1
Singularity functions
1-2-1 The unit-step function
The continuous-time unit-step function
The continuous-time unit-step function is denoted as u ( t ) and is defined mathematically
by:
0, for t < 0
u (t ) =
1, for t ≥ 0
which have the zero amplitude for all t < 0 and the amplitude of 1 for all t ≥ 0 , and its
plot is shown in Figure 1-10
u (t )
t
0
2 Fundamental of signal processing
Figure 1-10: The continuous-time unit step function
The discrete-time unit-step function
The discrete-time unit-step function is denoted as u [ n ] , and is defined mathematically
by:
0 for n = −1, −2, −3,"
u [ n] =
1 for n = 0,1, 2,3, 4,"
and its plot is shown in Figure 1-11.
u (n)
1
• • • • • n
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Figure 1-11: The discrete-time unit step function
The amplitude scaling
If A , is an arbitrary nonzero real number, than Au ( t ) is step function with amplitude
of A for all t ≥ 0 and zero for all t < 0 as
0, for t < 0
Au ( t ) =
A, for t ≥ 0
and its plot is shown in Figure 1-12.
SIGNALS 3
Au ( t )
A
t
0
Figure 1-12: The continuous-time generic step function with amplitude of A .
The causality property of unit step function
The signal f ( t ) defined over time domain of −∞ ≤ t ≤ +∞ , starts at t = −∞ . If there is
a desire that the signal be in causal form (starts at t = 0 ), it can be described as f ( t ) u ( t ) .
The product f ( t ) u ( t ) of any signal f ( t ) is equal to f ( t ) for all t ≥ 0 and 0 for all
t < 0 is given by:
0, for t < 0
f (t ) u (t ) =
f ( t ) , for t ≥ 0
Note that the signal f ( t ) exist over −∞ < t < ∞ and by multiplying the function f ( t )
by unit-step function u ( t ) , any nonzero value of f ( t ) in the time interval of
−∞ < t < 0 will be forced to zero, and the signal will be turned on at t = 0 . The plot of
f ( t ) u ( t ) is shown in Figure 1.13.
4 Fundamental of signal processing
f (t )
f ( t ) u (t )
t
SIGNALS 5
Figure 1-13:
The anti-causality property of unit step function
f (t )
0
t
f ( t ) u ( −t )
t
0
6 Fundamental of signal processing
The non-causal signal
The time-shifting operation
The time shift to the right with t0 of unit step function sets a signal to “turn on” at time t0
rather than t = 0 .
1, for t ≥ t0
u ( t − t0 ) =
0, for t < t0
u ( t − t0 )
1
t
t0
Figure 1-14: The continuous-time unit step function time shifted to the right by t0
The time shift to the left with t0 of unit step function sets a signal to “turn on” earlier
than at time t = 0 at the time −t0 .
1, for t ≥ −t0
u ( t + t0 ) =
0, for t < −t0
SIGNALS 7
u ( t + t0 )
t
−t0 0
Figure 1-15: The continuous-time unit step function time shifted to the left by t0
The time reversal
1, for t ≤ t0
u ( t0 − t ) = u ( −(t − t0 ) ) =
0, for t > t0
u ( t0 + t )
t
t0
Figure 1-16: The continuous-time unit step function time shifted to the right by t0 and
time reflected
EXAMPLE 1:
Sketch the generic step function Au ( t − t0 ) .
SOLUTION:
8 Fundamental of signal processing
The unit step function u ( t ) is scaled by scalar factor of A and time shifted by t0 to the
right
0 t < t0
Au ( t − t0 ) =
A t ≥ t0
u (t )
A
t
t0
Figure 1-17: The continuous-time generic step function.
The symmetrical unit rectangular pulse
The symmetrical unit rectangular pulse can be constructed by two unit step function
u ( t ) shifted 1 2 to the left and 1 2 to the right.
1 1
∏ ( t ) = u t + 2 − u t − 2
Also alternative presentation is
1
1 t ≤
∏ (t ) = 2
0 otherwise
SIGNALS 9
∏ (t )
t
1 1
−
2 2
Figure 1-17: The continuous-time unit pulse function
Note that the symmetrical unit rectangular pulse is an even function.
EXAMPLE 2:
Write an analytical expression to describe the waveform shown in Figure 1.8.
f (t )
t
3 5
Figure 1-18: The continuous-time pulse function time shifted to the right
SOLUTION:
10 Fundamental of signal processing
2u ( t − 3 ) −2u ( t − 5 ) f (t )
2 2
5 5
t + t = t
3 3
−2 −2
f (t )
t
3 5
Figure 1-19: The continuous-time pulse function time shifted to the right
f ( t ) = 2 u ( t − 3) − u ( t − 5 )
The signum or sign function
1 t >0
sgn ( t ) = 0 t=0
−1 t<0
sgn ( t ) = u ( t ) − u ( −t )
SIGNALS 11
u (t )
−1
Figure 1-20: The continuous-time pulse function time shifted to the right
The unit ramp function
The continuous-time unit ramp function denoted as r ( t ) is the integral of the unit step
function
t
r ( t ) = ∫ u (τ ) dτ
−∞
and can be defined as:
0 t<0
r ( t ) = tu ( t ) =
t t≥0
Alternatively, note that the step function is the derivative of unit ramp function
∂ r (t )
u (t ) =
∂t
12 Fundamental of signal processing
r (t )
2
1
t
1 2
Figure 1-21: The continuous-time ramp function
The time –shifted to the right unit ramp function
r ( t − t0 )
t
t0
t0
Figure 1-22: The continuous-time ramp function time shifted to the right by
The time-shifted ramp function having slope of m is denoted by r ( mt − t0 ) , and
mathematically defined by:
SIGNALS 13
t0
mt − t0 for t ≥
m
r ( mt − t0 ) =
0 t
for t < 0
m
and it is plotted in Figure 1-23.
r ( mt − t0 )
t0
t
m
−t0
Figure 1-23: Ramp function with slope of m and time-shifted by t0 .
y = mt − t0
t=0 y = −t 0
t0
y=0 t =
m
14 Fundamental of signal processing
S (t )
t
2
Figure 1-24: The continuous-time saw tooth function
The signal between the interval of 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 is a line between two points
P1 ( t1 = 0, s1 = 0 ) and P2 ( t2 = 2, s2 = 3) given by equation:
s2 − s1 3−0 3
S (t ) = ( t − t1 ) = (t − 0) = t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2
t2 − t1 2−0 2
S ( t ) = 0 otherwise
3
S ( t ) = t u ( t ) − u ( t − 2 )
2
Λ (t )
t
−1 1
SIGNALS 15
Figure 1-25: The continuous-time unit triangle function
1 − t for − 1 < t < 1
Λ (t ) =
0 for t > 1
EXAMPLE:
f (t )
2 P2
P1 P3
t
−1 1
Figure 1-26:
P1 ( x1 = −1, y = 0 )
P2 ( x2 = 0, y2 = 2 )
y2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
x2 − x1
16 Fundamental of signal processing
2−0
y−0= ( x − (−1) )
0 − ( −1)
y = 2 ( x + 1)
f ( t ) = 2 ( t + 1)
2 ( t + 1) u ( t + 1) − 4tu ( t ) + 2 ( t − 1) u ( t − 1)
f (t )
t
5 7 9
Figure 1-27:
( t − 5) u ( t − 5) − 2 ( t − 7 ) u ( t − 7 ) + ( t − 9 ) u ( t − 9 )
6 6 6
2 2
2
SIGNALS 17
The unit Impulse function (Dirac distribution or delta function)
The analytical expression for the unit impulse function is denoted as δ ( t ) . Where
1 t=0
δ (t ) =
0 t≠0
∞ δ ( t ) dt
∫ t =0
δ ( t ) = −∞
0 t≠0
unbounded t =0
δ (t ) =
0 t≠0
The impulse function is abstraction of the pulse with an infinitely large amplitude and
infinitesimally small pulse width. The unit impulse can be visualized as a pulse with
amplitude of 1 ε and width of ε , or as a triangle
∞
∫ δ ( t ) dt = 1
−∞
The unit impulse function δ ( t ) is not bounded at t = 0
δ (t )
1 1
ε ε
ε →0 ε →0
t −ε ε t t
ε ε
−
2 2
18 Fundamental of signal processing
Figure 1.30: The unit impulse function
t 0, for t < 0
u ( t ) = ∫ δ (τ ) dτ =
−∞
1, for t ≥ 0
∂u
δ (t ) =
∂t
Sampling or sifting properties of a function by an unit impulse function
∞ ∞
∫ x ( t ) δ ( t ) dt = x ( 0 ) ∫
−∞ −∞
δ ( t ) dt = x ( 0 )
∞
∫ x ( t ) δ ( t − t ) dt = x ( t )
−∞
0 0
The unit sample sequence (unit impulse sequence)
The analytical expression for the unit impulse function is denoted as δ ( n ) . Where
1, n=0
δ (n) =
0, n≠0
SIGNALS 19
δ ( n)
Figure 1.31: The unit impulse function
properties of the unit impulse function
The sampling (sifting) property
+∞
∫ f ( t ) δ ( t − t0 ) dt = f ( t0 )
−∞
+∞ t t
∫ f ( t ) δ ( t − t0 ) dt = ∫ 0 f ( t ) δ ( t − t0 ) dt = ∫ 0 f ( t0 ) δ ( t − t0 ) dt = f ( t0 )
+ +
−∞ t t
0− 0−
The time scaling property
1
δ ( mt ) = δ (t )
m
+∞ +∞ dτ 1 +∞
∫ δ ( mt ) dt = ∫ δ (τ ) δ (τ ) dτ
m m ∫−∞
=
−∞ −∞
20 Fundamental of signal processing
The real exponential function
The exponential signals are mathematically denoted
The sinusoidal signal
S ( t ) = A sin (ω t + ϕ ) −∞ < t < ∞
Where A is the amplitude or peak value, ω the angular frequency in radian per second
( rad sec ) , and ϕ , the phase in radian. The frequency f in Hertz ( cycle second ) is
f = ω 2π and f = 1 T . The sinusoid is periodic with period of 2π ω .
S ( t ) = A sin ( 2π ft + ϕ ) −∞ < t < ∞
2π t
S ( t ) = A sin +ϕ −∞ < t < ∞
T
sin A (ω t + ϕ )
A
t
Sometimes the amplitude is considered as peak-to-peak value that is twice of peak value.
The amplitude of a sine wave signal is given as of its root-mean-square (rms) value
which is peak value divided by 2 .
SIGNALS 21
V peak
Vrms =
2
For example peak value of home power supply in this country is 120 2 volts and rms
value of 120 volts.
Frequency f is given in per second 1
s ( ) or Hertz ( Hz ) and period T is given in second
(s) .
The phase ϕ is with respect to an arbitrary time reference.
Sinusoidal signal can be
Signals can be represented as the sum of sinusoids. For example square wave signal
f (t )
A
t
−A
4A 1 1
f (t ) = sin ω 0 t + sin 3ω 0 t + sin 5ω 0 t + ...
π 3 5
Where A is the amplitude of the square wave and ω 0 is called the fundamental frequency
2π
ω0 = , where T is period of the square wave.
T
22 Fundamental of signal processing
f (t )
A
t
−A