BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES IN BUILDINGS

SUBMITTED BY:
SANOBAR ASHRAF
RJARSHI
SUMAILA NADEEM
REETIKA MEENA
SHRUTI SAXENA
Introduction:
Building defect occurs to either the new building or the old ones.
Defect within new buildings maybe of non-compliance with building
Code and published acceptable tolerances and standards. Meanwhile
the older buildings, or building out of warranty period, may not comply
with these standards, but must be judged against the standard at the
time of construction or refurbishment.

Defects and deterioration are

common problems in any built
structures. However, various defects
are more common in an old structure.
As a standard description defects are
defined as the deterioration of
building features and services to
unsatisfactory quality levels of
requirement of the users.

Common types of building defects include: structural defects and

non-structural defects, resulting in cracks or collapse; defective or
faulty electrical wiring or lighting, defective or faulty plumbing,
inadequate drainage systems, faulty ventilation, cooling or heating
systems, insufficient insulation or sound proofing, and also
inadequate fire protection suppression systems. Plus, dry rot, wood
rot, mold, fungus, or termite or vermin infestation may also be the
result of a building defect.

A building defect may also include damage caused by land

movement or earth settlement. Proving a building defect commonly
requires the hiring and testimony of a highly trained and experienced
expert. An expert, such as an engineer or an architect, is the one who
will be able to determine the construction problem involved due to the

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result of improper design, material, or workmanship.

Types of Building Defects:

a) Structural Defect
Structural defect means any defect in a structural element of a
building that is attributable to defective design, defective or faulty
workmanship or defective material and sometimes any combination
of these. Building structure includes earth retaining walls, columns,
beams and flat slabs.

According to the Engineering Encyclopedia, structural defect can be

categorized as cracks in foundations (substructure), cracks in floor or
slabs (superstructure), and cracks in walls (superstructure). These
defects can be caused by improper soil analysis, inappropriate site
selection, and the use of defective materials. Most of the structural
problem can be avoided by implying the exact and detail of the
design and planning.

Structural defects in a building can occur over time due to

deterioration, wear and tear, overloading, and poor maintenance.

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They must be repaired to maintain the building’s structure and to
prevent any further failures. Regular inspection is the key to
protecting the ‘health’ of a building’s structure. Structural defect that
always occurs are steel corrosion, cracks, and deflection.

b) Non-structural Defect
According to Northern Territory Consolidated Regulation, a non-
structural defect in a residential building is described as a defect in a
non-structural element of the building as a result of defective
residential building work.

According to the Engineering Encyclopedia, non-structural defect

includes defect in brick work, dampness in old structures, and defects
in plaster works.

CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS:
There are mainly 2 types of defects.
1. Under soil defects
2. Superstructure defects

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 Undersoil defects

Foundation Basement

1. FOUNDATION:

DEFECTS:

 Vertical foundation cracks. This settlement crack probably

occurred during initial footing settlement.
 Diagonal foundation cracks. This settlement crack probably
occurred during initial footing settlement.
 Horizontal foundation cracks. Caused by vehicle loading or
in freezing climates, by surface and subsurface water
combined with frost.

CAUSES:

 Unequal settlement of subsoil.

 Unequal settlement of foundation’s masonry.
 Water level movement in soil.
 Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs.
 Atmospheric action.
 Improper drainage.

REMEDIES:

 Excavate the foundation pit at the same level and avoid the
footing to rest on sloping strata.
 Remove all the loose excavated material and clean the pit.
 Insist on the foundation drawing to be incorporated with
centre line plan to cross check overlapping of foundation,
orientation of the column, etc.

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  Common repair methods include chipping out the crack and
applying a masonry patching compound to the surface, use
of epoxies, or other sealants.
 Polyurethane foam sealant is used for foundation crack
repairs to stop water entry.

2. BASEMENT:
DEFECTS:

 Cracks formed
 Dampness
 Pealing of plaster
 Blistering
 Improper Drainage

CAUSES:

 Surface preparation: if not done properly.

 Curing if not done properly.
 Poor workmanship.
 Design flaws.

REMEDIES:

 Surface should be cleared before plastering.

 Curing should be done properly.
 Provision for sump.
 Proper ratio in mortar.

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  Water proofing treatment should be done on the internal
walls of basement.

SUPER STRUCTURE
DEFECT:

 Concrete
 Structural cracks on external wall.
 Structural cracks at junctions.
 Poor casting.
 Exposed holdfast.
 Exposed reinforcement.
 Improper junction between beam and column.
 Parts of the structure broken.
 Moisture ingress.

Further defects are as structural and non-structural defects.

DEFECT

STRUCTURAL NON-STRUCTURAL

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 STRUCTURAL DEFECTS:
It includes defects like:
 Defects in concrete.
 Defects of steel reinforcement bars.
 Defects in column and beams.
 Structural cracks

1. DEFECTS IN CONCRETE:
It includes:
 Blowholes
 Crazing
 Popouts
 Honey combing
 Blisters

BLOWHOLES:
Blowholes are individual rounded or irregular cavities that are
formed against the formwork and become visible when it is
stripped.
CASUSES:
 The texture and stickiness of the formwork surface.
 The use of a poorly proportioned or sticky concrete mix.
 The amount of vibration.
REMEDY:
 It is better to minimize the occurrence of blowholes than
to try and repair the surface.
 Filling the holes with a slightly different colored material
may make blowholes more obvious.
 Mortar can be used for patching should be made.
PRECAUTIONS:
 To minimize the incidence of blowholes:
 Use rigid well braced of formwork.

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  Avoid sticky concrete mixes.
 Pull vibrator up slowly through the concrete layer allowing
time for the entrapped air to rise to the surface.

CRAZING OR MAP CRACKING:

Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks
on the surface of concrete or mortar dividing the surface up into
irregular hexagonal areas.
CAUSES:
 Using too wet mix.
 Finishing of the surface too early.
 Overworking the surface, thus bringing too many fines to
the surface.
 Adding driers to the surface to try and remove bleed
water.
REMEDY;
 Map cracked areas will usually not require maintenance
unless the cracks begin to admit appreciable water or the
areas begin to deteriorate further.
 A thin seal with a sand-asphalt mix or an asphalt seal
applied with a squeegee and blotted with sand is
required.
 Neat cement can be used as a bonding compound.
PRECAUTIONS:
 To minimize the risk of crazing:
 Start curing as soon as possible.

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  Use moderate slump.
 Reduce the effect of water absorption by the sub grade.
 Do not use driers such as neat cement to soak up the
bleed water.

POPOUTS:
Popouts are roughly conical depressions in the concrete
surface created by localized pressure with the concrete, usually
occurring after the concrete has been in place for some time.
CAUSES:
 They are usually caused by the expansion of a
deleterious aggregate particle located near the surface or
expansion of water absorbed by an aggregate particle.
 Contaminants such as pieces of wood, clay and coal can
also cause pop outs.
REMEDY:
 Repair can be made by filling the popouts crater with a
mortar of similar color to the base concrete.
PRECAUTIONS:
To minimize the incidence of popouts;
 Use the aggregates free from deleterious particles that
are known to cause popouts.
 Use higher strength concrete.
 Inadequate curing will increase the likelihood of popouts.

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HONEYCOMBING:
Honeycombing refers to voids in concrete caused by the
mortar not filling the spaces between the coarse aggregate
particles.
It usually becomes apparent when the formwork is stripped,
revealing a rough and stony concrete surface with air voids
between the coarse aggregate.
 CAUSES:
 Honeycombing is caused either by the compaction not
having been adequate to cause the mortar to fill the voids
between the coarse aggregate.
 Holes and gaps in the formwork allowing some of the
mortar to drain out of the concrete.
REMEDY:
 If the honeycomb area is small in extent, the quality of the
cover concrete protecting the reinforcement then, it can
be repaired by patching with mortar of a similar color to
the base concrete.
 The area should be slightly over filled and screeded off to
give a similar texture to the surrounding surface.
 The patch should then be cured.
PRECAUTIONS:
 To minimize the incidence of honeycombed concrete:
 Ensure the mix has sufficient fines to fill the voids
between the coarse aggregate.
 Use a mix with an appropriate workability for the situation
in which it is to be placed.

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  Check that the formwork is rigid and well braced, the
joints are watertight and any penetrations through the
formwork.
 Ties are properly sealed.

BLISTERS:
Blisters are hollow, low profile bumps on concrete surface.
CAUSES:
 Sticky concrete mix due to excessive entrained air, poor
aggregate gradation, or excessive fines.
 Excessive fines brought to the surface due to high slum,
over-vibration.
REMEDY:
 If blisters are forming, try to either flatten the trowel
blades or tear the surface with a wood float and delay
finishing as long as possible.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Do not seal surface before air or bleed water from below
have escaped.

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  Use heated or accelerated concrete to promote even
setting throughout the depth of the slab.
 Do not place slabs directly on polyethylene sheeting.

EXPOSITION OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT BARS:

CAUSES:
 If the cover in bottom surface is not properly provided.
 Or cover block has disturbed during concreting of slab or
concreting not properly done around the reinforcement
bars. Then these bars can be seen from the bottom side.
 Poor workability.
EFFECTS:
 They may be chances of honeycombing and
reinforcement exposition.
 Exposed reinforcement bars may be rusted.
REMEDIES:
 Without using concrete mixer and vibrator no concreting
should be done .
 Curing of concrete and mortar work should be ensured as
in code.

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  Plastering the surface where cover being not properly
done.
COLUMS AND BEAMS:
DEFECTS:
 Development of cracks on plaster.
 Flaking and peeling.
 Blistering.
CAUSES:
 Improper base formation for painting.
 Improper leveling of the under soil.
 Improper mortar proportion.
 Poor workmanship.
 REMEDIES:
 Proper base formation.
 Mortar proportion as specified.
 Well leveled under soil.
 Skilled labour.

NON- STRUCTURAL DEFECTS:

1. PLASTER:
 Non- structural cracks – Crazing is a network of fine
cracks, usually in a hexagonal pattern.

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  Expansion – swelling, softening, layer cracking and
spalling of the plaster.
 Popping- the surface of the plaster leaving holes which
vary in size.
CAUSES;
 If the wall is not protected from sun.
 Improper curing.
 Insufficient cement.
 The use of a mix with poor water properties.
REMEDIES;
 Glass fiber tissue can be applied during painting.
 Usually 12 mm thick plaster is applied.
 Proper curing of wall before plastering.
 Use of plaster mortar within 20 minutes of preparation.

2. CLADDING AND PANELLING:

DEFECTS:
 Eroded uneven surface.
 Provide open surface for penetration of water.
 Biological growth.
CAUSES;
 Improper maintenance.
 Exposed to rain.

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  Improper curing before painting.
 Improper mortar ratio.
 REMEDIES:
 Proper mortar ratio.
 Proper curing for at least 10 days after construction and
two days before painting.
 Skilled labour.

3. PAINTING DEFECTS:
 BLISTERING :
AFFECTS:
 Small bubbles are formed over the surface.
CAUSES;
 Poor adhesion.
REMEDIES;
 Have a dry background, proper priming.
 BLOOMING:
AFFECTS:
 Mistiness on highly glossed or vanished surfaces.
CAUSES;
 Moisture or frost during application or condensation on
new surface.

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REMEDIES;
 Painting should not be done under such conditions.
 Repaint.
 FLAKING:
AFFECTS:
 Peeling of paint.
CAUSES:
 Poor adhesion, moisture, inadequate cleaning and
preparation.
REMEDIES:
 Defected area should be redone.
FLASHING:
AFFECTS;
 Uneven finish on a flat painted surface.
CAUSES:
 Poor paint quality or uneven application.
REMEDIES;
 Repaint.
GRINNING;
AFFECTS;
 Insufficient obstruction by finishing coat.
CAUSES:
 Lack of opacity in the finishing coat or incorrect undercoat
color.
REMEDIES;
 Redo with matching undercoat and finishing coat.
PIN-HOLES:
AFFECTS;
 Creates appear when bubbles burst.
CAUSES:
Air bubbles when paint covers small cavity.
REMEDIES:
 Surface should be leveled.

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SURFACE DETERIORATION AND TIMBER DECAY IN DOOR
AND WINDOW
CAUSES:
 The decay in wood specially near masonry contact.
 Due to wet surface.
 The decay can be feet by a sharp screwdriver.
REMEDIES:
 For a localized defect, cut away the affected part of wood
and fit a new piece of wood with glue.
 The area should be allowed to dry and repaint.
 All holes and joints should be filled with water-insoluble
filler or mixture of glue and saw dust, reputed and repaint.

RUSTING IN STEEL USED IN DOORS AND

WINDOWS:
CAUSES;
 Rusting in steel windows is caused by rain water.
REMEDIES:

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  The steel should be derusted after removing glass.
 The steel is given a primer coat.
FLOORING
 MARBLE FLOORING:
DEFECTS:
 Cracks
 De-coloration
 Depression in flooring
 Hollow sound
CAUSES:
 Improper laying of marble.
 Improper grinding of the stone.
 MOSAIC OR TERRAZO FLOORING:
DEFECTS:
 Cracks
 De-coloration.
 Flaking
 Corrosion
 Removing of marble chips.
CAUSES:
 Improper laying.
 Improper grinding of the stone.
REMEDIES:
 Division of floor through glass strip.
 Proper curing.
 CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING:
DEFECT:
 Cracks
 De-coloration.
 Flaking
 Corrosion
CAUSES:
 Improper mortar ratio.

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  Improper laying of mortar bed.
 Insufficient curing.
REMEDIES:
 Divison of floor through glass strip.
 Proper curing.

 STAINING OF FLOOR
CAUSES:
 Stains results from abuse of flooring.
 Accidental spill of materials.
EFFECT:
 Change in appearance.
 Change in strength.
REMEDIES:
 Stains are difficult to remove.
 Therefore, sealing should be done on floor by epoxy
resin.

DEFECTS DUE TO DAMPNESS

1. Outside Walls Of The Building Remain Wet At Roof Level
Causes:

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  Coping not provided on top of parapet wall so that water stays on the
top surface of brick wall and seeps into wall gradually making it
wet.
 Slope of coping over parapet wall provided in the wrong direction.
 Gola not made on the junction of roofing and parapet wall. Later can
enter this junction and can come through crack.
 On the roof slab, if the gap between rainwater pipe mouth and parapet
wall is not properly sealed, then rainwater can come out from the gap
around the pipe and make the outside walls wet.
Remedies:
 Coping should be provided at parapet wall top and it’s slope should be
towards inside the roof rather than outside so that water from the
coping falls on the roof rather than on the outside wall.
 Gola should be made at junction of roofing and parapet and if possible
should be taken a little bit.

COPING WRONGLY GOLA AT JUNCTION OF

SLOPED ROOF AND PARAPET

2. Horizontal Cracks In Brick Mortar Points

Causes:
 Weakening of mortar due to sulphate attack. These cracks normally
occur after 2-3 years of construction as the reaction is slow.
Remedies:
 Sulphate contents of the brick should be checked before allowing their
use.
 Brick wall should not be allowed to be damp because sulphate
attack happens only in presence of moisture.

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  The correct remedy is to reconstruct the affected areas.

3. Rising Dampness
Caused by the absence or breakdown of a damp-proof course or membrane.
It is characterized by wet patches to ground floors and walls with
sometimes a white powdery ‘tidemark’ deposit.

EFFECTS OF DAMPESS

Various effects (indirectly defects), cause due to dampness in building, are

mention below:
 A damp building creates unhealthy living and working
conditions for the occupants.
 Presence of damp conditions causes efflorescence on building
surfaces which ultimately results in disintegration of bricks,
stones, tiles etc. and hence in the reduction of strength.
 It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster.

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  It causes bleaching and flaking of paint which results in formation of
coloured patches on the wall surface.
 It results in corrosion of metals used in construction of building.
 Timber when in contact with damp conditions gets deteriorated
due to the effect of warping, buckling and rolling of timber.
 All electrical fittings get deteriorated causing leakage of electric
current with the danger of short circuit.

PREVENTION OF DAMPNESS
1. Use of Damp-proofing Course:
These are the layers or membranes of water-repellent materials, such
as Bituminous felts, Mastic asphalt, Plastic sheets, Cement Concrete,
Mortar, Metal sheets, Slates, Stones, etc.

2. Waterproof (or Damp-proof) surface treatment:

The surface treatment consists in filling up the pores of the material
exposed to moisture by providing a thin film of water-repellent material over
the surface.

3. Integral Damp-proofing treatment:

The integral treatment consists adding certain compounds to the
concrete or mortar during the process of mixing, which act as barriers to the
moisture penetration. Some of the compounds like chalk, talc, fuller’s earth, etc.

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 DAMP PROOF COURSE

4. Cavity walls (or hollow walls):

Cavity wall consists of three main parts, namely.
1. The outer wall or leaf(100mm)
2. The cavity or air space of 50mm to 80mm, and
3. The inner wall or leaf (min.100 mm in thickness)
4. The provision of continuous cavity in the wall efficiently
prevents the transmission of dampness from outer wall to the inner
wall.

DEFECTS DUE TO APPLIED FORCES AND

CHANGE IN SIZE

1. Diagonal Cracks In Wall(wide at the bottom and narrow at the

top)
CAUSES
 Differential settlement in foundation due to expansion of
clayey soil by absorption of moisture.
 This may happen when the rain water finds entry in the
vicinity of the structure so that the soil which was earlier
dehydrated by the tree again absorbs moisture and
swells.

REMEDIES
 In clayey soil, foundation should be taken as deep as
possible to minimize the effect of moisture entry as much
as possible.
 Adequate plinth protection and drainage arrangement
should be made around the wall.

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2. Diagonal Cracks In Wall(wide at the top and narrow at the
bottom)
CAUSES
 Differential settlement in foundation due to shrinkage of
clayey soil by absorption of moisture.
 Structural overload

REMEDIES
 In clayey soil, foundation should be taken as deep as
possible to minimize the effect of moisture entry as much
as possible.
 Avoid constructing walls on filled up soil.
 Avoid over loading.
 Masonry work shall be proceeded symmetrically and
uniformly at all levels.

3. Random Cracking In Flooring

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 CAUSES
 Flooring has been cast continuously without proper joint
spacing.
 Poor finishing techniques.
 Poor curing techniques.

PRECAUTIONS
 Cast flooring in panels.
 Proper finishing should be done.
 Proper curing should be done.

4. Vertical Cracks In Long Compound Wall Of Masonry At

Certain Intervals
CAUSES
 Due to not leaving expansion or contraction joints at
proper intervals
 In cold weather the wall tends to contract due to
temperature drop, it develops tensile stress and when this
stress exceeds the strength of the wall it cracks. Similarly
in hot weather the wall expands due to compressive
stresses, wall will break.

REMEDIES
 Leave expansion or contraction joint at regular interval
especially in long stretches of wall.

5. Vertical Cracks At Junction Of R.C.C Column And Masonry

CAUSES
 Differential movement between R.C.C column and
masonry due to thermal expansion/contraction/shrinkage.
 Differential settlement of R.C.C column because of its
different foundation.

REMEDIES

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  A groove in plaster should be made at the junction of
R.C.C column and brick wall so that crack remains hidden
in the groove and doesn’t look unsightly.

6. Cracks In Load Bearing Masonry Wall Below R.C.C Slab

CAUSES
 Due to absence of slip joint between R.C.C slab and wall
which does not allow the slab to move freely over wall
leads to cracking in the wall.
 Sometimes the movement of the slab may also cause
cracking in the masonry at lintel and window sill level
because here the masonry is weak.
 These cracks are observed mainly on the topmost storey
of the building because roof is more exposed to
temperature variation.

REMEDIES
 Before casting R.C.C slabs over brick wall, smooth
bearing plaster should be done over brick walls occupied
with whitewash/bitumen coating or tarred paper over it. It
allows slab to move freely over wall due to thermal
expansion.

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7. Diagonal Cracks In Wall Over R.C.C Lintels
CAUSES
 Due to drying shrinkage of lintels and sudden deflection of
lintels after removal of shuttering.

REMEDIES
 Use precast lintels as far as possible for small openings.
 Construct brick wall over lintel after it has undergone
considerable shrinkage.
 Construct brick walls over lintel after shuttering below it is
removed so that it doesn’t undergo sudden deflection with
the construction of brick wall over it.

8. Diagonal Cracks In Panel Walls In R.C.C Framed Structures

CAUSES
 When R.C.C frame deflects due to loads, temperature
variation etc. it causes diagonal cracks in wall which are
located parallel to the movement.

REMEDIES
 Walls should not be built tightly to the columns.

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9. Vertical And Horizontal Cracks In Panel Walls In R.C.C
Framed Structures
CAUSES
 Panels walls too lightly built to the R.C.C beams. When
the beams deflects, load is transmitted to the walls and
vertical and horizontal cracks are produced in the wall
depending upon the direction in which wall is more
slender.

REMEDIES
 Some gap should be left between the top of the panel wall
and soffit of the beam.

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