Slide

King Saud University

College of Science
Department of Biochemistry

General Biochemistry-I (BCH 201)

Chapter 1:
Introductory Biochemistry

Prepared by Dr. Farid Ataya http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/75112

 BCH 201
General Biochemistry-1
 Course Symbol & No. : BCH 201
 Credit Hours : 3 (3+0)
 Prerequisite : CHEM103
 Class schedule : Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday
1:00 pm to 1:50 pm.
 Class location : AA35 building No. 5
 Examinations : Continuous Assessment Tests (CAT)
 First (30 Marks) Sun, 10/05/1436h – 01/03/2015
 Second (30Marks) Tues, 07/6/1436h – 26/4/2015
 Final (40 Marks)
 Course Objectives
 To familiarize students with knowledge of:
i. basic biochemistry needed for higher level courses
ii. chemical concepts with particular reference to chemical process found within
living cells (chemical bonds, functional groups, equilibrium, and energy)
iii. structure and properties of water and buffers
iv. building blocks of cellular components
v. structure and properties of amino acids, peptide bond
vi. structure and properties of proteins and structural & functional classification of
proteins
vii. introduction to enzymes and metabolism
viii. Introduction to sugars and carbohydrates
ix. Introduction to fatty acids and lipids
 Course Description (1_cont.)
Topics Weeks Lectures
Definition and Introduction: 2 1-6
General introduction to Biochemistry
Elements: Atoms (C, O, H, etc) and essential elements (Mg, Ca, etc), versus earth composition.
Biomolecules: H2O, amino acids, saccharides, nucleic acids, lipids, vitamins, and heme)
Assembly of molecules (proteins, DNA, RNA, carbohydrates, membranes)
Biochemistry pathways: information (molecular biology) versus Structural (chemistry); Living
versus nonliving
Organelles, cells and organisms
Chemical Concepts- importance to biochemistry: 2.66 7-14
Chemical bonds: Covalent, ionic, hydrogen bond, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals
interactions.
Functional groups.
Chemical Equilibrium
Free Energy
Structure and Properties of water: 1.66 15-19
Structure of water. Hydrogen bonding and solubility of molecules. Surface tension. Expansion upon
freezing. High boiling point.
Ionization of H2O
Weak acids and bases (pH and pK and Handerson Hasselbalch equation
Buffer systems

1st Continuous Assessment Test 0.33 20

 Course Description (2_cont.)
Topics Weeks Lectures
Amino acids: 2 21-26
Definition and types of amino acids
Function of amino acids
Functional groups in amino acids
Structure and classification of standard amino acids
Properties of amino acids (polarity; stereoisomerism; light absorption; ionization)
Modification (hydroxylation; phosphorylation; methylation; disulfide bridges etc)
Proteins: 2 27-32
Peptide Bonds (formation, structure and properties) and terminology; Amino acids residues versus
polypeptide and proteins.
Protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary)
Protein folding (amino acids → secondary elements → motifs→ domains→ subunits)
Protein denaturation
Structural classification of proteins (fibrous and globular proteins: representatives of all-alpha, all-
beta and alpha/beta proteins)
Functional classification of proteins: enzymes, immunoglobulins; transport (O 2, fatty acids),
regulatory (hormones etc), structural and movement, with examples
Simple and complex proteins (metal ions, cofactors, lipids, carbohydrates etc)
Introduction to enzymes and metabolism
2nd Continuous Assessment Test 0.33 33
 Course Description (3_cont.)

Topics Weeks Lectures

Carbohydrates: 2 34-39
Definition and types of sugars
Structure of monosaccharides and disaccharides
Differences between polysaccharides (starch, glycogen and cellulose)
Lipids: 1 40-42
Structure of fatty acids (saturated vs unsaturated f.a.)
Types of lipids
Chemical properties of fatty acids
Physical properties of fatty acids
Structure of cell membrane

Final exam -- --
 Books
• Biochemistry by Stryer

(latest edition)

• Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry

by DL. Nelson and MI. Cox (latest edition)

• Biochemistry.

by D. Voet and J. Voet (latest edition)

 What is Biochemistry?
 Biochemistry is the chemistry of the living cell.
 It describes in molecular terms the structures, mechanisms, function and
chemical processes shared by all living organisms.
 It provides fundamental understanding of the molecular basis for the function
of living things.
 It provides a broad understanding of the molecular basis of life.
 It explains what goes wrong to produce a disease.
 Examples:
 The chemical structures of biomolecules.
 Interactions leading to formation of supermacro-molecules , cells, multi-
cellular tissues, and organisms.
 Bioenergetics of the reactions in the cell.
 Storage and transmission of information.
 Chemical changes during reproduction, aging, and death of cells.
 Regulation of chemical reactions inside living cells.
 Principal Areas of Biochemistry
 Structure-function relationship:
 Structural Chemistry for proteins, carbohydrates, DNA/RNA, lipids, and every other
component in the cell.
 Functions of these components
 Relationship between structure and function.

 Metabolism:
 Catabolism: Pathways of chemical reactions leading to the breakdown of molecules
 Anabolism: pathways of chemical reactions leading to synthesis of molecules.
 Bioenergetics of reaction as well as management of cellular Energy.

 Cellular communication
 Storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information
 DNA replication and protein synthesis.
 Cell-cell communication & interaction
 Signal transduction
 History of Biochemistry
Biochemistry is only about 100 year-old science:
Some major events in its history.

1990
PCR & Gene Therapy
1970
Recombinant DNA
1966 Genetic codes unveiled.
1959 3-D structure of hemoglobin
Watson and Crick proposed
1953
the double helix for DNA
1944 Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty showed DNA
Krebs elucidated the 1937 to be the agent of genetic transformation.
citric acid cycle. 1926
Sumner crystallized urease.
The glyclolytic
1925
pathway revealed 1897
Buchner : in-vitro experiment
Miescher isolated 1869 with cell extracts.
nucleic acids.
Inorganic → organic 1828 Wohler synthesized urea from
NH4CNO→ CO(NH2)2 ammonium cyanate
 What is the matter?
• The matter is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space).
-In chemical point of view matter is made up of atoms.
-Atoms are formed from nucleus (having protons and neutrons)
and circulating negatively charges electrons.
-Atoms having specific numbers of protons form elements
-There are 118 elements on the periodic table 92 of them are
natural.
-All living and non-living matter are made of elements.
-Group of elements can form molecules of compounds.

In biochemistry, we are interested in the chemical structure and

reactions in living cells.
So, the introduction for biochemistry is the study of the living cell.
 The origin of Life
 Living matter consists of some chemical elements.
 Those elements bind together to form molecules.
 Most of compounds in Biological systems are organic compounds (have Carbon)
 Chemical compounds have reactive functional groups that participate in
biological structure and biochemical reactions.
 Polymerization of organic molecules form more complex structure by the mean
of condensation reaction with the removal of water.
 The key of origin of living matter is the formation of membranes that separate the
critical molecules required for replication and energy capture.
 Larger polymers of molecules form macromolecules that all together provide
biological specificity of the living matter. E.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
genetic material (DNA and RNA) etc.
 Biological Hierarchies
 Biological Hierarchy: Simple Molecules are used to Build Complex Structures

Elements  Molecule  Cell  Tissue  Organ  Organism  Population Species  Biosphere

 Relative sizes (or ranges) for some biological things, and the resolving power of
available tools!
Note that the scale is logarithmic.
Remember: 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000mm = 10 mm =10 nm = 10
6 9 10 A°
 Cell Theory
The cell theory is proposed and developed in the 1600-
1800s. The main parts of the cell theory today are:
 Cell is the smallest unit of living matter.
 Don’t confuse this with electrons, protons, atoms, proteins, DNA, etc.
These are lifeless molecules
 Cell is the structural & functional unit of all organs and/or
organisms.
 All organisms are composed of one or more types of cells.
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
 Spontaneous generation does not occur.
 Cell is capable of reproduction.
 Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell
to cell during cell division.
 All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs
within cells.
 Typical Cells
 Cells from different organisms have different shapes, structures, and
sizes.
 All cells have protoplasm.

 They are usually divided into two broad groups: Eukaryotes and
Prokaryotes.
 Eukaryotic cells (Eu = true; kary = nucleus): have a membrane-bound
nucleus and a variety of organelles and internal membranes.

 Prokaryotic cells (Pro = before) are smaller (a general rule) and lack
much of the internal compartmentalization and complexity of eukaryotic
cells; No membrane-bound nucleus or other organelles.

 Viruses do not always conform to cell theory:

 one or more of the basic cell components is missing.
 Inside the host cell, viruses are living matters.
 Sizes and Shapes of Cells
Notice: Cells in the figure is represented according to the proportion of its size
using the suitable scale.
 Prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes; all in one!!
 It shows a limited range of morphologies but very diverse metabolic capabilities.
 Prokaryotes are often single-celled organisms.
 Do NOT have true nucleus or organelles.
 Most have circular or “looped” DNA
 lack much of the internal membranous compartmentalization
 Mainly unicellular organisms
 Prokaryotes are divided into two major lineage:
 Eubacteria (true bacteria): inhabit soils, surface waters, and the tissues of other living
or decaying organisms. Most of the well studied bacteria, including Escherichia coli,
are eubacteria.
 Archeabacteria (Greek arche-, “origin”): most inhabit extreme environments—salt
lakes, hot springs, highly acidic bogs, and the ocean depths. It includes:
 Methanogens (oxygen-free milieus)
 Halophiles (require high concentrations of salt)
 Thermophiles (live in hot regions, 80oC, in a pH< 2)
 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes have different shapes:
- Rode-like (Bacillus) Bacillus-
- Round (Coccus)
- Thread-like (Spirillum)

The typical model of prokaryotes has:

- cell wall (capsule or pili),
- cell membrane, Coccus-
- nucleoid region, Contains a single, simple, long circular DNA.
- Ribosomes (site of protein synthesis)
- Flagella (for movement)

Spirillum-
 Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryotes are found in Animal, Plant, Protists, and Fungi kingdoms
 Few eukaryotes are single-cell but the majority are multicellular
organisms
 So, not all unicellular organisms are eukaryotes because bacteria are
unicellular prokaryotic organisms
 On contrary, all multicellular organisms are eukaryotes

 Eukaryotic cells are complex cells (different sizes, shapes, and

structures) and specialized but they all have:
 Membrane-bound nucleus which contains the cell’s genetic material; DNA
 Organelles, each is surrounded by a membrane or two like lysosome, Golgi
bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, etc
 Eukaryotic DNA is organized in linear structures (chromosomes), associated
with proteins (histones)
 Generic Animal Cell (cont.)
- Animals have a variety of cells that differ in shapes, structures, and sizes.
- A model structure is shown as follow:
 Generic Animal Cell (Cont.)
- The animal cell is surrounded by lipid bilayer plasma membrane.
- The content inside the plasma membrane is called protoplasm. It
contains many organelles and subcellular structures as:
• Nucleus: contain the genetic materials and surrounded by porous nuclear membrane.
It contains liquid called neucleoplasm.
• Ribosome: the site of protein synthesis. It is a group of protein subunits and
ribosomal RNA.
• Mitochondria: the site of energy production. It is a double –walled organelle having
many enzymes for energy production (The Power House). The inner membrane is
highly folded to increase the area of energy production. The number of mitochondria
increases as the energy needs increases.
• Lysosome: the site of removal of cell degraded waste substances. It contains many
digestive enzymes and it is known as suicide bag as it burst and its contents release to
lyse the cell when the cell die.
• Golgi Bodies, a membranous structure. It packages proteins into membrane-bound
vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination.
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER); a network of membranes that may carry ribosomes or
not. It share in the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids.
• Centrosome; It presents only in animal cells and serves as the main microtubule
organizing center of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.
 Generic Plant Cell
Plant cells is larger that animal cells and have some similarity
with animal cells and differ in some specific plant structures
like:

Organelles that present in plant cells

but not in animal cells:
- External cell wall
- Chloroplast (for photosynthesis)
- Vacuoles (instead of lysosomes)
- Starch granules
- Thylakoids for ATP synthesis and
- Glyoxysome for glyoxylate cycle
- It DOESN’T have centrosome

Compare and contrast between animal and

plant cells (Similarities and differences)

Compare and contrast between prokaryotes

and eukaryotes (Similarities and differences)
 video
Cell, tissue, organ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBvfBB_oSTc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_zD3NxSsD8&x-yt-ts=1422411861&x-yt-
cl=84924572

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g4L_QO4WKtM
 Quiz
http://quizlet.com/10449142/study-guide-exam-2-cells-flash-cards/
Plant cells differ from animal cell in
contains plastids b- contain cell wall c- contain cellulose d- all of the above

Which organelle will use up oxygen and give off carbon dioxide AND water?
a) lysosome b) Golgi c) mitochondria d) chloroplasts

Which organelle will give off oxygen and use up carbon dioxide?
a) chloroplasts b) rough ER c) lysosomes d) mitochondria

The origin of cell organelles in eukaryotes is not possibly attributed to:

a) invagination of the plasma membrane to form Endoplasmic reticulum
b) incorporation of engulfed bacteria to form mitochondria
c) an elongated bacterium that became attached to a host
d) groups of prokaryotic cells begin to live in a small group sharing products of metabolism

Which organelle forms a membranous system of CHANNELS for intracellular transport?

a) ER b) mitochondria c) golgi apparatus d) lysosome

The _________ will mostly produce vesicles:

a) rough ER b) lysosome c) mitochondria e) Golgi

The eukaryotic cell is different from prokaryotic cell division in all the following ways except:
a) the amount of DNA present in the cells b) how the DNA is packaged
c) in the production of daughter cells d) the involvement of microtubules
Mitochondria are/synthezise:
A) structures involved in the breakdown of ATP B)organelles involved in the synthesis of proteins
C) involved in producing ATP for cellular energy D) synthesize proteins for use outside the cell

Lysosomes:
A)have a highly alkaline internal environment B) are used mainly for the cell to "commit suicide"
C) contain digestive enzymes used to break down pathogens, damaged organelles, and whole cells

The major functions of the endoplasmic reticulum are ________.

A) hydrolysis, osmosis B) detoxy, packaging
C) synthesis, storage, transport D) pinocytosis, phagocytosis

According to cell theory:

A) all organisms are composed of tissues. B) the smallest unit of life is a nucleus.
C) animals, not plants, are composed of cells. D) multicellular organisms hve many cells.
E) new cells arise only from preexisting cells.

Compared with a eukaryotic cell, a prokaryotic cell:

A) lacks organelles B) is larger. C) does not require energy. D) is not alive

Which of the following is a prokaryotic cell?

A) plant cell B) liver cell C) muscle cell D) bacterium

Which structure regulates passage of molecules into and out of the cell?
A) plasma membrane B) nucleus C) mitochondria D) chloroplast
 Organisms, Organs, & Organelle
 Organism is a complete living entity
 Unicellular organisms such as Bacteria, Protists, etc (mostly prokaryotic).
 Multicellular organisms such as all animals and most plants. These organisms
have different Levels of Cellular Organization, (mostly eukaryotic).

 The Level of Cellular Organization is arranged from lower

to higher level as follows:
1. Cells
2. Tissues (Epithelia, Connective, Muscle, Nerve Tissue)
3. Organs (Heart, skin, kidney, etc.)
4. Organ systems (circulatory, respiratory, digestive, etc)
5. Organisms (Human, bovine, etc)
 Characteristics of Living Organisms

There are 6 main Characteristics:

1- The highly organized Cells
2- Relation with energy
3- Grow and Reproduce with high fidelity
4- Interact with environment
5- Movement
6- Homeostasis
 Characteristics of Living Organisms
1-The highly organized Cells
- The cell is the building block of the living organisms.
- It is structurally complicated and highly organized.
- Cell group together to form tissue or organ to perform specific
function.
 Cell intricate internal structures like:
 Biological structures that serve functional purposes, e.g.:
 Nucleus:

 Ribosome:

 Mitochondria: State the function of each organelle.

 lysosome:

 Many kinds of complicated chemical molecules like:

 Proteins, DNA, RNA, carbohydrates, lipids, etc.
 Properties of living Organisms
2- Relation with energy
Living organisms operate within the same laws of
Thermodynamics that apply to physics and chemistry
All living organisms have the ability to:
Extract, Transform, Store, and Use ENERGY.
 First Law of Thermodynamics: “Energy can not be
created or destroyed, but can be transformed”.
 Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living things.
 The energy in the sunlight is transformed into usable form
by autotrophs (photosynthesis).
 Other living things extract energy from autotrophs, directly or
indirectly (herbivores, carnivores or omnivores).
 Energy is stored in chemical bonds: e.g. ATP, GTP,
NADH, etc. and releases when these bonds are broken,
 Second Law of Thermodynamics – Spontaneous
processes are characterized by an increase in the
entropy of the universe by the conversion of order and
disorder.
 Properties of living Organisms
3- Grow and Reproduce with high fidelity
- All living organisms grow and undergo development
- The most characteristic attribute is the near- perfect fidelity
of self- replication and self assembly
 Cells divide to produce new cells.
 Organisms reproduce to produce new generations.
 Properties of living Organisms
4- Interact with environment
 Living organisms interact with their environments.
 It undergoes accommodation, hibernation and/or
adaptation.
 Ecology is the study of
 interaction between organisms
 Interaction between organisms and their environment
 Properties of living Organisms
5- Movement
 Movement – Living systems and their parts can have
precise and controlled movements.
 Movements are required for:
 Extraction of energy from their environments.
 Responses to stimuli
 Reproduction
 Growth
 Development in multicellular organisms

 On contrary, the nonliving matter often needs external forces to be

moved and is Not precisely controlled by the moving objects.
 Properties of living Organisms
6- Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is a characteristic of living organisms in
which the internal conditions remain stable and relatively
constant and regulated regardless the different biological
and environmental factors affecting the organism.
 Examples of homeostasis include the regulation of
temperature and the balance between acidity and alkalinity
(pH).
 Quiz
1. All organisms are composed of one or more types of cells …………………………………… ( )
2. Living cells can be generated spontaneously ……………………………...……………………….…… ( )
3. Ribosomes contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell …… ( )
4. Prokaryotes are often single-celled organisms ………………………………………………………..…… ( )
5. Mitochondria is responsible for cytoplasmic protein synthesis ….…………………………..… ( )
6. Living organisms operate within the same laws that apply to physics and chemistry ( )
7.Angestrom is larger than micrometer ………………………………………………………………………..……… ( )
8.Lysosome is an cellular organelle responsible for digestion of cell component and
is called Suicide Bag ………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………… ( )

For more training visit http://quizlet.com/10449142/test

 The matter versus element and molecule?

• The matter is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space).
 There are 118 elements on the periodic table 92 of them are natural.
 An element consists of atoms of the same kind.
 Any element consist of atoms. The atom is formed from nucleus (having
protons and neutrons) and circulating negatively charges electrons.
 The atomic number of each element represent the number of protons in its
nucleus.

For example,
- the element that has 6 protons in its atom is CARBON
- The atom that has 7 protons is NITROGEN
- The atom that has 8 protons is OXYGEN
- Molecule is a group of two or more elements.
Periodic table of elements
 Chemical elements of cell
Chemical elements of a living cell are the same as in the Earth’s crust,
but in diferent proportions.
 Elements in living cells
There are many classifications of elements regarding its distribution in living cells.
The most used one is as follow:
• Macronutrients are elements that are most abundant in the cell, (C, H, N, O, P,
S)
• Essential elements are found in small amounts, but essential (Na, Mg, K, Ca,
Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Cu, Cl, I).
• Trace Possibly Essential elements: some are common, others are less common
(V, Cr, Mo, B, Al, Si, As, Se, Br).
 Chemical Elements of Life
 C H N O P S: are the most abundant elements in cell.
 They account for more than 99% of atoms in the human
body
 H, O, N and C have common properties that are
important to the chemistry of life.
 They all:
 have relatively low atomic numbers
 capable of forming one, two, three and four bonds (for H, O, N and C , in
order).
 form the strongest covalent bonds in general.

Write the atomic number and the atomic mass of each element (CHNOPS)
 8
16
 Chemistry and Life
Living organisms operate within the same laws
that apply to physics and chemistry:

•Conservation of mass, energy

•Laws of thermodynamics
•Laws of chemical kinetics
•Principles of chemical reactions
 Chemistry Review
There are 5 major forces that maintain the
structure of biomolecules:
 Only one is a strong force: The covalent
bond
 The others are considered weak forces:
1. The ionic bond
2. The hydrogen bond
3. Hydrophobic interaction (not chemical bond)
4. Van Der Waals attraction (not chemical bond)
 Ionic bond (Cont.)
Formed by complete transfer of valence electrons between two
atoms Q1 * Q2
Strength is governed by a general law: F= K* n
R *D
Qs are charges, R is distance between them, D = dielectric of the medium, k
=constant, and n=1 or 2, depending on the nature of interaction.
D = 1 in vacuum, 2- 3 in grease, and 80 in water
Electrostatic interaction is responsible for ionic bonds, salt
linkages or ion-pairs, and hydrogen bonding
 Ionic bond

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lODqdhxDtHM
 The Covalent Bond (Cont.)
 The strongest bond in biochemistry
 Does not dissociate or break in H2O
 Formed by sharing of valence electrons
 If partners are unequal, asymmetrical distribution of
electrons creates partial electrical charges and therefore
polar molecules
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20AbmhCk-RI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlgKp4FUV6I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9FbSsO_beg
 The Hydrogen Bond (Cont.)
 The hydrogen bond is weak, but very important in
biochemistry
 The general formula for H-bond is
  
  
-D-H A-
 (D) is the donor atom
 (A) is the acceptor atom which must have at least
one-pair of free electrons
 Important atoms in Biochemistry are O and N
 Carbon can neither donate nor accept H-bonding
 The Hydrogen Bond

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkl5cbfqFRM
 Strength of H-bond
 H-Bond is a type of dipole-dipole interaction, but
can be considered as a weak ionic bond: Q *Q 1 2
 Distance (R3) is a major factor F= K* 3
R *D
 D is also a major contributor in biological systems
 Very strong angle dependence

Lone-Pair Electrons of Water

 Hydrophobic Interactions
Non- polar groups cluster together
DG = DH - T DS
 The most important parameter for determining the
stability of proteins, membrane, nucleic acids
 Very important consideration for many biochemical
methods and interactions
 Entropy order- disorder. Nature prefers to maximize
entropy "maximum disorder"
 Structure formations are driven by water interactions
 Van Der Waals Attraction
Non-specific attractions (induced dipole-induced dipole) most
effective near the contact distances. F ~ 1/R6
Atom contact Distance Atom contact Distance
H 1.2 Å C 2.0 Å
N 1.5 Å O 1.4 Å
S 1.85 Å P 1.9 Å

Weak interaction; About 1.0 kcal/mol

 Becomes important when many atoms come in
contact as in steric complementarities as in:
a) antibodies
b) enzyme substrate
 Example of macromolecule having different types of bonds

Protein structure DNA structure

 Dimensions

 Time scale
Life is in Constant Flux
 Substrates to products in 10-3 sec (ms)
 Unwinding of DNA in 10-6 sec (ms)

10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 1 103 106 109 1012

Base Unit
femto pico nano micro milli kilo mega giga tera
f p n m m K M G T

 femto fs excitation of chlorophyll

 pico ps charge separation in photosynthesis
 nano ns hinge protein action
 micro ms DNA unwind
 milli ms enzymatic reactions
 103 generation of bacteria
 2.3 x 109 sec average human life span
 Energy
 Ultimate source of energy is the sun: E = hn
 where E is the energy of a bit of light called a quantum or photon of light.
 h is a very small constant called “Planck’s constant” (6.626068 × 10-34 J s) and
 “n” is the frequency of the radiation.
 photons of green light have E of 57 Kcal/mol
 1 cal = 4.184 joules or 1 J= 0.239 cal; You must know this.
 Covalent interactions are stronger than noncovalent ones
 The carbon skeleton of a molecules is thermally stable
 e.g. C - C bond = 83 Kcal/mol or 346 KJ/mol
 The shape and interactions of molecules are governed by noncovalent interactions
 Biomolecules shape can be modified by thermal energy.
 Boil an egg, fry a steak or get a sunburn.
 Basic Materials in Cell
All cells have these basic common materials: 13%
Ions & small
Other molecules
 H2O: The solvent of life. All cellular Chemicals 3% DNA
reactions are carried out in aqueous
RNA
environment. 20%
 All chemical reactions in a cell make up its
METABOLISM.
7% Phospholipids
 And 4 Major macromolecules: 7% Carbohydrates
1. Proteins (the cell work horses) H2O
2. Nucleic Acids (genetic materials)
3. Carbohydrates (many functions)
4. Lipids (membrane and energy source and 50% Proteins
depot)
Notice that all macromolecules are organic
compounds (i.e. contain carbon).

 Plus ions & metabolites (small amounts)

 The 4 Major macromolecules
There are 4 major macromolecules (polymers) in the cell
formed by condensation of smaller building blocks
(monomers) by the removal of H2O (dehydration):

Macromolecule Building blocks Name of bond

(polymers) (monomers)
Carbohydrate Monosaccharides Glycosidic bond
Proteins Amino acids Peptide bond
Nucleic acids Nucleotides Phospho diester bond
Lipids Fatty acids + alcohol Ester bond
CHNOPS vs monomer vs macromolecules
 Characteristics of biological molecules
 All macromolecules have a “Sense” or
Directionality
 DNA : -ATC- ≠ -CTA-

 Protein: -Gly-ser- ≠ -Ser-Gly-

 Carbohydrate: -Glu-Gal ≠ -Gal-Glu-

 Macromolecules are Informational:

 Examples: AUC=Ile; ACU=Thr; UAC=Tyr

 Macromolecules Have Characteristic Three-

Dimensional Architecture

 Weak forces maintain biological structure and

determine biomolecular interactions
Structural Levels of Cell Molecules
 The Solvent of Life
 We are ~ 70% Water

 H2O is key to the behavior of macromolecules.

 All life transformations occur in aqueous media
 Most biochemical reactions take place in water
 Water is a reactant in a number of reactions, usually
in the form of H+ and OH-.

 Even water insoluble compounds such as lipid

membranes derive their structure and function
by interaction with H2O
 Biomolecules assume their shapes in response to the
aqueous medium
Structure of Water
 The difference between O and H
in electronegativity creates polar
bonds
 -OH is a very polar bond
 H2O can donate and accept
hydrogen bonds
 H2O can function as an acid or a
base

 Structure: water is a bent

molecule (geometry & polarity)
 Geometry Determines Polarity

While both bonds O-H and C-O are polar,

the sum of vectors in CO2 is zero, and therefore,
CO2 is nonpolar molecule
while H2O is polar molecule
Hydrogen Bonding in Water
 Partial charges cause electrostatic
attractions between O and H
 Each H2O can bind 4 other H2O 's.
 H-bonding among its molecules
gives water:
 a) high boiling point
 b) high surface tension or capillary
action
 d) expansion upon freezing
 e) solvent for polar molecules
 Water: Ice, Liquid, and Vapor

H20 NH3 CH4 H2S

Molecular weight 18 17 16 32
Boiling point (°C) 100 -33 -161 -60.7
Melting point(°C) 0 -78 -163 -65.5
Viscosity (centipoises) 1.01 0.35 0.10 0.15
Water As a Solvent: Ionic Interactions
 Water can solvate charged molecules
(both cations & anions)
 Water projects its partially positive
hydrogens towards negatively charged
ions.
 Water projects its partially negative
oxygen towards positively charged
ions

 Notice the opposite orientation of water

molecules around a cation versus anion.
 This type of interaction is called ion–
dipole interactions.
Water as a solvent: H-bonding
Based on their interaction with H2O,
Molecules are divided into two types:
 Hydrophobic molecules: do not
interact with H2O
 Hydrophilic molecules: able to
interact with H2O via polar
functional groups or charged groups

Which chemical groups are hydrophilic????

 All charged groups are hydrophilic

 Uncharged polar molecules have functional
groups that form H-bonds with H2O.
 Examples: Alcohols, amines, carbonyls
(aldehydes & ketones)
 Quiz

Answer by marking true (T) or False (F)

1. The most abundant elements in cell are C H N O P S ……………………………………………..…… ( )
2. Molybdenum, bromide and boron are examples of trace elements ………………………..… ( )
3. Water represents 50% of the living cell ……………………………….………………………………………… ( )
4. Covalent bond is the strongest bond in biochemistry ……….………………………………..….…… ( )
5. Hydrogen bond can be dissociated by heating or changing pH ………………………………… ( )
6. The difference between O and H in electronegativity creates covalent bonds ….… ( )
7. Most of the water soluble compounds have polar or charged groups ……………………… ( )
8. Each H2O molecule can bind 3 other H2O to form complex of 4H2O ……………………… ( )
9. The Oxygen in water molecule has one partial negative charge ……………………..………… ( )
 Functional Groups in Biochemistry (Cont.)
Examples from biochemistry

Example:
R OH OH amino acid R
Alcohol Hydroxyl (serine)
K

Example:
R SH SH amino acid
(cysteine)
Thiol Sulfahydryl O
O O O Example:
fatty acid Phos
- (Palmitic acid)
R C OH C OH R C O CH3(CH2)16COOH
Carboxylic acid Carboxylate
 Functional Groups in Biochemistry (Cont.)
Examples from biochemistry

O O O
R C R C C R Example:
Ketone Carbonyl Acyl acetone

O
O -
- P O
O P O - Example:
OH O Phosphatetic acid
Phosphate Phosphoryl

O O
Example:
R C NH2 R C H acetamide

Amide Aldehyde
Carboxylic acid Carboxylate
Functional Groups in Biochemistry (Cont.)
Examples from biochemistry

R1 R1
+
R NH2 R N H R N R2 NH3
Primary Secondary Tertiary NH2
Amino
Amines

Example:
Urea
 Alcohols & Phenols
 Alcohols:
 Any molecule having –OH group (Hydroxyl) bound
to an alkyl chain.
 Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols based on what's
bound to the C-OH group.
 Important in many biological molecules
 Some Amino acids, carbohydrates, and certain lipids
 Phenols
 A hydroxyl group bound to an aryl or aromatic
group (e.g., phenyl)

 Both can be viewed as a substituted water.

O O O
H H R H Ar H
 Properties of Alcohols
The -OH in alcohols has properties like H2O
 Can participate in H-bonding (acceptor & donor)
 Polar group   
  
 Water soluble -O-H A-
 but long carbon chain reduces solubility: R-OH
 C1 - C5 Highly soluble
 C5 - C7 Moderately soluble
 C8 and above Slightly soluble/insoluble
 Reactions of alcohols
 Dehydration: removal of a water
OH
H+
R CH2 CH R R CH CH R + H2O
Heat
 Oxidation: conversion of OH to =O.
OH O
R CH R R C R Ketone

O
R CH2 OH R C Aldehyde
H
 Remember OIL RIG
 Oxidation Is Loss of electron (before, the gain of oxygen)
 Reduction Is Gain of electron (before, the loss of oxygen)
 Phenols
 Compounds with hydroxyl group bound to a benzene ring OH
 They are weak acids
 Can lose a proton to strong bases.

 Aliphatic alcohols do not act as acids.

 The anion formed is not stable.

Strong -
OH Base
O
 The ring of phenol is easily oxidized.
 In vivo, special enzymes can accomplish this.

 In vivo means “in life” or “in a living cell”

 In vitro means “in glass”

 Thiols
 Similar to alcohols but contain S instead of O
= R-S-H
 The -SH can be called the thiol, mercaptan, or
sulfhydryl group.
 S is less electronegative than O 
 Less polar than alcohols
 Weaker H-boding capability
 Less water solubility

 Have some of the strongest & unpleasant odors

 Amines
 Many biological molecules contain amino groups.
 amino acids, DNA, RNA bases, alkaloids (e.g., caffeine, nicotine)

R1 R1
R NH2 R N H R N R2
 General formula
Primary Secondary Tertiary
 R’s are not necessarily identical. Amines
 Can be considered as substituted ammonia molecules.

 Amines are basic groups and can accept protons to become acidic.

R1 R1
+ + +
R NH3 R N H R N R2
H H
 Properties of Amines
 Nitrogen is very electronegative
 but not quite as electronegative as oxygen.

Thus:   
 Amino group are polar groups -N-H A-
 Can participate in H-bonding (acceptor & donors)
 Amines can also share H bonds with water, so they are more soluble in
water than alkanes.
 H bonds are not as strong as in alcohols
 Weak bases (similar to ammonia, a common weak inorganic base).
 Carboxylic acids
 Many biological molecules contain carboxylic group or one of its
derivatives.
 Proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, lipids, sugar, carbohydrates, and

many others.
General Formula: -COOH (carboxyl) O
 Any R possible: H, alkyl or aromatic chain R C
OH
Derivatives Formula, where Z = could be:
 -Cl (Acid chloride) O
 -OR, -OAr (Ester) R C
 -NH2, -NHR (Amide) Z
 Properties of Carboxylic Acids
 The carboxylic group is one of the most polar groups in biochemistry
 Both parts of the group are polar
 -C=O
-
 -O-H +
O
 –O-H is so polar, it is nearly ionic bond R C

 Presence of carboxylic group: O H

- +
 increases the solubility in water

 Solubility decreases rapidly as MW increases.

 Adds acidic character

 Acidity of Carboxylic Acids
 All carboxylic acids are weak acids.
- +
R - COOH R - COO + H
 They can ionize into H+ and an anion.
 Strong acids drive the reaction to the right
 Carboxylic acids occur largely as their anions in
living cells and body fluids.
 The carboxylates are salts, example, sodium acetate .
 Amides
 One of the important bonds in Biochemistry
 Amides are derivatives of carboxylic acids. O
R C
 General formula:
NH2
 Can be prepared from acids
O
 + ammonia  simple amides
R C
 + amine Substituted amides
NH
 Peptide bond is an amide bond between amino acids

 The C-N bond is the amide bond.

 One of the strongest bonds in biochemistry .
 It can be broken but require strong acid or base +
high temperatures.
 Amide Properties
 Amide molecules are polar.
 They can participate in H-bonding as donor or
acceptor
 The forces among simple amides are so great that all
except are solids at room temperature, except
methanamide (formamide).
 Amides are NOT basic molecules.
 The amine group of amide can not accept protons or
get ionized
 They are neutral in an acid-base sense.
 Common Linkages in biochemistry
O O
C O C C O C N C

Ester Ether Amide

O O O
-
C O P O O P O P O
- - -
O O O
Phosphate Ester Phosphodiaester
(phosphoanhydride)
 Ionization of Water
 
H 2O  H  OH
H+ (proton), HO- (hydroxide), H3O+ (hydronium ion)

[H ][OH-]
Ka 
[H 2 O]
•Ka is a dissociation constant, and the brackets represent the
concentrations of the species.

•[H2O] is constant by definition, so the equation simplifies to:

14
K a ( w)  [ H ][OH ]  10 At  25 C
o
 Ionization of Water: pH Scale
 
H 2O  H  OH
• Pure water has equal concentrations of H+
and HO-

[H+]=[ HO-] =10 -7 M for a neutral solution

If [H+]> 10 -7 M, then the solution is acidic

If [H+]< 10 -7 M, then the solution is basic

pH = -log[ H+]
 Bronsted-Lowry Acids
+ -
HA + H2O H3O + A
– An acid is a substance that can donate a proton
– A base is a substance that can accept a proton
– In the above equation, HA is the acid and H2O
is the base
– A- is the conjugate base of HA, and H3O+ is
the conjugate acid of H2O
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO-
Acid Conjugate base
 Quiz
Answer by marking true (T) or False (F)
1.H2O can function as an acid or a base …………………..…………………………………………………..…… ( )
2.The structure of H2O is a linear molecule ……………………………………………………………..……… ( )
3.Phenols act as a weak acid as it gives protons to a strong base ……………………………… ( )
4.Sulpher is less electronegative than Oxygen …………………………………………………………………… ( )
5.An acid is a substance that can accept a proton …………………………………………………..……… ( )
 ‫تعريف بالحموض والقواعد‬
‫وثوابت التفكك الخاصة بها‬
Definition of acids and bases and its
dissociation constants
 ‫تعريف األحماض والقلويات‬
‫‪ ‬تعريف أرهينيوس )‪Arrhenius (1884‬‬
‫األحماض هي املركبات اليت تأين يف احملاليل املائية لتعطي أيونات هيدروجني ‪.H+‬‬
‫القواعد هي املركبات اليت تأين يف احملاليل املائية لتعطي أيونات هيدروكسيل‪.OH-‬‬

‫‪ ‬تعريف برونستد – لوري )‪Bronsted-Lowry (1923‬‬

‫هذا التعريف أكثر مشولية واستخداماً يف األوساط العلمية‬
‫األحماض هي اليت تأين لتعطي بروتونات ‪.Proton donor‬‬
‫القواعد هي اليت تستقبل بروتونات ‪.Proton acceptor‬‬

‫‪BH‬‬ ‫‪H+ + B-‬‬

‫حمض‬ ‫بروتون‬ ‫قاعدة‬
 ‫(مستمر)‪ :‬األحماض والقويات‬
‫كل من احلمض والقاعدة مرافق لآلخر ‪Conjugate‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫فمثالً ‪ B-‬هي القاعدة املرافقة للحمض ‪BH‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫و ‪ BH‬هو احلمض املرافق للقاعدة ‪.B-‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫قاعدة )‪ + (B2‬حمض )‪(A1‬‬ ‫حمض )‪(A2‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫قاعدة )‪(B1‬‬

‫‪NH4+ +‬‬ ‫‪H2O‬‬ ‫‪H3O+‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪NH3‬‬

‫‪HCl +‬‬ ‫‪H2O‬‬ ‫‪H3O +‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪Cl-‬‬
‫‪HSO4 +‬‬ ‫‪H2O‬‬ ‫‪H3O +‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪SO4-‬‬
‫‪HBr +‬‬ ‫‪H2O‬‬ ‫‪H3O +‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪Br-‬‬
 ‫(مستمر)‪ :‬األحماض والقويات‬

‫ميكن للماء أن يتأين ذاتياً ليعمل كحمض وكقاعدة يف نفس الوقت‬

‫‪H2 O‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪H2O‬‬ ‫‪H3O + +‬‬ ‫‪OH-‬‬

‫قاعدة )‪ + (B2‬حمض )‪(A1‬‬ ‫حمض )‪(A2‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫قاعدة )‪(B1‬‬

‫• األمحاض الضعيفة تتأين (تتفكك) بدرجة ضعيفة ألن القاعدة املرافقة قوية فرتتبط بقوة‬
‫مع اهليدروجني‬
‫• األمحاض القوية تتأين كلياً فهي تتميز مبيلها الشديد إلعطاء (فقد) بروتونات نظراً‬
‫لضعف القاعدة املرافقة‬
‫• القواعد القوية تتميز مبيلها الشديد الستقبال بروتونات‬
 ‫ األحماض والقويات‬:)‫(مستمر‬

Ka ‫وبحساب ثابت التأين للحمض‬

HA H+ + A-

Ka 
H A 
 -

HA

Ka 
H O OH 
3
 -

H O 2

Ka 
10 10 
7 -7

55.56

K a  1.8x10 -16
 ‫(مستمر)‪ :‬األحماض والقويات‬

‫تعتمد قوة احلمض أو القاعدة على قدرة املذيب ‪ solvent‬على االرتباط بأيون اهليدروجني‪.‬‬
‫فممكن حلمض أن يكون قوياً يف أحد املذيبات وضعيفاً يف مذيب آخر‪.‬‬

‫فمثالً محض األسيتيك (اخلليك) يكون ضعيفاً يف الوسط املائي ويكون قوياً يف حملول األمونيا‪.‬‬

‫القاعدة املرافقة للحمض القوي تكون ضعيفة والعكس صحيح‪.‬‬

‫فمثالً املاء محض ضعيف ولكن قاعدته املرافقة قوية (اهليدروكسيل ‪)OH‬‬
‫أمحاض ‪HCl, HBr, HNO3‬هى أمحاض قوية (سريعة التأين) وقواعدها املرافقة‬
‫ضعيفة ‪.Cl-, Br-, NO3-‬‬
 ‫تعريف الـ ‪pH‬‬
‫هو اللوغاريتم السالب للتركيز الجزيئي أليون الهيدرونيوم ]‪[H3O+‬‬
‫]‪pH = -log [H3O+‬‬

‫]‪pH = -log [H+‬‬ ‫وتكتب غالباً بالصيغة التالية‬

‫وعند درجة حرارة ‪°25‬م تكون ‪ pH‬للماء النقي = ‪7‬‬

‫‪pH = -log [H+] = -log 10-7 = -(-7) = 7.0‬‬

‫]‪pOH = -log [OH-‬‬ ‫بالمثل يمكن تعريف الـ ‪pOH‬‬

‫‪pH + pOH = 14.00‬‬

 ‫معادلة هندرسون ‪ -‬هاسلبالخ‬
‫‪Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation‬‬
‫وضعت هذه المعادلة للتعبير عن األحماض والقواعد الضعيفة وليس األحماض القوية المخففة‬
‫إن األحماض والقواعد الضعيفة ال تتأين كلياً‪ ،‬وتوجد في حالة اتزان بين تركيز الحمض الغير متأين‬
‫وأيوناته (البوتون ‪ +‬القاعدة المرافقة)‬

‫‪HA‬‬ ‫‪H+ +‬‬ ‫‪A-‬‬

‫يمكن حساب ثابت االتزان كما يلي‪:‬‬

‫‪Ka‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫‪‬‬‫‪H A ‬‬‫‪‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪HA‬‬
 ‫ هاسلبالخ‬- ‫ معادلة هندرسون‬:)‫(مستمر‬


H A 
 -
  
 log H   log K a  log
HA
Ka
HA A  -

HA HA
H   K A 

a  -
pH  pK  log
A  -

  
log H  log( K a 
HA A -

A 
-
) pH  pK  log
HA

 

log H  log K a  log
HA
A 
-
 ‫(مستمر)‪ :‬معادلة هندرسون ‪ -‬هاسلبالخ‬

‫عندما يكون الحمض نصف متأين (يتساوى تركيز الحمض مع تركيز‬

‫قاعدته المرافقة) يكون‪pH = pK :‬‬

‫‪A   HA‬‬
‫‪-‬‬

‫‪pH  pK  log‬‬
‫‪‬‬‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪ pK  log  pK  0  pK‬‬
‫‪HA‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪pH  pK‬‬
 ‫المحاليل الحيوية المنظمة‬
‫تعريف المحلول المنظّم ‪:Buffer‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫هي محاليل تتغيّر قيمة الرقم الهيدروجيني لها تغيراً طفيفاً عند إضافة حمض أو قاعدة إليها‬
‫بكميات قليلة‪.‬‬
‫(أي أنها محاليل تقاوم التغيرات في قيمة ‪ pH‬عند إضافة حمض أو قاعدة إليها )‪.‬‬
‫يتكون المحلول المنظّم؟‬
‫مم ّ‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫يتكون من حمض ضعيف وقاعدته المرافقة (ملح الحمض) أو قاعدة ضعيفة وحمضها‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫المرافق (ملح القاعدة)‬

‫أمثلة المحاليل المنظمة‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫‪CH3COO-)، (CH3COOH‬‬
‫‪NaCN) ، HCN( )NH4Cl ، (NH3‬‬
‫‪NaHCO3) ، H2CO3( )KNO2 ، (HNO2‬‬
 ‫آلية عمل المحاليل المنظمة‬
‫حيتوى احمللول املنظم على مواد تتفاعل مع أيونات ‪ H+‬ومواد أخرى‬
‫تتفاعل مع أيونات ‪ OH-‬املضافة أو الناجتة من أي تفاعل وبذلك‬
‫يقل تأثري تلك األيونات على الوسط‬

‫مثال‪ :‬المحلول المتكون من حمض األستيك ‪ +‬أسيتات صوديوم‬

‫‪ -‬يقاوم التغري يف الـ ‪ pH‬إذا أضيف إليه محض قوي مثل ‪ HCl‬ألن‬
‫احلمض املضاف يتحلل إىل أيونات ‪ Cl-‬و ‪H+‬‬
‫‪ -‬ترتبط أيونات ‪ Cl-‬مع الصوديوم مكوناً ملح الطعام ‪ NaCl‬ال يؤثر‬
‫يف الـ ‪pH‬‬
‫‪ -‬ترتبط أيونات األسيتات مع ‪ H+‬فيتكون محض األستيك ضعيف‬
‫التحلل الذي ال يغري بدوره الـ ‪pH‬‬
‫‪Buffering Capacity‬السعة التنظيمية‬
‫تتناسب قدرة احمللول املنظم على مقاومة التغري يف الـ ‪ pH‬طردياً مع تركيز مكوناته‬
‫وتبلغ السعة التنظيمية أقصاها عندما يتساوى تركيز احلمض مع قاعدته املرافقة‬
‫مثال ‪acetate buffer‬‬

‫‪pH‬‬ ‫‪= pKa = -log Ka‬‬

‫‪log Ka = - log 1.8 x 10-5‬‬
‫‪= 4.74‬‬

‫هذا معناه أن السعة القصوى هلذا احمللول تقع عند ‪ pH = 4.74‬وتقل القدرة على‬
‫مقاومة التغري كلما بعدنا عن هذا الرقم يف حدود ‪1±‬‬
 ‫أهمية المحلول المنظم‬
‫ضرورية لضمان نشاط اإلنزميات‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ضرورية لنقل الغازات يف الدم ‪pH optima = 7.4‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫تعاجل الرتبة الزراعية مبحاليل منظمة حىت تصبح صاحلة لزراعة حماصيل‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫معينة‪.‬‬
‫أمثلة للكواشف على درجة ال ـ ‪pH‬‬
‫لونه في الوسط الحمضي‬ ‫لونه في الوسط القاعدي‬ ‫الكاشف‬

‫عديم اللون‬ ‫وردي‬ ‫فينول فثالين ‪Phenol phthaline‬‬

‫أحمر‬ ‫أصفر‬ ‫الميثيل البرتقالي ‪Methyl orange‬‬

‫أحمر‬ ‫أصفر‬ ‫‪Methyl red‬‬ ‫المثيل األحمر‬

‫أحمر‬ ‫أزرق‬ ‫‪Litmus paper‬‬ ‫دوار الشمس‬

 ‫أمثلة على ‪ pH‬لبعض السوائل‬
‫األس الهيدروجيني ‪pH‬‬ ‫المادة أو المحلول‬
‫‪2 . 40 –2.2‬‬ ‫‪-‬عصير الليمون‬
‫‪3.0‬‬ ‫‪ -‬الخل‬
‫‪4.0‬‬ ‫‪ -‬عصير الطماطم‬
‫‪6.4-4.8‬‬ ‫‪ -‬الجبنة‬
‫‪8.0 – 5.5‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ماء الشرب‬
‫‪8 .3‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ماء البحر‬
‫‪8.4–4.8‬‬ ‫‪ -‬بول االنسان‬
‫‪6 .6 – 6 .3‬‬ ‫‪ -‬حليب األبقار‬
‫‪7 .5 – 6 .5‬‬ ‫‪ -‬لعاب االنسان‬
‫‪7.5–7.3‬‬ ‫‪ -‬دم االنسان‬