PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

(ENGLISH 115)

PREPARED BY:

DANAO, JEMMILY F.
DELOS REYES, JOHN CHRISTIAN C.
ERASMO, ERA CHARM G.
NARIDO, KIMBERLY S.

SUBMITTED TO;
MISS DIANE P. ZARAGOZA
INSTRUCTOR
(IM’S FOR TEACHING
LANGUAGE)
• Instructional materials may be operationally
defined as especially designed classroom tools
which contain instructions to learners and
teachers, and which specify each increment of
learning: the content to be learned; the
techniques of presentation; practice and use of
that content; and the modes of teaching
associated with those techniques (Johnson,
RELC Journal)

• Instructional materials generally serve as the

basis for much of the language input learners
receive and the language practice that occurs in
the classroom (Richards)
• IMs are an important element within the
curriculum and are often the most tangible and
visible aspect of it (Nunan, 1991)

• They can provide a detailed specification of

content, even in the absence of the syllabus
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986)

• They can define the goals of the syllabus, and

the roles of the teachers and the learner within
the instructional process (Wright, 1987)
ROLES OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
Cunningsworth (1995) summarizes the role of materials
(particularly course books) in language teaching as a:

• resource for presentation materials

• source of activities for learner practice and
communicative interaction
• reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, etc.
• source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities
• syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives which
have already been determined)
• support for less experienced teachers who have yet to
gain in confidence in the language classroom
Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) suggest that
for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve
the following functions:

• As a source of language
• As a learning support
• For motivation and stimulation
• For reference
BASIC PRINCIPLES
IN MATERIALS
DEVELOPMENT
(Tomlinson, 1998)
• Materials should achieve impact.
• Materials should help learners to feel at
ease.
• Materials should help learners to develop
confidence.
• What is being taught should be perceived by
learners as relevant and useful.
• Materials should require and facilitate
learner self-investment.
• Learners must be ready to acquire the points
being taught.
• Materials should expose the learners to
language in authentic use.
• The learners’ attention should be drawn to
linguistic features of the input.
• Materials should provide the learners with
opportunities to use the target language to
achieve communicative competence.
• Materials should take into account that the
positive effects of instruction are usually
delayed.
• Materials should take into account that
learners differ in learning styles.
• Materials should take into account that
learners differ in affective attitudes.
• Materials should permit a silent period at the
beginning of instruction.
• Materials should maximize learning
potential by encouraging intellectual,
aesthetic and emotional involvement which
stimulates both right and left brain activities.
• Materials should not rely too much on
controlled practice.
• Materials should provide opportunities for
outcome feedback.
BENEFITS OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
 TEACHERS

• Provide materials for presentation of new items for

reinforcement, consolidation and practice.
• Provide materials for teaching particular skills, particular
areas of languages and other special difficulties.
• Guide the teacher on the methods and techniques in
introducing the lessons and the series of exercises for
teaching the concepts.
• Give them more opportunity to make the best use of
their time and skills to do more real teaching.
 STUDENTS

• Concretize the syllabus

• Opportunity for individual work in or outside
the classroom
• Follow a course of study with little help from
teachers.
 TYPES OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
 TEXTBOOK

 Main reference for the entire course

 Usually chose by the school
 Reflects the minimum learning competencies for
specific levels
 Arranged in units or chapters which can be labeled
according to themes, topics, skills, grammar
structures or functions depending on the syllabus
type followed
 Contains readings, teaching points, drills,
activities, and tasks for every day lessons
 WORKBOOK/
SKILLBOOK

 Usually accompanies the textbook

 Provides exercises and drills on specific skills in
listening, speaking, reading, and writing
 Presents reinforcement and remedial activities to
support lessons in the textbooks
 TEACHER’S BOOK/
TEACHER’S MANUAL/
TEACHER’S GUIDE

 Contains a detailed rationale for textbook

 Explain the scope and the sequence for the
lessons
 Includes introductory notes on how to use the
textbooks, specific objectives for each lessons and
suggested strategies for teaching the lessons
 Provides guidance in planning the lessons from
materials to suggested activities
 WORKTEXT

 Combines the features of the textbooks and

workbooks
 Provides teaching points like those in the textbook
 Reinforces the teaching points with many drills
and exercises just like those that contain an A-Z or
practical suggestions for teaching
MODULE and SELF-
LEARNING KIT (SLK)

 More interactive than the other types of written

IMs that appear in the workbook
 Develops independent study through self-paced
instruction
 Contains post-test, pre-test, lesson inputs,
exercises and drills—provisions for self-paced
learning
 REFERENCE
BOOK

 Provides general information on various topics

 Includes encyclopedia, dictionary, atlas, manuals,
etc.
 MULTIMEDIA
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS

 Audio and Visual materials accessible through

various media like radio, television, and the
computer
 Also includes interactive courseware on various
topics
 FACTORS
AFFECTING
MATERIALS
PREPARATION
1. The curriculum, syllabus, and the
learning competencies
2. Learners’ learning styles, aptitudes,
proficiency
3. Pedagogical principles held by the
teachers
4. Societal demands
FRAMEWORKS OF MATERIALS
AND METHODS
 LEARNERS

CONTEXT IMPLEMENTATION OF
GOALS

EDUCATIONAL
SETTING SYLLABUS CONSTRUCTION

McDonough and Shaw (2000) present the

following framework for materials and MATERIALS, CLASSROOM
methods. The framework reveals that
materials and methods cannot be seen in METHODS (lessons, tests)
isolation but are embedded within a broader
professional context.
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS

1. Learner factors-age, interests, level of proficiency in

English, aptitude, mother tongue, academic and
educational level, attitudes in learning, motivation,
reasons for learning, preferred learning styles and
personality
2. Setting-role of English in the country; role of English
in the school; management and administration;
resources available; support personnel; the number of
pupils; time available for the program; physical
environment; the socio-cultural environment; types of
tests to be used; and procedures for monitoring and
evaluating.
A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the nature of
language and learning; it acts as a guide for both teacher
and learner by providing some goals to be attained.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80) define syllabus as ‘at its
simplest level a syllabus can be described as a statement of
what is to be learnt. It reflects language and linguistic
performance.’

This is a rather traditional interpretation of syllabus focusing

as it does on outcomes rather than on process.

However, a syllabus can also be seen as a “summary of the

content to which learners will be exposed” (Yalden.1987:87).
It is seen as an approximation of what will be taught and
that it cannot accurately predict what will be learnt.
Syllabus is the overall organizing principle for what is to be
taught and learned. It is the way in which content is
organized and broken down into a set of teachable and
learnable units, and will include considerations on pacing,
sequencing and grading items’ methods of presentation and
practice, etc.

Syllabus inventory is a list of the content to be covered in

the language program much like a content outline.
Richards and Rodgers (1986) presents a useful framework for
the comparison of the language teaching methods which
illustrates the place of syllabus in the program planning. The
Model has three levels: approach, design and procedure.

 Approach refers to the views and beliefs or theories of

language and language learning on which planning is based.
 Design converts the principles in the first level (approach)
into more practical aspects of syllabus and instructional
materials.
 Procedure refers to the techniques and management of the
classroom itself.
 TYPES
OF
SYLLABUS
(Reilley)
Although six different types of language teaching
syllabi are treated here as though each occurred
“purely,” in practice, these types rarely occur
independently of each other. Almost all actual language
–teaching syllabi are combination of two or more of the
types. The characteristics, differences, strengths, and
weaknesses of individual syllabi are defined as follows:
 STRUCTURAL (formal)
SYLLABUS

 The content of language teaching is a collection of the forms

and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being
taught.
 Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements,
questions, subordinate clauses, and so on.
Issue/Criticism:
One problem facing the syllabus designer pursuing a
grammatical order to sequencing input is that the ties
connecting the structural items maybe rather feeble. A more
fundamental criticism is that the grammatical syllabus
focuses on only one aspect of language: grammar; however
in truth there exist many more aspects to be considered in
language. Recent corpus based research suggest there is a
divergence between the grammar of the spoken and of the
written language, raising implications for the grading of
content in grammar-based syllabuses.
A NOTIONAL/FUNCTIONAL
SYLLABUS

 The content of the language teaching is a collection of the

functions that are performed when language is used, or of the
notions that a language is used to express.
 Examples of the functions includes: informing, agreeing,
apologizing, requesting; examples of notions includes age,
size, color, comparison, time, and so on.
Issue/Criticism:
In order to establish objectives, the needs of the learners will
have to be analyzed by the various types of communication in
which the learner has to confront. Consequently, needs
analysis has an association with notional-functional
syllabuses. Although needs analysis implies a focus on the
learner, critics of this approach suggest that a new list has
replaced the old one. Where once structural/situational items
were used, a new list consisting of notions and functions has
become the main focus in a syllabus. White (1988:77) claims
that “language functions do not usually occur in isolation” and
there are also difficulties in selecting and grading function and
form. Clearly, the task of deciding whether a given function
(i.e. persuading), is easier or more difficult than another (i.e.
approving), makes the task harder to approach.
 SITUATIONAL SYLLABUS

 The content of the language teaching is a collection of real or

imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. A situation
usually involves several participants who are engaged in some activity
in a specific meeting.
 The language occurring in the situation involves a number of
functions, combined into a plausible segment of discourse.
 The primary purpose of a situational language-teaching syllabus is
to teach the language that occurs in the specific situations.
 Examples of the situations include: seeing the dentist, complaining
to the landlord, buying a book, meeting a new student, and so on.
 A SKILL-BASED SYLLABUS

 The content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that

may play a part using language.
 Skills are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a
language, relatively independent of the situation or setting in which the
language use can occur. While the situational syllabi group functions together
into specific settings of the language use, skill-based syllabi group linguistic
competencies (pronunciations, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse) together
into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken language for
main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral
presentations, and so on.
 The primary purpose of the skill-based instruction is to learn specific
language skills.
 A possible secondary purpose is to develop more general competence in
the language, learning only incidentally any information that may be available
while applying the language skills.
A TASK-BASED SYLLABUS

 The content of the teaching is a series of complex and

purposeful tasks that the student wants or need to perform
with the language they are learning.
 The tasks are defined as activities with a purpose other than
language learning, but, as in the content-based syllabus, the
performance of the tasks is approached in a way intended to
develop second language ability.
 Tasks integrate language (and other) skills in specific
settings of the language.
 Task-based teaching differs from situation-based teaching
in that while situational teaching has the goal of teaching the
specific language content that occurs in the situation (pre-
defined products), task-based teaching has the goal of
teaching students to draw on resources to complete some
piece of work (a process). The students draw on a variety of
language forms, functions, and skills often in an individual and
unpredictable way, in completing the tasks.
 Tasks can be used for language learning are, generally,
tasks that the learners actually have to perform in real life.
Examples include: Applying for a job, talking with a social
worker, getting housing information over the telephone, and
so on.
 A CONTENT-BASED
SYLLABUS

 The primary purpose of the instruction is to teach some

content or information using the language that the students
are also learning.
 The students are simultaneously language students and
students of whatever content is being taught.
 The subject matter is primary, and the language learning
occurs incidentally to the content learning. The content
teaching is not organized around the language teaching, but
vice-versa.
 Content-based language teaching is concerned with
information, while task-based language teaching is
concerned with communicative and cognitive processes.

 An example of content-based language teaching is a

science taught in the language the students need or want to
learn, possibly with linguistic adjustment to make science
more comprehensible.
 SYLLABUS DESIGNS

 Multi-syllabus
 Lexical
 Process
Many would have a primary and secondary
organizing principle like:

At the bank: question forms

At a garage: imperatives
At a hotel: present perfect
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
IN WRITING IMs
(ORNSTEIN)
 UNDERSTANDING

It requires matching the materials to the learners’ abilities

and prior knowledge. If students do not understand the
materials, frustration sets in, making learning more difficult.
The teacher/writer must know whether the materials are
suited to the level of the students and whether they will
understand those. Thus, the teacher/writer must provide for
background lessons and check-up activities and exercises to
assess students’ understanding. This is especially important
for younger and slower students and when introducing new
concepts.
 STRUCTURING/
CLARIFYING

It involves organizing the material so that it is clear to the students.

It is especially important when new subject matter is introduced,
and when it is being linked to the previous lessons.

 Directions, objectives, and main ideas are stated clearly. Internal

and final summaries cover the content.
 Transition between main ideas is smooth and well integrated.
 Writing is not vague.
 Sufficient examples are provided.
 New terms are defined.
 Adequate practice and review assignments reinforce new
learning.
 SEQUENCING

It refers to the arrangement of the materials to provide for

continuous and cumulative learning where complex concepts
are taken only after prerequisite skills and concepts have been
mastered. There are four basic ways of sequencing a material:

 Simple to complex
 Parts to whole
 Whole to parts
 Chronological arrangements
 BALANCING

Balancing materials require establishing vertical and

horizontal balance or relationships. Vertical relationships
refer to a building of content and experiences in the lesson,
unit and course level. Fourth grade language concepts build
on third grade concepts; the second unit plan builds on the
first, etc. Horizontal relationships establish a multidisciplinary
and unified view of different subjects; for example the
content of the social studies course is related to English and
science.
 EXPLAINING

It refers to the way headings, terms, illustrations, and

summary exercises are integrated with the content. Does the
example illustrate major concepts? Are the major ideas
identified in the chapter objectives and overview? Do the
headings outline a logical development of content? Do the
materials show relationships among topics, events, facts to
present an in-depth view of major concepts? The students
should be able to discover important concepts and information
and relate new knowledge on their own through the materials.
 PACING

It refers to how much and how quickly the lessons in the

textbooks are presented. The volume or length of the
materials should not overwhelm students, but there must be
enough to have an effect. As students get older, the amount
of materials can increase, the presentation can be longer and
more complex and the breadth and depth can be expanded.
 REVIEWING

It refers to the extent to which the material allows students to

link new ideas to old concepts in the form of a review. High-
achieving and older students can tolerate more rapid pacing
than low-achieving and younger students, thus less proficient
learners would need more review or linking than the more
proficient ones.
 ELABORATING

Elaborating ensures that students learn better through a

variety of ways. The idea is to provide in the textbook
opportunities for students to transform information to one
form to another, and to apply new information to new
knowledge – by using various techniques such as comparing
and contrasting, drawing inferences, paraphrasing,
summarizing and predicting. A series of elaboration strategies
help students learn new materials. The author must provide
students with a broad list of questions (of comparing and
contrasting, drawing, analogies, etc.)
 TRANSFER OF
LEARNING

Transfer of learning may be done in a number of ways. Transfer

of learning maybe concept-related, inquiry-related, learner or
utilization-related. The first two organizers seem to work best
with intrinsically motivated students and the second two best
with students who needs to be extrinsically motivated. Since
most students need some extrinsic motivation, learner-related
and utilization-related materials will be more effective with
majority of students.
 Concept-related, drawing heavily on structure of
knowledge, the concepts, principles, or the theories of the
subject.
 Inquiry-related, derived from critical thinking skills and
procedures employed by learning theorists or scholars in the
field.
 Learner-related, related to the needs, interest or
experiences of the students.
 Utilization-related-show how people can use or proceed
with them in real life situations.
Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum
they serve. The curriculum cycle below illustrates
the three phases of the curriculum development.
PHASE 1 PHASE 2
Curriculum Planning Curriculum
 Identify learner needs Implementation
 Set goals and objectives  Instruct learners
 Write materials  Monitor and adapt
 Write tests instruction
 Write supplementary
materials

PHASE 3
Curriculum Evaluation
 Test learners
 Evaluate curriculum
 Plan changes in the
curriculum
 AUTHENTIC VERSUS CREATED
MATERIALS

 Authentic materials refer to the use in teaching of

texts, e.g. photographs, video selections and other
teaching resources, that were not specially
prepared for pedagogic purposes.

 Created materials refer to textbooks and other

specially developed instructional resources.
Advantages claimed for authentic materials are (Phillips and
Shettlesworth, 1978; Clarke, 1989; Peacock, 1997)

 They have a positive effect on learner motivation because

they are intrinsically more interesting and motivating than
created materials. There is a huge source of authentic
materials for language learning in the media and on the web,
and these relate closely to the interests of many language
learners.

 They provide authentic cultural information about the target

language. Materials can be selected to illustrate many aspects
of target culture, including culturally-based practices and
beliefs and both linguistic and non-linguistic behaviour.
 They provide exposure to real language rather than the
artificial texts found in created materials, that have been
specially written to illustrate particular grammatical rules or
discourse types.

 They relate more closely to learners’ needs and hence

provide a link between the classroom and students’ needs in
the real world.

 They support a more creative approach to teaching.

Teachers can develop their full potentials as teachers,
developing activities and tasks that better match their
teaching styles and the learning styles of students.
However, critics of the use of authentic materials point out that:

 Created materials can also be motivating for learners.

Published materials are often designed to look like teenage
magazines and other kinds of real-world materials and may be
just as interesting and motivating for learners.

 Authentic materials often contain difficult language and

unneeded vocabulary items. Since they have not been
simplified or written based on any lexical or linguistic
guidelines, they often contain language that may be beyond
the learners’ abilities.
 Created materials may be superior to authentic materials
because they are generally built around a graded syllabus, and
hence provide a systematic coverage of teaching items.

 Using authentic materials is a burden for teachers. In order to

develop learning resources around authentic materials,
teachers have to be prepared to spend a considerable amount
of time locating suitable sources for materials and developing
activities and exercises to accompany the materials.
 DESIGN,
DEVELOPMENT
AND
DISSEMINATION OF
MATERIALS
 1. DESIGN PHASE

a. Accumulated experience- the writer reviews or surveys

existing materials which can give useful information
about the demands and the needs in the field.

b. Rationale for the design- identifies the shortcomings of

existing materials to ensure that such short comings are
not repeated in the present material.

c. Conceptual framework- combines major and minor

concepts regarding language learning, language teaching
theories, and materials design principles upon which the
material is anchored.
Major concepts refer to the overall principles of
second/foreign language learning and teaching will affect
every aspect of the design of the instructional materials.

Minor concepts refer to the following:

 Organization of languages skills to be taught;
 Selection, gradation and arrangement of content;
 Methodology associated with the acquisition of these
skills;
 Organization for the development and dissemination of
the materials.
2. DETAILED WRITING OF THE SPECIFICATION FOR
THE NEW MATERIALS-THE SPECIFICATION INCLUDES:

 Goals of the materials

 Subject matter, language content to be covered, and the
skills to be acquired through the content
 Techniques and modes of presentation, practice, use and
management associated with the learning of the content
 Format of the materials including how learning units are
divided
 Technical details for the writing of the materials
3. DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE

a) Writing the experimental materials

b) Internal evaluation of materials
c) Controlled tryout
4. DISSEMINATION PHASE

a) Extensive use of the new IM

b) Field evaluation of the IM
GUIDELINES
FOR
DEVELOPING
MATERIALS
The following guidelines were based on the final
report of the 5th sub-regional workshop on the
development of basic literacy learning materials for
‘un-reached’ population in South Asia (1998)
1. Needs Assessment- Surveys and identifies the
concerns of the target learners because the
objectives of the materials should be carefully
drafted based on the interests, problems, and need
of the target learners.
2. Development of curriculum grid- Helps materials
developers and teachers to know learners’ needs
and to decide on the content and the level of
materials to be produced.

a. Goals of national literacy program

b. Core content based on national outcomes
c. Locally relevant content based on the identified
needs of the learners
d. Prescribed levels in the three R’s
e. Levels of literacy skills of learners
3. Selection of themes
4. Setting up objectives
5. Deciding on the format

a. Considerations
 Age group
 Location in which the IM is to be used
 Literacy level of target clientele
 Cost of development and use of the material
 Ability of the teachers to utilize the material
 Type of role that the material plays (i.e.
motivational, instructional, awareness building,
informative, etc.)
b. Various formats

1. Written (e.g. booklet, flashcards, flip chart,

posters, comics, games, wall papers)

2. Electronic media (e.g. audio tapes like songs,

dramas, talks, speeches, announcements,
broadcast, video presentation, radio and
television program, etc.)

3. Interactive formats (e.g. CD Courseware, web-

based courses, on-line hyperlinks)
6. Selection and arrangement of content
7. Titles and captions
8. Scriptwriting

a. Script expressions, inclusive language

b. Short sentences
c. Illustration
d. Local language flavor
e. Reading flow
f. Attractive layout

9. Illustrations (balanced and inclusive)

10. Editing
MATERIALS
EVALUATION
1. External Evaluation aims to examine the organization of the
material as stated explicitly by the author of the publisher.
This type of evaluation analyzes what the “book tells about
itself” by looking at the ad blurb, the introduction, and table
of contents. Through external evaluation, information on
the following may be called:

• Intended audience
• Proficiency level
• Context in which the materials are to be used
• Organization into teachable units
• Date of publication
• Author’s view on language learning and teaching
• Publisher
2. Internal Evaluation covers an in-depth
investigation of the value of the material in relation
to its objectives, principles, lesson design, and
assessment procedures. At this stage, the evaluator
analyzes the extent to which claims in the
introduction and blurbs actually match up with the
internal consistency and organization of the
materials. In order to perform effective internal
evaluation of the material, at least two units of a
book or a set of materials need to be inspected.
The following information may be analyzed:

• Presentation of the skills in the material

• Grading and sequencing of skills
• Authentic or artificial recordings
• Authentic or artificial dialogues for speaking
• Relationships of tests and exercises to learner
needs and course content
• Provisions for different learning styles and self-
study
• Motivation for the learners
3. Overall Evaluation analyzes the value of the material
in relation to its usability, generalizability, adaptability
and flexibility.

• Usability- How far could the material be integrated

into particular syllabus as ‘core’ or as supplementary
material?
• Generalizability- How much of the material could be
used by the individual or by a group of people?
• Adaptability- Can parts be added/extracted/used in
another context or modified for local circumstances?
• Flexibility- How rigid are the sequencing and grading?
Can the material be used in different ways? Can they be
entered in different parts?
ADAPTING
MATERIALS
REASONS FOR ADAPTING
MATERIALS

Instructional materials should generally be

authentic and communicative, and even if they are
already nearly perfect, adaptation of materials
nevertheless happens. Here are some reasons for
materials adaptation.
• Not enough grammar coverage in general

• Not enough practice of grammar points of particular

difficulty to learners

• The communicative focus means that grammar is presented

unsystematically

• Reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary

• Comprehension questions are too easy, because they sound

too much like written material being read out

• Not enough guidance on pronunciation

• Subject matter inappropriate for learners for a particular age

and intellectual level
• Photographs and other illustrative materials not culturally
acceptable

• Amount of materials too great or too little to cover in the time

allocated

• No guidance for teachers on handling group work and role play

activities with a large class

• Dialogues are too formal, and not really representative of everyday

speech

• Audio material difficult to see because of problems with room size

and technical equipment

• Too much or too little variety in the activities

• Vocabulary list and a key to the exercise would be helpful

• Accompanying tests needed

 PRINCIPLES
and
PROCEDURES
for ADAPTING
MATERIALS
• Personalizing materials refers to increasing the
relevance of content in relation to learners’ interest
and their academic, educational or professional
needs.

• Individualizing addresses the learning styles of

both the individuals and of the members of a class
working together.

• Localizing takes into account the international

geography of English language teaching and
recognizes that what may work well in one region
may work in another.
 POINTS TO REMEMBER IN ADAPTING
MATERIALS:

1. Adaptation can be seen as a kind of matching process or

‘congruence’ where techniques are selected according to
the aspect of the material that needs alteration.
2. Content can be adapted using a range of techniques; or
conversely, a single content technique can be applied to
different content areas.
3. Adaptation can have both quantitative and qualitative
effects.
4. Techniques can be used individually or in combination
with others.
ADAPTING TEXTBOOKS
Most teachers are not creators of teaching materials
but providers of good materials. Dudley-Evans and St.
John (1988) suggest that a good provider of materials
will be able to:

1. select appropriately from what is available

2. be creative with what is available
3. modify activities to suit learners’ needs
4. supplement by providing extra activities (and
extra input)
Commercial textbooks can seldom be used without
some form of adaptation to make them more
suitable for the particular context in which they will
be used. This adaptation may take a variety of
forms.

 Modifying content. Content may need to be

changed because it does not suit the target learners,
perhaps because of factors related to the learners’
age, gender, social class, occupation, religion, or
cultural background.

Modifying (including re-writing and re-structuring)

refers to the internal change in the approach or
focus of an exercise.
• Re-writing is done when some linguistic
content needs modification. It is currently
the most frequently done because there is a
need for the materials to be ‘more
communicative’.

• Re-structuring applies to classroom

management. For many teachers who are
required to strictly follow a coursebook,
changes in the structuring of the class are
sometimes the only kind of adaptation that is
realistically possible.
Modifying tasks. Exercises and activities may need to be
changed to give them additional focus. A listening activity
may focus only on listening for information, so that students
listen a second or third time for a different purpose. An
activity may be extended to provide opportunities for more
personalized practice.

 Adding or deleting content. The book may contain too

much or too little for the program. Whole units may have to
be dropped, or perhaps sections of units throughout the book
omitted because a course may focus primarily on listening
and speaking skills, and hence writing activities in the book
will be omitted.

 Reorganizing content. A teacher may decide to reorganize

the syllabus of the book, and arrange the units in what she
considers a more suitable order.
 Addressing omissions. The text may omit items that the
teacher feels are important. For example a teacher may add
vocabulary activities or grammar activities to a unit.

 Extending tasks. Exercises may contain insufficient

practice, and additional practice tasks may need to be
added.

 Expanding brings about a quantitative change. That is,

expanding adds to the methodology by moving outside it
and developing it in new directions, for instance by putting
in a different language skill or a new component.
Deleting (subtracting and abridging)

• Subtracting means reducing the amount of the material.

• Abridging happens when the materials is not only

subtracted but is replaced with something else that does not
alter the balance of the lesson or the material.

Example: The material contains a discussion section at the

end of each unit. However, the learners are not really
proficient enough to tackle this adequately, since they have
learned the language structures but not fluency in their use.
The syllabus and its subsequent examination do not leave
room for this kind of training.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

1. ‘Communicative’ implies ‘semantic’, a concern with the meaning

potential of language.
2. There is a complex relationship between language form and
language function.
3. Form and Function operate as part of a wider network of factors.
4. Appropriacy of language use has to be considered alongside
accuracy.
5. ‘Communicative’ is relevant to all four language skills.
6. The concept of communication is beyond the level of the
sentence.
7. ‘Communicative’ can refer both to the properties of language and
to behavior.
 EVALUATION OF
SUPPLEMENTARY
MATERIALS FOR
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING
TOPIC: INCLUSIVITY IN MATERIALS
PREPARATION AND EVALUATION

Inclusivity- the concept of appropriating for the

‘marginalized’ sector of the society

• Handicapped (with physical, emotional and

mental/learning disabilities)
• Children (age)
• Women (gender)
• Indigenous people (ethnicity)
• People of color (race)
• The poor, The third world (economics)
 INCLUSIVE CURRICULUM

An inclusive curriculum
• develops an awareness of the issues of marginalization
• voices the concerns of the marginalized sector
• is sensitive to and responsive of the needs of the
marginalized – the subaltern
• enhances critical thinking through issue-based teaching
and learning processes
• generally employs:

o contact learning
o portfolio assessment
o multiple intelligences theory
o cooperative learning strategies
o constructive principles
WHY CONSIDER INCLUSIVITY
IN MATERIALS
PREPARATION AND
EVALUATION?
• Language determines thought and behavior patterns
of people

• Language reflects values of society

• Instructional materials have lasting influences in

propagating sexism through linguistic bias,
stereotyping, invisibility, trivialisation and
fragmentation (Sadker, Sadker and Long in Banks and
Banks, 1989)

• Instructional materials have a way of perpetuating

stereotypes

• Practices that propagate marginalization

Absence/Omission – women and other marginalized
sectors are nowhere to be found in books,
commercials/advertisements, the mass media and other
instructional materials
Silencing – the marginalized are there
represented/drawn/mentioned but given passive roles
(e.g. listener, pained/abused/victimized, helper, no line at
all)
Trivialized – presented but rendered unimportant; given
stereotyped roles like ailing mother, hopeless maidens,
forlorn princess, etc.
Fragmentation – viewing the contributions of the
marginalized as phenomenal (e.g. Woman doctor
operates Siamese twins; Woman Astronaut lands on the
moon)
• Studies prove that in various instructional materials,
the marginalized have been

o Stereotyped (damsels in distress, loving wives,

sacrificing mothers, poor girls, etc.)

o Omitted (in textbook pictures/ graphics, in cliparts)

o Silenced (present but not given a voice)

o Trivialised (present but given passive roles)

o Fragmented (victories rendered as

supernatural/phenomenal)
• Human rights code, the Philippine Constitution
declare honouring the human rights of children,
women, the handicapped
• Communication symbols evolve to meet human
needs; equality issues influence communication
symbols
• Sex-role restrictions – out of date and unfair
• Self-fulfilling prophecy of women’s “inferiority’ and
“failure”
• Loss of potential contribution of women to society
• Non-sexist communication can be natural,
graceful, grammatically correct
CHARACTERISTICS OF
INCLUSIVE INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
• Devoid of stereotypes
• The experiences of women, children, people of color, the
handicapped, the poor, etc. are

o Represented not voiced

o Voiced not silenced
o Rendered important and not trivialized nor fragmented

• Replete with alternative roles

• use non-sexist language
• Provides insights on multiculturalism and diversity
• Issue-based, content area related, contextualized,
authentic
• Extra textual components like cartoons and other
graphics are also inclusive
• Multicultural; free from ethnocentric/regional/racial bias
 PREPARATION
OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
FOR TEACHING LITERATURE
WHY TEACH LITERATURE (IN A LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM?)

• One of the main reasons why literature is an

important part of learning is that it offers a bountiful
and extremely varied body of written material which is
important in learning fundamental human issues.

• Its relevance moves with the passing of time.

• Literature is “authentic” material.

• Literature enriches cultural awareness. In most cases,
language learners get a better understating of the
culture in the language they are trying to learn through
literature. A reader may discover an inner thoughts,
feelings, customs of a certain group of people, thus
giving him/her a better understanding of the language.

• Literature provides language enrichment.

• Literature helps personal enrichment. Engaging

imaginatively with literature enables learners to shift
the focus of their attention beyond the more
mechanical aspects of language learning.
 WHAT TO TEACH

The first step in teaching literature is to choose the

materials to teach, including the literary texts for study.
The preparation of instructional materials will depend on
the literary texts chosen for study.
• Suitability of literary texts to students always depend on
the different groups of students, their needs, interests,
cultural background and language level.
• Personal involvement, however, should always be a goal
of a literature classroom.
• Strong, personal, and positive reactions are needed in the
literature classroom.
HOW TO TEACH LITERATURE

In teaching literature, the aim is to maintain interest

and involvement by using a variety of student
centered activities.

• In devising activities for integrating language and

literature teachers must remember that learning
involve as many of the students’ faculties as possible.

• Teachers should try to exploit as fully as possible the

emotional dimension that is a very integral part of
literature.
• Helping students explore their own response to
literature could be achieved through the different
instructional materials prepared for classroom
teaching.

• One of the principles which influences the classroom

approach to literature is that of using the target
language with a range of activities chosen.

• To integrate the teaching of language and literature

that aims to foster language learning the teacher
should never forget that literature can stand on its
own by giving it proper time inside the classroom.
STAGES OF LITERATURE
LEARNING IN THE
CLASSROOM
 FIRST ENCOUNTERS

For students about to explore the unknown territory

of a new literary text, the first encounter with it may
be crucial. First impressions can color their feelings
about the whole enterprise they find themselves
engaged in. They are likely to be approaching the
experience with mixture of curiosity, excitement and
apprehension. The teacher’s role must be to play up
the sense of adventure while providing a supportive
atmosphere that will be reassuring to the students.
The first imperative is usually to try and draw the
learners quickly “into” the text, so that they find it
interesting and want to continue reading it on their
own. Next, students need to be convinced that the
task ahead is not an impossible task.
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS FOR FIRST ENCOUNTERS:

a. Talking about the title and cover design

• The teacher sets the scene and kindles students’
curiosity by showing them an intriguing cover
design and asking them to speculate about the
book and its story.

b. Using Questionnaires
• Students are given questionnaires to fill in.
Questions are focused on the text studied.
c. Making a Biographical montage
• The teacher collects some photos, objects, or
anything which is relevant to the author’s life.
These materials/objects are mounted on to a
larger piece of card. The students then are
invited to speculate the meaning of the items
in the montage.
d. Continuing the story line
• Having read the first section of a text, students are
asked to study a range of possible continuations of
a story line. Then they choose the one they consider
the author would have used.

e. Comparing beginnings
• The teacher takes three or four opening from
novels or short stories with fairly similar beginnings,
and asks the students to respond to the contrasts.
f. Writing Chapter 0
• Students are asked to write the paragraphs
that come immediately before the first
section of the work which they have just
encountered.
 MAINTAINING MOMENTUM

The tasks in maintaining momentum can be used at

any points in a literary work and can be applied to the
various genres. This part of literary learning allows the
students to understand, enjoy, and appreciate the
literary work. It is in this situation that a mixture of
class activities and home reading can be used.
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS FOR MAINTAINING MOMENTUM:

a. Question worksheet leading to pair work in class

• Half of the class is given one set of questions
relating to the passage set as home reading, the
other half, another set.

b. Complete the sentences

• This worksheet could be used as a take home
activity. This is a take off from the regular Q and A.
c. True or False
• This worksheet asks the students to answer true or
false on certain concepts.

d. Summaries with gaps

• The most straightforward type of summary
exercise is the gapped summary. This helps readers
by providing them with an almost complete and
simply phrased summary. The gaps are usually key
words or expressions, which only a reading of the
appropriate passage can reveal.
e. Summaries with incomplete sentences
• A slightly more challenging variant consists of a
summary with incomplete sentences.

f. Summary comparison
• The teacher writes two summaries of a section to be
read at home. Differences between the summaries
can be “fine-tuned” according to the level of the
group. At the simplest level, one of the summaries
omits certain key points; at a more difficult level, both
summaries are fairly accurate but one may contain
incorrect inference or interpretation.
g. Jumbled events
• The students are given a list of jumbled
events. They will simply rearrange the
events.

h. Choosing an interpretation
• The students are given a series of different
interpretations of events in the passage they
are reading.
i. Snowball activities
• These are activities which continue and are added
to progressively, as students read through a long
work. These activities help maintain an overview of
an entire book, provide a valuable aid to memory,
and reduce a lengthy text to manageable
proportions.

Examples:
1. Retelling a story
2. Wall charts and other visual displays
3. Summaries
4. Montage
5. Graphic representation
6. Continuing predictions
7. Writing on going diaries
EXPLOITING HIGHLIGHTS

The activities for this part of the literary

discussion in the classroom will help encourage
the students to explore and express their own
response to the literary work.
 SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR MAINTAINING
HIGHLIGHTS:

a. Thought bubbles
• The task for this activity is very simple: students are
asked to write the ’inner’ dialogue that parallels the
original dialogue.

b. Poems
• The aim is to crystalline a personal, felt response to
a literary situation.
c. Using authentic formats
• These are non literary formats which can be
imported into the context of the literary work
and used to spur writing about it.

d. Newspaper articles
• A newspaper article or feature is to be written
about the highlight scene chosen. Students are
shown samples of genuine newspaper articles,
if possible from more than one type of
publication.
e. Oral activities
• These are activities highlighting the
lines/dialogues that are good for oral reading.

Examples:
1. mini reading aloud
2. poetry reading
3. choral reading
4. oral summaries
ENDINGS

This part of classroom literary learning keeps

each students’ own sense of the literary work
alive.
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR ENDINGS:

a. Role plays
• The context provided by works of literature
facilitates the creation of role-play situations. This
activity allows the students to work among
themselves.

b. Cover designs
• Asking the students to prepare a paperback cover
of a book is to see how they are eliciting and
crystallizing their over all response to the text they
are reading.
c. Writing a blurb for the back cover
• As preparation for this activity, the teacher reads out
the cover blurb of selected novels. This activity aims to
see if the students can come up with distinct blurb for
a particular literary work.

d. Short writing tasks

• These activities test the ability of the students to use
language in written activities.

Examples:
1. letters
2. essays
3. newspaper articles
4. journal
 REFERENCE:
PROF. ALI G. ANUDIN
PROF. JENNIE V. JOCSON
END OF PRESENTATION 