem down into smaller sub-problems to simplify complex
problems by narrowing the possible solutions. It makes it easier to reach the
correct solution using other strategies but does not guarantee for the solution of
the problem.

Heuristic strategy of problem solving can also be referred to as the mental

shortcut. For instance, you need to reach the other part of the city in a limited
amount of time. You’ll obviously seek for the shortest route and means of
transportation. The rule of thumb allows you to make up your mind about the
fastest route depending on your past travels. Different types of heuristics can be
applied such as representative, availability , anchoring and adjustment etc.

 Representativeness Heuristics

Representativeness refers to the prediction based on similarity between

information obtained through the past experience and the result to draw. It is a
rule of thumb where current situation is perceived based on the similarities of
past events. Sometime this strategy may lead to the good solution but may
mislead by surface similarities.

 Availability Heuristics

Judgment based on the accessibility of information in our memories rather than

seeking more information is called available heuristics. If information come
frequently and readily, they are generally easier to remember than infrequent
ones. In this heuristics we use whatever information we can remember.

3) Trial-and-Error

Trial and error strategy is the approach that deals with trying a number of
different solutions and ruling out the ones that do not work.

Trial and error is not a cognitive strategy. It is the simplest problem solving
approach commonly used by people.

It constantly seeks solution of problems applying different approaches and that

approach which is found effective will be applied in practices. However it does not
guarantee that solution will be discovered.

When people do not have much information about the problem to adopt more
systematic, standard step to solve the problem.

4) Insight

Sometimes we are not aware of using any problem solving strategy. We feel
puzzled over problems for sometimes and stay away from it. Then, suddenly,
sudden flashes of information hit us the problems seem organized and solved.
That is called insight. So, insight is something that just occurs suddenly.

Researchers suggest that insight can occur if you’ve dealt with similar problems in
the past. For instance, Knowing that you’ve solved a particular algebra question in
the past will make it much easier for you to solve the similar questions at present.
However, it’s not always necessary that the mental processes be related with past
problems.
 Factors Influencing Effective Problem Solution
Despite problem solving is a part of human life, sometime we solve problem easily
while other time we find it very difficult. The solution of the problem is not easy
job. Problem solving is influenced by different factors. The major factors are as
follows:

 Functional fixedness:

It is fixed on the function. Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a

person to using an object only in a particular way. It is the rigidity in our approach
to solve the problem or tendency that problems solver rely on past experience
without allowing to think in some other new fixed perspectives. It strongly forced
to use that techniques which have been used before. Functional fixedness is
based on mental set.

 Mental Set

Mental set is a tendency to persist in using problem solving patterns that have
worked them in the past.

It is a habitual way of approaching problem in a particular way usually based on

how we approached the similar problems in the past.

People first try to use the method which was used in the past and often hesitant
or even unable to think other possibility.

DECISION MAKING
Concept
Decision means to choose or select. so, decision making is the process of choosing
two or more alternatives. In the psychology, decision making is regarded as the
cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or course of action among
several alternative possibilities.
It is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and
preferences of the decision maker. However, decision is made to solve problems,
therefore it is a mental process of solving problems.

Bias and Errors in Problem Solving

Bias has a negative connotation but often unintentional and results of heuristics-
short cut that allows people to make quick decision. When biases are systematic
and predictable, they work well. But bias becomes problematic if it is heavily
relied on one’s habit. Some biases and errors emerge in problem solving and
decision making are as follows:

1. Overconfidence Bias:

Overconfidence is personality trait often seen in the top rank people. It is the
tendency of people to over estimate the accuracy of knowledge and judgment
than they really have.

In other word, it is the tendency where subjective confident in his or her

judgment is greater than objective accuracy of those judgment.

overconfidence is general bias. It applies to both lay people and experts. For
example a doctor’s confidence during the diagnosis of the disease as they receive
information, even the information irrelevant and non-diagnostic. Later on go
fatal.

2. Anchoring Bias

Anchoring or focalism is a term used in psychology to describe the common

human tendency to rely too heavily on “anchor” or trait of piece of information
when solving problems or making decision.

Anchoring is a cognitive bias that describes the common human tendency to rely
too heavily on the first piece of information offered. It involves the judgment
based on a familiar reference point that may be incomplete or irrelevant that is
being solved.
When consumers judge the relative value of a product or service from a company
on the basis of the cost.

3. Availability Bias

Availability bias is a tendency to make decisions based on whatever information is

easily retrievable to decision maker. If the individuals are making decisions or
solving problems based on only avail information, they might be missing facts and
others opinion. This can be problematic, when solving problem that involve other
people. It is misleading when in information are subjective.

If you are asked to evaluate your own performance relative to the performance of
other, most of people will rate their own contribution to be higher because that is
the information they have most available.

4. Confirmation Bias

Confirmation is the tendency by which people seek evidence to solve problem or

make decision that support their beliefs or expectation.

Confirmation bias, also called confirmatory bias or myside bias, is the tendency to
search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's
preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Under the confirmation bias people seek evidence that fit their beliefs and ignore
any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.

when one demonstrates confirmation bias, one is formally or informally collecting

data and then subsequently observing and experimenting with that data in such a
way that favors a preconceived notion that may or may not have motivation.

5. Representative Bias

Representativeness is a rule of thumb or heuristic where problems are solved or

decision are made on by using past experiences which have surface similarities.

Representative bias is thus tendency of people to rely too heavily on the past
experience and mental representation seemingly similar to the new situation.
Naturally, relying on past experience can be beneficial and allow to solve
problems quickly. However it is not sure that all past experiences and situation
represents new situation.

6. Escalation of Commitment

Escalation of commitment refers that people stick with decision even when they
know that is wrong or bad. These people try to demonstrate their decision was
not wrong, they do not admit their mistake.

They may spent extra time, money, efforts, resources in self-justification to that
decision. Individuals trapped in bad decision with no means to get out of it.

7. Hindsight Bias

Hindsight is a term used in psychology to explain the tendency of people to over

estimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possible been
predicted.

It is a sort of like saying, “I KNEW IT” when outcome expected or unexpected

occur

When a student was nervous to face exam until the very last minute. When he
took exam he was unsure about the result. When the result published he got B
plus, but he explained his friend “ I was sure I would aced that exam”.
 UNIT 7
HUMAN INTELLIGENCE
CONCEPT

The common meaning of intelligence is the capacity to acquire and apply

knowledge.

It is the individuals’ ability to understand complex ideas, to learn from experience,

to adapt effectively in the environment and to overcome obstacles by various
thoughts.

According to Robert Feldman, “Intelligence is the capacity to understand the

world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.”

So, intelligence is the ability to think , to learn from experience, to solve problems
and to adapt new situation.

Major Approaches of Intelligence

1. Two-Factor Theory

Charles Spearman advanced the two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904. This

theory is based on the factor analysis which is a statistical technique to examine
the relationship between the people’s score on different factors of intelligence.

According to Spearman, intelligence is the ability to think constructively and he

advocated that intelligence consists of two ability viz. general or “g” factors and
specific or “s” ability. He also explained that general ability works in combination
with special ability.

• GENERAL FACTORS

General or “g” factors refers to the general intelligence, are the ability to
reason and solve problems. it is an inborn ability and general mental energy of
human being. Amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual and used in
every life activity. The greater the ‘g’ in individual, the greater the success.
 • SPECIFIC FACTORS

‘S’ factor is specific capacity that helps the person to deal with specific problems.
It learned and acquired in environment. It varies from activity to activity in the
same individual. We can improve ‘s’ factor.

2. Group Factor Theory of Intelligence

Psychologists Louis L. Thurston offered a differing theory intelligence. Instead of

viewing intelligence as a single, general ability he focused on nine different
primary factors. These primary factors are independent of each other.

The abilities that he identified are as follows:

1. Spatial factor: It is involved in visualizing shapes.

2. Verbal factor: It is concerned with understanding of verbal ideas.

3. Word fluency factor: It is involved whenever the subject is asked to think of

isolated words at a rapid rate.

4. Numerical factor: It is the ability to do numerical calculations.

5. Memory factor: It is the ability to memorize quickly.

6. Inductive Reasoning factor: It is the ability to draw inferences.

7. Perceptual factor: It is the ability to perceive objects accurately.

8. Deductive Reasoning factor: It is the ability to make use of generalized

results.

9. Problem-solving ability factor: It is the ability to solve problems

independently.

The weakest aspect of the group factor theory was that it discarded the
concept of the common factor.
 3. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

In the 1980s and 1990s, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the idea of not
one kind of intelligence but he proposed first eight and extended to nine which
are relatively independent of one another. These nine types of intelligence are:

1. Verbal/ Linguistic: spoken and written language skills. Sample occupation

are writer, speakers.

2. Logical–mathematical: number skills. They will be suitable for scientist and

engineers.

3. Musical: performance or composition skills to music and suitable

occupation is musician and composer.

4. Spatial: ability to evaluate and analyze the visual world. Suitable

occupations are pilot, artists. Navigator.

5. . Bodily-kinesthetic: dance or athletic abilities , suitable occupations are

dance, athletes.

6. Interpersonal: skill in understanding and relating to others and suitable

occupations are

7. . Intrapersonal: skill in understanding the self suitable occupations are

psychologists, managers.

8. Nature: skill in understanding the natural world suitable occupations are

farmers, biologists, botanists.

9. Existentialist: ability to see big picture of human world bay asking

questions about life, death, and ultimate reality of human existence and
suitable occupations are philosophical thinkers.

The idea of multiple intelligence has great appeal especially for educators in spite
of the fact that there is little scientific evidence.
 4. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Triarchic means three. Robert Sternberg propagated triarchic theory around the
1988s and 1997. in this theory three types of intelligence are explained:

Analytical intelligence: It is an academic intelligence. It refers to the ability

break problems down into component parts or analysis for problem solving.
Such type of intelligent is measured by intelligence tests and academic
achievement tests.

Creative Intelligence: It is the ability to deal new and different concepts

and to come up with new ways of solving problems. It is the ability of
divergent thinking.

Practical Intelligence: It is the ability of a person to use information to get

along in life. People with the high degree of practical intelligence know how
to be tactful and how to manipulate situation to their advantages.

Research found that practical intelligence has low level of relationship to

academic or analytical intelligence . Thus higher levels of practical intelligence,
the less likely person is to succeed in academic setting.

5. Cattle’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Cattle and Horn have proposed fluid and crystallized theory of intelligence. This
theory suggests that intelligence is composed of different ablilities that interact
and work together to produce overall intelligence. They have distinguished two
types of intelligence:
a) Fluid Intelligence

This is an innate, biologically or genetically determined capacity and not

influenced by education and training.

This is the ability which is useful in understanding and adjusting to strange

situation. This capacity helps persons in learning and problem solving.

This ability develops fully in people by the end of adolescences stage.

 b) Crystallized Intelligence

It is learned or acquired capacity. It is influenced by environmental factors like

education, training, culture, knowledge and learned skills. This ability can be
observed in the behavior of a person while dealing with culture, tradition in the
society, and his or wordily affairs. It continues throughout the life.

Cattle argued that fluid and crystallized intelligence are complimentary to one
another and equally important in our everyday life. Because fluid intelligence
helps a student to prepare the strategy or plan to attempt questions and
crystallized intelligence supports for recalling the learned materials.
However, fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence increase throughout
childhood and adolescence but fluid intelligence peaks in adolescence and begins
to decline progressively around the age of 30 or 40, crystallized intelligence
continue to grow throughout adulthood.

Variation in Intellectual Ability

Intellectual ability refers to the skills required to think critically, see connection
between disciplines, solving problems in new or changing situation. it includes a
high level of abstract reasoning and thinking skills, ability to acquire knowledge
and problem solving abilities or meeting the demand of everyday life. A change
or difference in the intellectual ability is called variation in intellectual ability.
There are two common forms of such variation, metal retardation and
intellectually gifted.

1. Mental Retardation

Mental retardation also called intellectual disability is the developmental delayed

of human intelligence. It is characterized by below average mental ability or lack
of skills necessary for day to day living or meeting the demand of every day life.
Mental retardation is a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder. It significantly
limits both the intellectual functioning and conceptual, social and practical
adaptive skills.
IQ tests are used to measure intellectual ability. In mental retardation the IQ
score falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient. Mental
retardation consists three levels i.e. mild, moderate, severe and profound.

 Mild mental retardation is a minor intellectual deficit where score ranges

from 55 to 69. In mild mental retardation, intellectual development is
typically slower than peer, but they can function quite independently, able
to hold jobs and families of their own.

 Moderate mental retardation is quite greater level of intellectual deficits

where IQ score ranges between 40 to 50. language and motor skills of
people with such retardation lags behind than that of their peers. Although
these people can hold simple jobs, they need supervision throughout their
lives.

 Severe mental retardation holds the IQ score between 25 t0 39 and people

with profound retardation hold IQ score below 25. such people are unable
to function independently and typically require care for their entire lives.

Causes or roots of mental retardation

Most often mental retardation is caused by environmental and biological factors.
Some common roots for mental retardation are as follows:

1. Fetal alcohol syndrome :

It is the most common cause of mental retardation in newborns. When mothers

use alcohol during the pregnancy period that will produce intellectual deficits.

2. Down syndrome:

It is a genetically caused condition that results in mental retardation. When a

person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of usual 46, that leads problems in
the development of brain and body.
 3. Familial retardation:

Mental retardation in which no apparent biological defect but caused by family

environment such as extreme poverty, malnutrition etc.

Besides, lack of oxygen during the birth, head injury after births, infections such as
meningitis.

2. Intellectually Gifted

Intellectually gifted is also called mentally gifted or genius persons. Persons

whose intelligence is far above than average is called intellectually gifted. Such
persons have IQ score more than 130.

Intellectually gifted persons are out-going, healthy, well adjusted, show adult
behavior in childhood stage, trustworthy, lower rate of alcoholism and criminal
problem. Mentally gifted persons are often called, “Early ripe early rot” in
societies.

A study conducted by Levis Terman at taking 1500 children's who had IQ score
above 140 that they were physically, academically and socially capable than non-
gifted.

However, if such persons do not get special attention , they become bore,
frustration and even suicide.

Role of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence.

According to Plomin, human intelligence is the result of complex interplay
between genetic factors and wide range of environmental condition. The
influence or role of heredity and environment on intelligence is presented under:

 Heredity and Intelligence

Heredity refers to the transformation of qualities and characteristics from

ancestors to descendants. Researchers conducted to understand the role of
heredity on intelligence. They assumed that , if intelligence is indeed determined
by heredity, the persons would be more similar their IQ will be. They conducted
research by taking identical twin, fraternal twin , adoption, brother and sister,
and cousins etc.

Twin studies show a higher correlation between identical twins in IQ (+0.9) than
between fraternal twins.

Adoption studies show that adopted children somewhat resemble their biological
parents in intelligence. But they found no relationship between adopted children.
However sibling and parent and rearing together or apart have positive IQ
correlation (+0.5).

Based on these findings, researchers have estimated the heritability of

intelligence. It is the proportion of the variance in any trait within given
population that is attributable in genetic factors.

Estimates of the heritability of intelligence vary, depending on the methods used.

Most researchers believe that heritability of intelligence is between 60 percent
and 80 percent.

The contribution of genetic factors to intelligence increase with age because as

individuals grow older, they tend to have less interaction with environmental
factors and shaped more by the characteristics of those who care them.

 Environment and Intelligence

Genes are not the entire factors that determine human intelligence. Rather
environment variables too, are important to raise intelligence. It was first
advocated by Flynn which is called Flynn effect. Flynn explained that better
nutrition, increased urbanization, the advent of television, better education,
cognitively demanding jobs etc. play significant roles in shaping intelligence.

Researcher explained the role of environment by dividing the influence into two
components environmental deprivation and environmental enrichment.

Absence of key forms of environmental stimulation are the environmental

deprivation, such as poverty, deprivation etc. reduces the intelligence.
Prolong malnutrition, use of alcohol, drugs adversely affect the IQ and negatively
influence intelligence.

Environmental enrichment refers to removing children from sterile, restricted

environment and placing them in more favorable setting seems to enhance their
intellectual growth.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Concept

Intelligence related to management of feelings or emotion is called emotional

intelligence (EI). It is also called emotional quotient (EQ). In simple terms
emotional intelligence (EI or EQ) refers to the capacity to identify, evaluate and
manage emotion in oneself and in other people.

It is a feeling side of human intelligence. Emotional intelligence is a cluster of

traits or abilities relating to the emotional side of life abilities. It measures the
ability to understand, perceive, express and regulate emotion.

According to Mayer, emotional intelligence is the capacity to reason about

emotions and emotional information, and of emotions to enhance thought.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions; to understand emotions

and emotional knowledge; and to regulate emotions so as to promote emotional
and intellectual growth. It accurately perceives emotions in oneself and others,
use emotions to facilitate thinking, understand emotional meanings, and manage
emotions.

Goleman Dimensions to Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman presents five categories of emotional intelligence.

1. Self-awareness:

It is knowing own emotion. This is the ability to know one's emotions, strengths,
weaknesses, drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on others while
using gut feelings to guide decisions. People with high understanding about their
limitation and strength perceive and regulate their behavior according to the
situation and see how his behavior affects them.

2. SELF MANAGEMENT

It refers to the self-regulation of emotion. It involves controlling or redirecting

one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances.
The person with high emotion managing skills remains calm in difficult situations,
shows confidence , and can foresee the consequences that may erupt when
acting on impulse . The self regulation of emotions helps him or her become
popular among colleagues.

3. SELF MOTIVATION

It is the person’s internal urge to maintain and manage emotional behavior in a

stable manner , even when difficult situation and hurdles arise . Emotionally
intelligent people are self-motivated. They're not motivated simply by money or a
title. They are usually resilient and optimistic when they encounter
disappointment and driven by an inner ambition.

4. EMPATHY

The ability to understand and sense another person’s feeling ,sentiments ,

emotions , and thoughts is empathy .

A person who has empathy has compassion and an understanding of human

nature that allows him to connect with other people on an emotional level. The
ability to empathize allows a person to provide great service and respond
genuinely to others’ concerns. For example , I feel your pain ; I understand your
pain.

5. SOCIAL SKILLS

It is the ability to manage and handle the emotions of other people. People who
are emotionally intelligent are able to build rapport and trust quickly with others
on their teams. They avoid power struggles and usually enjoy other people and
have the respect of others around them.
 Emotional intelligence and Workplace
Emotional intelligence is defined as the set of competencies demonstrating the
ability one has the ability to recognize his or her behaviors, moods, and impulses
and to manage them best according to the situation. EI has three main
competencies which have direct relation with workplace

1. Empathy

It is our awareness of other’s feeling, needs and concerns. .This competency is

important in the workplace for the following reasons:

1. To understand others' feelings and perspectives, and showing an active

interest in their concerns and interests

2. To anticipate, recognize, and meet customers' needs

3. To sense what others need in order to grow, develop, and master their
strengths.

2. Social Skills

This is one's adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others. This competency

is important in the workplace for the following reasons:

1. To influence others using effective tactics and techniques for persuasion

and desired results

2. To communication sending clear and convincing messages.

3. To inspire and guide groups of people through leadership.

4. To solve conflict through negotiating and resolving disagreements with

people.

5. To Collaborate and cooperate by working with coworkers and business

partners toward shared goals.

6. To create group synergy in pursuing collective goals.

 3.Self-Awareness

Knowing one's internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions. This

competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons:

1. To recognizing one's emotions and their effects and impact.

2. To promote accurate self-assessment by knowing one's strengths and limits

3. To develop self-confidence being sure about one's self-worth and

capabilities

4. Self-Regulation

This involves managing one's internal states, impulses, and resources. This
competency is important in the workplace for the following reasons:

1. To maintain self-control by managing disruptive emotions and impulses.

2. To maintain standards of honesty, integrity, flexibility in handling

change.

5. Self-Motivation

It refers to the motional tendency that guides reaching goals. This competency is
important in the workplace for the following reasons:

1. To stimulate to meet a standard of excellence we impose on ourselves

2. To fosters commitment by aligning with the goals of the group or

organization.

3. To make ready to act on opportunities without having to be told and

make being persistent in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks.

Application of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the capacity to identify, evaluate and manage
emotion in oneself and in other people. Followings are some of application of EI:
 1. Excel in business and career:

High level emotion means the person performs well in assigned responsibility and
taken as respected and valuable person. Such persons is skillful to recognize
others sentiments, and always have positive attitude, optimistic and often can
handle employees, employer and colleagues even in hard times. Such people can
be successful in every area like jobs and business.

2. Manage anger emotion:

Emotion of anger is the most difficult to manage among the negative emotions. If
the person has knowledge of EI, s/he can understand others feeling, ones own
strengths, weakness, limitations etc. and can control own emotion and negative
feelings . This means , a person with high EI is full of positivity and empathetic
mind and prevent himself of herself from anger.

3. Develop relationship:

This means people with high EI has ability to understand others feeling, emotion
and sentiments. They avoid power struggle and keenly interested to establish
rapport. Further they hold social skills and know how to manage and handle
relationship with other. Thus, EI enhances the ability to get along with others and
strengthens the relationship.

4. Development of positive social characteristics:

EI teaches art of living with harmony and peace. So, an increased sense of EI is
associated with positivity such as sense of well-being, motivation, sociability,
confidence, optimism, altruism, self-efficacy etc. these all help to promote
positive social characteristics.

5. Selection of Employees:

Now a day attitude of employees is the main concern of organizations than skill
and knowledge. Every organization wants to get people who are friendly, caring
and have positive feelings and attitude. So, organization choose that person who
person who has positive attitude towards organization, jobs, seniors, colleagues,
subordinates etc. Emotionally intelligent people always hold positive attitudes
and have high chance s of being selected in the organization.

6. Development of healthy life style:

A person who is emotionally intelligent has ability to understand ones own

emotions, others sentiments and focuses on establishing peace and harmony.
Such persons are free from stress and anger so that they can develop healthy
lifestyle.
 UNIT 8: PERSONALITY
Concept:
The word personality is a common term and used in most of the situation but still
in confusion. It has been derived from the lath term "Personae" which means to
speak truth. In the ancient Rome and Greece, it was used as a mask worn by the
actors to influence others. This describes the personality is the way or process of
influencing other through external appearance. Now day, it has been defined
psychological characteristics of an individual that both determines and reflects
their responses to the environment.

S.P. Robbins, "Personality is the sum total of way by which an individual reacts
and interacts to others.“

Baron, “ Personality consists of the unique and stable patterns of behavior,

thoughts and emotions shown by individuals.”

Personality can be defined as the inner psychological characteristics that both

determine and reflect how a person responds to his or her environment.

Determinants of personality:
Personality refers to the sum total of qualities and characteristics that
distinguishes one person to another person. A person's personality is determined
by different factors. However, there is lack of unanimity among the behavioral
scientist whether it has been influenced nature or nurture. The common factors
that determines the personality are as follows:

• Heredity:

Heredity refers to the factors determined at conception. It is the transformation

of qualities and characteristics from ancestors to descendants through the cell of
chromosomes. Basically, temperament, physical stature, facial expression or
outlook, energy level, muscles composition etc, are transmitted from parent to
their generation.
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s
personality is the molecular structure of genes locate in the chromosomes.

Researchers conducted to understand the role of heredity on intelligence. They

assumed that , if personality is indeed determined by heredity, the persons would
be more similar their IQ will be. They conducted research by taking identical
twin. They found high correlation between identical twins and moderate
relationship between fraternal twins despite they rearing apart or together.

• Environment

Environmental factors are the social economic and cultural aspects of individuals.
An individual in which family s/he born, where he lives, where they are studying
or their upbringing, their relatives, friends, neighbor are important determinants
of their personality.

i) Family :

Family and social factor are major determinacy of person's personality.

Personality depends on factors like in which family s/he belongs to, who are the
family members, what is their family status, their image in the society, their
financial conditions, their upbringing, ethics, values of the family.

ii) Social factors

Social factors such as location of the society where the person live his/her
relatives, neighbors and socialization process , schools where they studied etc.
determine the personality of individuals.

ii) Culture:

Culture refers to the aggregate of norms, values, feelings life style of a particular
society or a country where individuals live. The countries culture can be
individualistic, co-operative, aggressive, jealous, etc. Individuals develop their
personality suitable to country's culture. Therefore, cultural factors affect our
personality.
 • Situational factors:

Situation refers to aggregate of surrounding, circumstances, atmosphere, etc.

That influence human behavior. There is only one thing which is beyond the
controlling capacity of individual is situation. an individual’s personality may
change in different situation.

A person has to change according to the situation and in every situation or

circumstances a different forms of personality come out. So, environmental
situation determines the personality and individual's show different personalities
according to the demand of the situation.

Personality traits
Personality traits are the enduring characteristic by individuals react or interact
with each others. Broadly personality traits are divided in to two groups:

 MBTI:
MBTI refers to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. It was developed by Isable Briggs
Myer and his mother Kahtleesn Briggs. It is the most widely personality
assessment instrument in the world. It’s a 100 question personality test that asks
people how they usually feel or act in a particular situation. on the basis of their
answer, individuals are classified as under:

• Extraverted versus introvert ( E or I): extraverted individuals are outgoing,

sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy.

• Sensing versus intuitive ( S or I): sensing types are practical and prefer
routine order, they focus on detail. Intuitive relays on unconscious process
and look at big picture.

• Thinking versus feeling ( T or F): thinking types use logic and reasons to
solve problems. Feeling types relay on their personal values and beliefs.
 • Judging and perceiving ( J or P) : judging types want to control and prefer
their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving are flexible and
spontaneous.

 Big Five Models

Individual's personality refers to the sum total of their traits and characteristics
that disguises one person from another. Initially researcher found 17972
personality traits and characteristics. Later on they were re-grouped in 16 groups.
And, finally formed five dimensions of personality traits and characteristics.
These five dimensions are also called big five dimensions of personality traits and
characteristics which are as follows.

 1. Extra version:

It refers to comfort level relationship. In other words, it is concerned with

propensity of individual to maintain the relationship with others. In this regard,
individuals can be extrovert and introvert.

Extrovert person are talkative, assertive, social and want to maintain relationship
with other persons. Such individuals can easily adjust themselves in any group.
Where as introvert person are quite shy, prefer lonelier they do not like to talk
more with others and feel discomfort to adjust in new groups and situation. The
extrovert persons are likely to be more successful in managing team and
establishing relation with others.

 2. Agreeableness:

It refers to the propensity of individual to go along with others or ability to work

with others.

Agreeable people also can be high agreeable and low agreeable. Good nature,
gentle, mild, altruistic, cooperative, straight forward, and warm where as low
agreeable people used to be irritable, non- cooperative, cold, antagonistic,
disagreeable and short temper. The high agreeable people are more successful
than low agreeable people.
  3. Conscientiousness:

Conscientiousness refers to the tendency of individual to use their own

conscience while performing the job. It can be high conscientious and low
conscientious.

• High conscientious people focuses on few goals. They are careful,

organized, responsible, self-discipline and understanding. Such people are
ethical and have high level of aspiration

• People with low in this category used to focus wide array of goals. They are
careless, disorganized, irresponsible and less self discipline. As compared to
low conscientiousness people, high conscientiousness one more successful
in the job.

 4. Emotional stability:

It is also called neuroticism. It refers to degree by which individual can stand or

work with pressure. In this regard, individuals can e emotionally stable and
emotional instable. Emotional stable individuals are calm, poise, secured and
flexible where people with emotional instability are excited, in secured and
subject to the mood swing. Normally, people with emotional stable are assumed
as more successful in the job.

 5. Openness to experience:

It refers to tendency of individual on rigidity of belief or range of interest held by

individuals. In this regard, people can be open-door closed. Opened people are
ready to listen new ideas and change their behavior. They are curious, imaginative
and creative where as closed people are conventional, They are the slave of
tradition they are lazy and imaginative non creative, they prefer statuesque and
result the change. opened people are given more priority in the organization.
 Personality Attributes Influencing
Organizational Behavior
Individual's personality is the sum total of traits and characteristics that identify
commonalities and differences between one person and another. Organization
behavior is influenced by some tries or attributes which are as follows:-

1. Locus of control:

It refers to the tendency that what happens to himself or herself is determined by

oneself or other. In other words it is concerned with determining whether
someone’s behavior is controlled internally or externally. In this regard, people
can be internal and external.

The people who believe that they are the master of own fate and they can
construct their future by themselves is called internal. Such internal people used
to believe in effort and strive hard to achieve objectives where as if the people
believe that their fate or future is controlled or influenced by other people,
chance, luck, god, etc, they are called external people such people have low
confidence level and they pay low attention on effort.

In the organization behavior, internal people are more suitable in managerial

position and external people are suitable in non managerial position.

2. Machiavellianism:

The concept of Machiavellianism was developed by Italian philosopher Niccolo

Machiavelli in 16th century. It refers to tendency of individual to gain and use of
power for the personal benefits. In this regard, individuals can be High Mach and
low Mach, Individuals with high Mach tend to be calm, cool, pragmatic, loyal,
maintains emotional distance, tries to control people and feel pleasure while
manipulating other. They used to speak lie, even try to bypass the bass to make
vital decision.
Individuals with low Mach are emotional, real, not speak lie, highly friendly and
do not try to manipulate other. In the organization high Mach individuals will be
successful in those job which require bargaining skills.

3. Self-Esteem:

It refers to the tendency of individuals to like or dislike oneself. In this regard,

individual can be high self esteem and low self esteem.

The individual with high self esteem used to feel themselves worthwhile,
deserving and high level of self confidence. Such person have high self efficacy
and want to perform challenging job. So, they are motivated by intrinsic factors.

Individuals with low self esteem do not like themselves. This mean they do not
feel themselves as deserving and they have low level of confidence. They seek
guidance, instruction from others to accomplish the task. They are motivated by
external factors such as money and reward.

In the sense of organizational behavior, people with high self esteem will be
successful in managerial level where as low self esteem are useful for operating
level.

4. Self- monitoring :

It refers to the tendency of individual to adjust in changing environment or

external situation. In this regard, individuals can be of high self-monitoring and
low self-monitoring.

Individuals with high self monitoring are ready to change their behavior according
to the changes in situation. This means an individual shows different appearances
and faces to different audiences.

Individuals with low self monitoring ability are rigid in nature. They feel difficult to
disguise themselves according to the changes in environment.

In this sense, people with high self-monitoring ability get more opportunities for
promotion, transfer of career development than self monitoring managers are
more mobile in their career.
 5. Narcissism:

The narcissism refers to the individual tendency of feeling proud, arrogant over
oneself and own image and performance. It involves the Grandiose sense of self
importance, require excessive admiration and have a sense of entitlement. It is a
feeling of individual superiority than other. Narcissists also tend to be selfish and
exploitative.

High narcissism individual take risks and choose unconventional job. They are less
susceptible to external influences and high job satisfaction through higher
performance.

Low narcissism individuals are concerned with pleasing other people and look for
security and money related rewards.

6. Risk propensity:

It refers to the tendency of individuals taking risk while making decision. In this
regard, individual personality have two aspect that is high risk taking and low risk
taking.

The individual with high risk taking tendencies have more confident and ready to
make important derision having only few information.

Where a person with low risk taking propensity like to follow more formalities to
make the decision. They require more information, participation and other
formalities to make the decision.

In the sense of organization, high risk taker will be more successful in the top
level management.

7. Personality type A and type B:

Individual personality is broadly classified into type A and type B. A person with
type A personality is aggressively involved in a chronic and incessant struggle to
achieve more and more in less and less time. individuals with personality Type A
are:
 • Always moving, walking, eating rapidly, strong sense of time urgency.

• Feel impatient with the rate of events.

• Try to do two or more things at once.

• Avoid leisure time. Obsessed with numbers.

• Work for long hours, makes poor decision and less creative.

 Individuals with Type B personality: Type B individuals are opposite to the

Type A, holds following characteristics:

• Lack sense of time urgency.

• Less competitive and tends to their achievement to themselves.

• Play for fun and relaxation, do not lose temper.

• Type B persons are more successful in in the top management.

• Besides, the Type A and Type B, individuals have proactive personality

where proactives identify opportunities, show initiatives, take action and
preserve until meaningful change occurs.

Measurement of Personality
The personality of an individual is highly complex. Therefore it is not possible to
measure the personality of an individual as a whole by a single test. Psychologists
have developed several techniques to understand the behavior of people. The
common methods used in measuring an individual’s personality are as follows:

 1. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Developed by Strake Hathaway and J.C. Mckinley of the Minnesota University in

1943.

MMPI is a psychological test that especially tests for abnormal behavior patterns
in personality. It uses a questionnaire consisting 567 statements, the participant
must answer “true, false or I can not say.”
The MMPI-2 is designed with 10 clinical scales which assess 10 major categories of
abnormal human behavior, and four core validity scales to test the level of
abnormality .

Each scales tests for a particular kind of behavior. The behavior patterns include
relatively mild personality problems such as excessive worrying and shyness as
well as more serious disorder such as schizophrenia and depression.

The names of 10 scales and what they measure are:

1. Hypochondriasis (Hs) – Exaggerated anxiety about ones health and

pessimistic interpretation and exaggeration of minor symptoms.

2. Depression (D)- Feeling of permission, hopelessness and worthlessness.

3. Hysteria (Hy) – Various alignments such as headaches, paralysis and

vomiting which have no physical basis.

4. Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) – antisocial and amoral conduct.

5. Masculinity/Femininity (Mf) – possession of traits and interest typically

associated with opposite sex.

6. Paranoia (Pa) – suspiciousness, delusions of grandeur or harassment.

7. Psychasthenia (Pt) – obsession, compulsion, fear, guilt , indecisiveness.

8. Schizophrenia (Sc) – The Schizophrenia scale measures bizarre thoughts,

withdrawal, hallucinations.

9. Hypomania (Ma) – emotional excitement, flight of ideas, overactivity.

10.Social Introversion (Si) – shyness; lack of interest in other; in security .

Validity Scales

The validity scales designed to determine whether and to what extent people are
trying to fake their answers- for instance, whether they are trying to seem bizarre
or conversely to give impression that they are extremely normal and well
adjusted. The core validity scores are as follows:

1. Lie (L) – The Lie scale is intended to identify individuals who are deliberately
trying to avoid answering the MMPI

2. F – The F scale is intended to detect unusual or atypical ways of answering

the test items.

3. Back F (Fb) – The Back F scale measures the same issues as the F scale,
except only during the last half of the test.

4. K – The K scale is designed to measure self-control, and family and

interpersonal relationships.

If persons taking the test score high on these validity scales, their responses to the
clinical scale must be interpreted with special caution.

 2. Projective Test:

A projective test is one in which a person’s patterns of thoughts, attitude,

observational capacity and emotional responses are evaluated on the basis of
ambiguous test materials. There two popular projective tests:

 I) Rorschach Inkblot Test (RT)

Rorschach Inkblot Test is the is the most commonly used projective psychological
test. The test was first introduced in 1921 by a Swiss psychiatrist called Hermann
Rorschach. In this test individuals are asked to describe what they see in a series
of inkbolts. The original purpose of the test was to produce a profile of people
suffering from mental disorders, like schizophrenia, based on the scoring.
This test consists of ten black and white cards with blots of ink on themThe cards
could be multi-colored. The subjects who are to be examined are provided with
these cards one by one, and asked what they look like, or what they could be.
Each of these card is presented one at a time and test is taken individually. There
is no right and wrong answers.

The test is completely dependent on the guesswork done by the subjects. The
subjects are allowed to answer with one, several responses, or no response to
each card.

The test is administered by dividing three periods:

• Free- association period:

In this period, the examiner records the participants responses, comments,

reactions and time taken for the first response.

• Inquiry period:

Examiner questions the participant about each response to find out which part of
the bolt was used to respond. The participant is also inquired about important
picture of the figure.

• Testing the limit:

Examiner notes what kinds of responses not given by the subjects and responses
usually given by other participants.

Psychologists score responses on key factors such as reference to color, shape,

figure seen in the bolt and responses to the whole or to details.
 II) Thematic Appreciation Test(TAT)

This projective test is also regarded as a picture interpretation technique as it

consists of a series of drawings that give a picture of human figures in various
ambiguous situations.

The test consists of 31 cards, 30 with pictures and a black card. Subjects are then
asked to interpret the pictures by creating a story describing the situation of the
person in the cards. The blank card is provided with the goal to ask subjects to
create their own scene and story.

Designated sets of 20 pictures are administered to men and women, while the
two other sets are administered to boys and girls. Murray recommended the test
to be administered in two 1-hour sessions, consisting of 10 cards each.

Researchers encourage the subjects to create as dramatic story as possible. It is a

must for the story to have a title, a beginning, a body, a hero and the end. The
general idea is that with their story, subjects reveal their needs, desires, along
with their hidden motivations, expectations and intentions, which otherwise
would not be out for display on the open. The test also has a standard scoring
system.
 Personality and Behavior in Work Setting

Personality has both internal and external elements. External traits are the
observable behavior that we relay on to identify someone’s personality. The
internal states represents the thoughts, beliefs, emotions, values or genetic
characteristics that we infer from the observable behavior.

Personality explains behavioral tendencies because a person’s behavior is

influenced by situation as well as personality traits. Personality traits are less
evident in situation where social norms, reward system, and other conditions
constrain behavior. For example, when “no talking” rules are explicitly or
implicitly enforced, talkative people remain quiet.

A considerable amount of research has been carried out exploring the

relationship between personality and individuals behavior in the work setting and
found that it is difficult to predict accurately how a person’s personality impacts
on behavior at work setting, it is because personality only one of factor many
factors influencing the behavior in organization. Rather behavior is influenced by
other many factors such as ability, perception, motivation and organizational
system.

Regarding the personality and behavior at work setting, following conclusion can
be drawn:

It is one of the many factors influencing the behavior of the individual.

Personality traits are less evident in all situation, where norms, rewards constraint
behavior.

A person’s behavior is influenced by situation as well as personality.

Written by: Khagendra Niraula ,

Mahendra multiple campus , Dharan

Printed by: Manish Babu Karki