OILS, FATS AND

WAXES
 OILS, FATS AND
WAXES
• Fixed oils and Fats are glycerides of fatty
acids, i.e., esters of glycerol with long chain
of fatty acids, saturated such as stearic acid,
palmitic acid or unsaturated such as oleic
acid.
CH2OH + HOOC R CH2O-COR
3H2O
CHOH + HOOC R CHO-COR

CH2OH + HOOC R CH2O-COR

• The fatty acids are straight chain carboxylic
acid containing even number of carbon
atoms.

CH2OH + HOOC CH2O-COR

R
3H2O
CHOH + HOOC CHO-COR
R
CH2OH + HOOC R CH2O-COR

Glycerol Fatty acid Fat: R = Saturated chain

Oil: R = Unsaturated chain
Description of Oils, Fats & Waxes

• Fats: Fats are solid or semi-solid at 15–16oC

and are glycerides of saturated fatty acids.
• Oils: Oils are liquid at this temperature and
are glycerides of unsaturated fatty acids.
• Waxes: Waxes are esters of long chain alcohols
with long chain fatty acids.
 Sources of Oils, Fats and
Waxes
• Oils:
• Plant sources: Seeds of almost all plants,
such as Arachis, Olive, Castor, Coconut, Soybean,
Palm, etc.
• Animal Sources: Fishes, like Codfsh and
Shark
•
• Fats: Only found in Animals like Tallow, Lard

• Waxes: Mainly from animal sources such as

honeybee, whales, wool. Small quantities in
plants.
 Characteristics of Oil
Oils from plant sources:
• Are known as vegetable oils
• Are glycerides of unsaturated fatty acids
• Are oily liquids
• The oils are characterized by their:
– Reichert-Meissl Value
– Saponifcation value,
– Acid value,
– Iodine number,
– Specifc gravity,
– Refractive index, etc.
• Fats and oils may either be ‘simple’ or
‘mixed’ glycerides.
• In simple glycerides the three hydroxyl
groups of glycerol are esterifed by the same
fatty acid, example being tripalmitin,
tristearin and triolein.
CH2OR CH2OR CH2OR

CHOR CHOR CHOR

CH2OR CH2OR CH2OR

Tripalmatin Tristearin Triolein
R = Palmitic acid R = Stearic acid R = Oleic acid
If the glycerol is esterifed with diferent fatty
acids it is termed as a mixed glyceride,
example being 2-oleopalmitin (I) or 1-oleo-2-
palmitosterain (II)
CH2OR CH2OR1
R1 = Oleic acid
R1 = Oleic acid
CHOR 2 R2 = Palmitic acid
CHOR 1 R = Palmitic acid
R3 = Stearic acid
CH2OR CH2OR3

2-Oleopalmitin (I) 1-Oleo-2-palmito-stearin (II)

CH2OR1 CH2OR1
R1 = Palmitic acid R1 = Oleic acid
CHOR2 R2 = Oleic acid acid CHOR2 R2 = Palmitic acid
R3 = Stearic acid R3 = Palmitic acid
CH2OR3 CH2OR3

1-Palmito-2-Oleo-stearin (III) 1-Oleopalmitin (IV)

 Constituents
On hydrolysis fats and oils yield:
• Saturated or unsaturated fatty acids or a mixture of both
and glycerol.
CH2O COR CH2OH

CHO COR CHOH + 3 R-COOH

CH2O COR CH2OH

Oil or Fat Glycerol Fatty acid
 Constituents
Other constituents of fats and oils are:
• Phosphatides,
• Phytosterols, Stigmasterol,
• Cholesterol is found particularly in fats,
• Hydrocarbons,
• Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and
• Some volatile substances.
The principal source of oil is the seeds of
plants.
 EXTRACTION

• Initial treatment depends on botanical source of

the seed:
• Cottonseeds require delinting
• Castor seeds and peanut require decorticating.
Special machines are used for these purposes.
• Expellers are then used for the extraction of oil
either by cold or hot expression.
• Oils are also extracted by solvent extraction
method depending upon the type of raw material
used.
 EXTRACTION (Contd.)
Crude oil usually are refned. Processes
involved are:
• Filtration,
• Washing with calculated amount of alkali
to remove free fatty acid.
• Oils are also washed and decolourized.
• Castor oil requires steaming to deactivate
the enzyme lipase.
• Cake left after the extraction of the oil is
used as cattle feed.
 QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
TEST

• Reichert-Meissl Value: It indicates

the quantity of volatile fatty acid is
present on fat. It is expressed as:
• “the number of milliliters of 0.1 Normal
sodium or potassium hydroxide solution
required to neutralize volatile fatty acids
obtained from 5 grams of fat by a
specifed method of saponifcation and
distillation”.
 QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
TEST

• Acid Value: It indicates the presence of

free fatty acid in the oil and fat. It is
expressed as:
• “the number of milligram of potassium
hydroxide required to neutralize free fatty
acid in one gram of oil”.
 QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
TEST
• Saponifcation Value: It is a measure to
determine the average molecular weight (or
chain length) of all the fatty acids present as
triglyceride. Since three fatty acids are
esterifed with glycerol, it allows for comparison
of the average fatty acid chain length. A low
saponifcation value indicates the presence of
long chain fatty acids because of the fewer
number of carboxylic groups per unit mass of fat.
It is expressed as:
• “the number of milligram of potassium hydroxide
required to neutralize the free acid in and to
hydrolyze the esters in, one gram of oil”.
 QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
TEST
• Ester Value: It is the diference between the
saponifcation value and the acid value.
• Iodine number: It is a measure to determine
the degree of unsaturation in oil or fat. It is
expressed as:
• “the number of parts of iodine absorbed by 100
parts of substance”.
 Characteristics
Saturated Fats and oils have common
Characteristics:

* They are greasy and lighter than water.

* They are sparingly soluble in polar but freely
soluble in non-polar solvents.
* On heating they decompose and therefore, can
not be distilled.
* Fats and oils become rancid on long exposure
to air due to autoxidation.
 Characteristics (Contd.)
• When a drop of fat or oil is placed on paper it
forms a permanent translucent stain on the
paper.
• ketones, keto acids, oxides and peroxide
derivatives of fatty acids are produced in the
presence of light and microorganisms, which are
responsible to rancidity of fats.
• Catalytic hydrogenation of oils yields glycerides
of saturated fatty acids.
• Partial catalytic hydrogenation of oil is carried
out to produce Vegetable Ghee.
 Uses
Fatty acids are used:
• To treat skin lesions, wound, burns, eczema and
dandruf.
• Castor oil is laxative.
• Fats and oils are used in the preparation of
ointments and suppositories.
• It is also an antifungal agent.
• Fats and oils are the sources for vitamins A, D
and E. Oil is cholesterol suppressant.
• Chaulmoogra oil is used to cure leprosy.
• Oils and fats fnd extensive use in the
manufacture of soap, glycerin, paints, varnishes
and lubricants.
 FATTY ACIDS IN OIL & FATS
• Saturated Fatty acids
Butyric Acid CH3[CH2]2COOH
Isovaleric acid [CH3]2CHCH2COOH
Caproic acid CH3[CH2]4COOH
Caprylic acid CH3[CH2]6COOH
Capric acid CH3[CH2]8COOH
Lauric acid CH3[CH2]10COOH
Myristic acid CH3[CH2]12COOH
Palmitic acid CH3[CH2]14COOH
Stearic acid CH3[CH2]16COOH
Arachidic acid CH3[CH2]16COOH
Behenic acid CH3[CH2]20COOH
Lignoceric acid CH3[CH2]22COOH
Cerotic acid CH3[CH2]24COOH
 FATTY ACIDS IN OIL & FATS

• UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• Palmitoleic acid CH3[CH2]5CH=CH[CH2]7COOH

• Oleic acid CH3[CH2]7CH=CH[CH2]7COOH
• Ricinoleic acid
CH3[CH2]5CHOHCH2CH=CH[CH2]7COOH
• Linoleic acid CH3[CH2]4CH=CHCH2CH=CH[CH2]7COOH
• Linolenic acid CH3CH2[CH=CH[CH2]2CH=CH[CH2]7COOH
• Eleostearic acid CH3[CH2]3[CH=CH]3[CH2]7COOH
 Long Chain Alcohols
H3C OH

Capryl alcohol (C-8)

H3C OH

Capric alcohol (C-10)

H3C OH

Lauryl alcohol (C-12)

H3C OH

Myristyl alcohol (C-14)

 Long Chain Alcohols

H3C OH

Cetyl alcohol (C-16)

H 3C OH

Stearyl alcohol (C-18)

H 3C OH

Pelargonic alcohol (C-9)

H3C OH

Palmitoleyl alcohol (C-18)

 ARACHIS OIL

• Common Name: Groundnut oil; Peanut oil

• Biological Source: Arachis oil is obtained by
expression of the seeds of Arachis hypogaea
(Family: Leguminosae), commonly known as
peanut.
• Geographical Distribution: Arachis
hypogaea is a small plant extensively cultivated
in tropical Africa, India, Brazil, Southern USA,
Australia, and to some extent in Pakistan.
 Extraction of Oil
Fruits which are dug from the soil contain from
1–3 reddish brown seeds. The fruits are shelled
by a machine. The kernels contain 30–40% oil.
Part of the oil is removed by a low pressure
expeller and the cake is extracted by solvent.
The two oil fractions are then mixed and purifed.
Soxhlet Extractor
 Characteristics
• Peanut oil is pale yellow to colourless liquid with
nutty odour and bland taste.
• It is a non drying oil (Oil which does not harden
on exposure to air; oils having iodine number
less than 115 is considered as non drying oil)).
• Its acid value is 0.8–6.0; saponifcation value is
188–195; iodine value is 84–102.
• It thickens very slowly and becomes rancid on
prolong exposure to air. It is miscible non-polar
solvents.
 Chemical Constituents

Arachis oil contains:

• Glycerides of oleic, linoleic, palmitic, arachidic,
stearic, lignoceric and other acids.
• The principal glycerides of the oil are triolein
(11%), dioleolinolein (21%) and dilinolein (12%).
• The yellow colour of the oil is due to presence of
carotenoid pigment, chiefy β-carotene and
lutein.
 -Carotene OH

OH Lutein

• The unsaponifiable matter consists of sterols

(campesterol), stigmasterol, β-sitosterol and cholesterol;
β-sitosterol-D-glycosides, triterpenoid alcohols (amyrin,
cycloartenol, 24-methylene cycloartenol).
• Tocopherol is also present in addition to small amount of
the hydrocarbon squalene.
 Uses
Peanut oil is used:
• As edible oil; as a substitute for olive oil
• As a solvent in pharmaceutical aids.
• The oil is hydrogenated to prepare shortening
and margarine.
• It is used in soap, paints, liniment plasters and
ointment, and as vehicle for intramuscular
medication.
 CASTOR OIL

• Common Name: Castor bean oil; Ricinus oil;

Oleum ricini
• Biological Source: Castor oil is obtained by
cold pressing the seeds of Ricinus communis
Linn. (Family: Euphorbiaceae).
 Geographical Distribution:
• Ricinus communis is a plant of temperate
climate, and is extensively cultivated in India,
African countries, Brazil, China, Thailand, etc.
• It is an annual 15 m high tree, but varieties are
also present as shrubs.
• It is mainly the smaller varieties that are now
cultivated which have been developed by
breeding to produce high yielding seed plants.
 Preparation of Castor oil
• The seeds are passed through a decorticator
which removes the seed coat. The decorticating
machine equipped with rollers having sharp
cutting knives or edges break the testa but do not
injure the kernel. The testa is removed by sieve
and compressed air.
 Preparation of Castor oil
• The kernels are then expressed at room
temperature with 1–2 pounds of pressure per
square inch when 30% oil is obtained.
• The oil is fltered, steam is passed to deactivate
the enzyme and to deactivate the albumin (ricin)
and then bleached.
• The bleached and dried castor oil is sold in the
market. 90% of the world’s castor oil is supplied
by India and Brazil.
 Characteristics
• Castor oil is a colourless or pale yellow highly
viscous liquid.
• It has a slight characteristic odour, and the taste
is slightly acrid with a nauseating after-taste.
• It has excellent keeping quality, and does not
turn rancid unless subjected to excessive heat.
 Characteristics (Contd.)
• On prolong exposure to air it gradually thickens,
darkens in colour and develops more intense odour
and taste.
• It is dextrorotatory, []D +0.96;
• Acid value is less than 4; Saponifcation value is
176–187; Iodine number is 81–91; Acetyl value is
144–150; Hydroxyl value is 161–169.
• It dissolves in petroleum ether and 95% ethanol.
• When heated to 300oC for several hours it
polymerizes and becomes miscible with mineral
oils.
 Chemical Constituents
Castor seeds contains:
• Fixed oil (45 – 55%)
• The fxed oil consists of the glycerides of
ricinoleic acid (87% ), oleic acid (7%), linoleic
acid (3% ), palmitic acid (2% ), stearic acid (1% )
and traces of hydroxystearic acid.
• Protein consisting of globulin, albumin, nucleo-
albumin, glycoprotein, highly toxic albumin ricin
(20%)
• An alkaloid ricinine is present
 Chemical Constituents
CH3[CH2]5 CHOHCH2CH=CH[CH2]7COOH
Ricinoleic acid

OCH 3
CN

N O
CH3
Ricinine

CH2=CH[CH2]8COOH HOOCH[CH2]8COOH
Undecylenic acid Sebacic acid
 Uses
• Castor oil is purgative and emollient. It is used for
administration after food poisoning, as ointment
base and for preparation of fexible collodion.
Undecylenic acid, which is prepared by pyrolysis
of ricinoleic acid, is used in fungistatic
preparations.
• Castor oil is an industrial raw material for the
preparations of chemical derivatives used in
coatings, urethane derivatives, surfactants and
dispersants, paints, cosmetics, lubricants,
polishes, varnishes, grease, etc.
• It is the chief raw material for the preparation of
sebacic acid which acid is a raw material in the
manufacture of synthetic resins.
 CHAULMOOGRA
OIL
• Common Name: Hydnocarpus oil
• Biological Source: Chaulmoogra oil is the
fxed oil obtained by cold expression of the ripe
seeds of Hydnocarpus anthelmintica and other
species of Hydnocarpus (Family: Flacourtiaceae).
• Geographical Distribution: It is a tall tree
indigenous to Burma, Thailand, Eastern India
and Indochina.
• Character: The oil is yellow to brownish
yellow in colour. It is a soft solid at a
temperature below 25oC. It has a characteristic
odour and sharp taste. It is soluble in benzene,
chloroform, ether, petroleum ether, slightly
soluble in cold alcohol and carbon disulphide.
 (CH2)10COOH (CH2)12COOH (CH2)6(CH=CH)-(CH2)4COOH

Hydnocarpic acid Chaulmoogric acid Gorlic acid

• Major constituents of Chaulmoogra oil:

• Glycerides of cyclopentyl fatty acids like
hydnocarpic acid (48%), chaulmoogric acid
(27%) and gorlic acid
• Small amounts of glycerides of palmitic (6%) and
Oleic acid (12%).
• The cyclic acids are formed during the last 3–4
months of maturation of the fruits, and possess
strong antibacterial activity against
Mycobacterium leprae.
 Uses
• Chaulmoogra oil is useful in leprosy and many
skin diseases.
• The cyclopentyl fatty acids of the oil exhibit
specifc toxicity to Mycobacterium leprae and
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Derivatives of hydnocarpic acid and
chaulmoogric acid, like ethyl esters and salts,
have been prepared which are used for the same
treatment.
 COCONUT OIL

• Common Name: Copra oil

• Biological Source: Coconut oil is obtained by
expression of the kernels of Cocos nucifera
(Family: Palmae).
 Extraction of oil
Coconut oil is obtained by:
1. Drying the coconut meat
2. Grinding the coconut meat into fakes
3. Passing the fakes through hot press when
60% oil of
the dry weight of coconut is obtained.
4. The oil is then purifed and some times
refned. The refned oil is free from the
coconut favour
Processing of Coconut Oil
 Characteristics
• Coconut oil is white, semi-solid fat like substance
at a temperature below 20oC which is stable to
air.
• Its physical characteristics are: Density: 0.903;
M.P. 21–25oC; Sp. Gravity: 1.4485 – 1.4495;
Saponifcation value 255 –258 and Iodine number
8 – 9.5.
• The low iodine number indicates a high degree of
saturation. It is soluble in absolute alcohol,
chloroform, ether, petroleum ether and carbon
disulphide.
 Constituents
• Coconut oil contains glycerides of about 60%
medium chain fatty acids:
• The major constituent is lauric acid (C-12) (45–
43%); capric acid (C–10) (5-8%); caprylic acid (C-
8) (4–10%);
• It also contains palmitic (C-16) (7–10%) and
stearic acid (C-18) (2-4%);
• Total saturated fatty acid is 94%
 Uses

Coconut oil is used:

• In the manufacture of soap, edible fats, chocolate
and candies;
• In baking; in candles; in dyeing cotton;
• As an ointment base; in hair dressing and in
massage.
Coconut oil fuelled Bamboo
Taxi
 COTTONSEED OIL
• Common Name: Binola
• Biological Source: Cottonseed oil is the fxed
oil obtained by expression of the seeds of the
cultivated variety of Gossypium herbaceum and
other species of Gossypium (Family: Malvaceae).
Cottonseed Extraction Machine

Lint attached to the cottonseed

 Extraction of Oil

• Cottonseeds are frst delinted

• The seeds are then processed in expeller
machine at a high pressure when oil and
cake are obtained
• The cake is further extracted with hexane
and removal of solvent leaves the oil
• The combined oil is then treated with
alkali, washed, dried, bleached and
deodourized to get edible oil
• The cake left is used as cattlefeed
Ultra modern Edible oil
Refnery
 Characteristi
cs
• Cottonseed oil is a pale yellow liquid. It is
practically odourless and has a bland
taste.
• Its density is 0.915–0.921;
• saponifcation value is 190–198;
• iodine number is 105–114.
• It is slightly soluble in alcohol but
miscible with chloroform, ether,
petroleum ether and carbon disulphide.
 Chemical Constituents

Fatty acid composition:

• Unsaturated fatty acids (70%)
including 18% monounsaturated
(oleic), and 52% polyunsaturated
(linoleic & linolenic) acids.
• The oil also contains a yellow toxic
terpenoidal phenolic compound
gossypol.
 H O OH
OH
HO
OH
OH
HO CH3 O H

Gossypol

• Gossypol is a phenolic aldehyde that permeates

cells and acts as an inhibitor for several 
dehydrogenase enzymes.
• In order to avoid the undesirable side-efects
cottonseed oil is processed by treatmentment
with alkali to reduce the level of gossypol found
in untreated cottonseed oil.
 Uses
Refned cottonseed oil fnds extensive use as a
source of:
• Edible oil
• In the manufacture of vegetable ghee.
• In medicinal use; it is emollient and laxative.
• It has a use in veterinary as a delousing agent, as
mild laxative and emollient in small animals.
 LINSEED OIL

• Common Name: Flax seed oil; Linum; Alsi

• Biological Source: Linseed oil is obtained
from the dried seeds of Linum usitatissimum
(Family: Linaceae), commonly known as linseed
in English, and ‘alsi’ in Urdu.
• Geographical Distribution: Linseed is
cultivated in South America, USA, Canada; in
Europe it is cultivated in England, Greece, Italy,
Spain and Russia. It is also cultivated in Algeria
and India.
 Extraction of Oil

• The dried seeds are crushed in rollers, moistened

and heated to 80 – 90oC in steam to soften the
seed tissue.
• These are then passed through hot hydraulic
press at high pressure when the oil is expelled
out.
• The oil is treated with alkali to remove the free
fatty acids, and then bleached with fuller’s earth
or charcoal.
• Waxy substance which appears on cooling are
removed.
 Characteristics of
Linseed Oil

• Linseed oil is yellowish brown liquid with a

characteristic odour and bland taste.
• On exposure to air it gradually thickens and
forms a hard varnish.
• It has a high iodine number ( 170) indicating
the presence of large amount of glycerides of
unsaturated fatty acid.
 Characteristics of
Linseed Oil
• The oil is slightly soluble in alcohol; freely
miscible with chloroform, ether, petroleum ether,
carbon disulphide and turpentine oil.
• The density is 0.925 – 0935;
• Viscosity 1.47;
• Saponifcation value 187–195;
• Refractive index 1.47–1.48;
• Unsaponifable matter not over 1.5%.
 Constituents of Linseed Oil

Linseed oil which is about 30–40% of the linseed

yields on hydrolysis:
• Unsaturated fatty acids linolenic acid (30–50%),
linoleic acid (23–24%) and oleic acid (10–18%)
• Saturated fatty acids myristic, palmitic and
stearic acids (5–11%).
 Uses of Linseed Oil
• Linseed oil is used a demulcent.
• It is used in the form of poultice for gout and
rheumatic swellings.
• Internally it is used for gonorrhea and irritation of
the genitourinary system.
• It has laxative action.
• It is used in lotions and liniments, as non staining
iodine ointment, soap, grease, polishes, polymers,
varnishes, paints, putty, oil cloths, printing inks,
artifcial rubber, tracing cloth, tanning and
enameling leather, etc.
• It can be used to waterproof (sealants) and toughen
paper and fabrics.
 MUSTARD OIL

• Common Name: Sarson ka tel

• Biological Source: Mustard oil is a fxed oil
obtained by expression of the seeds of Brassica
nigra cultivated in Europe and USA, and Brassica
juncea cultivated in Pakistan and India. The
plant belongs to the family Cruciferae.
Characteristics of Mustard Oil
• Mustard oil is straw coloured, yellow coloured or
brownish yellow coloured liquid.
• Its density is 0.914–0.916;
• saponifcation value is 170–174;
• iodine number is 92–97.
• It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol,
and miscible with chloroform, ether and
petroleum ether.
Expeller Machines
 Constituents
• Mustard oil contains:
• About 60% monounsaturated fatty acid -
erucic acid (42%) and oleic acid (12% ).
• It has 21% polyunsaturated fatty acid containing
omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (6%) and omega-6
linoleic acid (15%).
• The saturated fatty acid content is 12%.
H3C
COOH
Omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid

H3C
COOH
Omega-6 linoleic acid

CH3[CH2]7CH=CH[CH2]11COOH
Erucic acid
 Uses
• In India, Pakistan and Bangladesh mustard oil is
used mainly for cooking purposes.
• It is also used in the manufacture of oleo-
margarine, soap, as lubricant and in salad.

• It has been reported to possess

antioxidant and cholesterol reducing properties.
 OH
S OH

N O
O OH H2 C C
N S
S O OH
O
+
O K Allyl isothiocyanate
Sinigrin

• Mustard oil also contains allyl isothiocyanate, a

sulphur containing compound which is pungent
and used in mustard gas.
• Allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a defense
against herbivores.
• It is harmful to the plant itself and therefore, it is
stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate,
separated from the myrosinase enzyme.
• When the animal chews the plant the enzyme
myrosinase is released and acts on a
glucosinolate known as sinigrin to release allyl
isothiocyanate repelling the animal.
OH
S OH

N O
O OH H2C C
N S
S O OH
O
+
O K Allyl isothiocyanate
Sinigrin
 OLIVE OIL

• Common Name: Salad oil; Sweet oil; Roghan-e-

zaitoon
• Biological Source: Olive oil is a fxed oil
obtained by expression of the ripe fruits of Olea
europaea (Family: Oleaceae).
• Geographical Distribution: Olive is a native of
Palestine and is produced in countries along the
Mediterranean Sea. Spain is the largest producer
of olive and now it is extensively grown in
California. Countries which produce and export
olive oil are Spain, Italy, France, Greece, Syria,
Tunisia, Turkey, Morocco and United States and
Australia. 75% of the olive oil is produced in Spain,
Italy and Greece. Olive is a high evergreen tree.
 Collection and Preparation
• Ripe fruits which are 2–3 cm in length are
collected during November to April.
• Production of Olive oil is carried out by grinding
olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or
chemical means.
• However, selection of proper ripened fruit is
essential for obtaining extra virgin olive oil
because unripe or green olives would yield bitter
oil, while oil obtained from overripe olives would
be rancid.
• Steps involved in processing of olive are as
follows:
 Olive Oil Preparation
1. Modern method involves grinding of olives into
paste in large steel drums. After grinding, the
paste is stirred slowly for another 20 to 30
minutes in a particular container, where the
microscopic oil drops unite into bigger drops,
which facilitates the mechanical extraction.
2. The oil produced by only physical means
(mechanical, no chemicals used) as described in
the above step is called virgin oil. Extra virgin
olive oil is the virgin olive oil that satisfes
specifc high chemical and organoleptic criteria
(low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic
defects).
 Olive Oil Preparation (Contd.)
3. The olive paste after removing the virgin oil is
spread on fber disks, which are stacked on top of
each other in a column, then placed into the press.
Application of pressure onto the column separates
the liquid from the paste.
This liquid still contains a signifcant amount of
water which is removed by centrifugation method.
The centrifuges have two exits, one for water which
is heavier and the other for oil which is lighter.
Olive oil should not contain signifcant traces of
water as it accelerates the process of organic
degeneration by microorganisms.
 Olive Oil Preparation (Contd.)
4. Sometimes the oil is fltered to eliminate any
remaining solid particles that may reduce the
shelf life of the product.
5. The remaining paste which still contains about 5-
10% oil cannot be extracted by further pressing
and therefore extracted with solvents in
specialized chemical plants. The resulting oil is
termed as pomace oil or technical grade oil.
6. Olives processed at a maximum temperature of
25°C refers to"cold-extraction". Processing at
higher temperature decreases the quality of olive
oil such as texture, taste and aroma.
 Characteristics
Olive oil is a pale oily liquid with a greenish tinge
due to the presence of chlorophyll or carotenes.
The oil has a slight odour and bland taste.
It is slightly soluble in ethanol but freely in ether,
chloroform and carbon disulphide.
It becomes rancid on exposure to air.
Its specifc gravity is 0.914 – 0.919; acid value
0.2–2.8; saponifcation value 187–196; acid value
0.6 – 6.6; and iodine number is 75–94.
 Chemical Constituents
Main constituent of olive oil is mixed glycerides
of:
• oleic acid (83.55%),
• plamitic acid (9.4%),
• linoleic acid (94.0%),
• stearic acid (2.0%) and
• arachidic acid (0.9%).

Minor constituents are squalene (0.7%),

phytosterol and tocopherol ((0.7%).
 USES
Olive oil is used:
• As the main cooking oil in countries surrounding
the Mediterranean Sea.
• It is used in the manufacture of pharmaceutical
preparations, soap, textile lubricants,
sulphonated oils, liniments, cosmetics, plasters;
• As food in salad dressing and in sardines; for
cooking and baking.
• It is demulcent, emollient and laxative.
 PALM OIL

• Biological Source: Palm oil is obtained from

mesocarp (reddidh pulp) of the fruits of Elaeis
guinensis Jacq. (Family: Palmae; Arecaceae).
• Geographical Distribution: Major palm oil
producing countries are Malaysia, Indonesia, and
Colombia. Kenya and Ghana also produce palm
oil but to a lesser extent.
 Collection and Preparation
• The palm tree begins to bear fruit after around
four years. An adult palm tree may produce up to
100 kg of bunches per year with an average
weight of between 15 kg and 25 kg. One fruit
bunch contains as many as 100 fruits.
 Two types of Palm oil are obtained:
• Crude palm oil: Obtained from the pericarp of
the fresh fruit bunch and
• Palm kernel oil: Produced from the kernel.
• The pericarp of the fruit is composed of an
external hull (epicarp) and a pulp made of oily
fbers (35–85% of the fruit weight) containing
40–60% palm oil and 35–45% water. Palm kernel
oil contains about 45 -50% palm kernel oil..
 Extraction
• The kernels and the pericarp are cracked,
cooked, faked and expanded with steam to
maximize the yield of oil.
• The oil is then extracted by pressing and also by
solvent extraction.
• Palm kernel oil and crude palm oil are obtained
respectively on removal of solvent.
• Further purifcation of these oils is carried out by
technologies such as degumming, neutralization,
bleaching, winterization and deodourization
 Refning of Oil
• Degumming: Gums naturally occurring in
vegetable oils need to be removed to ensure
stable, high-quality oil. Enzymatic degumming
converts nonhydratable lecithin (gums) into
water-soluble lysolecithin. This can be removed
with the wastewater in a one-step centrifugation
stage.

• Neutralization: The free fatty acids present

in oil is neutralized by using calculated amount
of alkali.
 Refning of Oil
• Winterization: It is a process of removing
the higher melting point parts like hydrocarbons,
waxes or triglycerides of long chain fatty acids
present in vegetable oils which precipitate or
solidify on cooling.
• Bleaching: The oils are bleached by using
Fuller’s earth, Activated carbon, Activated clays,
etc., to give a light colour.
• Deodourization: Removal of aldehydes and
ketones by steam distillation
 Characteristics
• Palm oil is semi-solid at room temperature. It is
yellowish-brown in colour and has a buttery
consistency with agreeable odour. Its melting point is
30oC.

Constituents
• Palm oil is principally contains 44% of the glyceride of
palmitic (C16) and 39% of oleic acid. Chemically palm
kernel oil difers from palm oil due to high proportion
of triglyceride of lauric acid (C12) (48%) which is a
medium chain fatty acid. The oil is rich in carotenes.
 Uses
• Palm oil fnds extensive use in food industries:
• As a source of edible oil as well as in the
manufacture of vegetable ghee.
• World production of palm oil exceeds 11 million
tons 50% of which is produced by Malaysia.
• Palm oil is now a major source of sustainable and
renewable raw material for the world’s food,
oleochemical and biofuel industries.
• Palm oil and palm kernel oil have diferent
applications in world market.
 Uses of Palm Oil (Contd.)

• Palm oil is used mainly for food,

• Palm kernel oil is used mainly in oleochemical
industry for making soaps, detergents and
toiletry products, paints, varnishes, linoleum,
printing ink, etc.
• Fractionation of palm kernel oil yields an
odourless, white, brittle solid with m. p. 31–36oC,
which is suitable for its use as a suppository
base.
• Palm oil is also used to create biodiesel.
Linoleum
 SOYBEAN OIL

• Common Name: Soyabean oil

• Biological Source: Soybean oil is obtained

from the seeds of Glycine max (Family:
Leguminosae) by solvent extraction using
petroleum ether, or to a lesser extent by
expression using continuous screw process
operation.

• Geographical Distribution: Major soybean oil

producing countries are United States, Brazil,
Argentina, China, India, Paraguay and Canada.
 Characteristics
• Soybean oil is pale yellow to brownish yellow oil
with a characteristic odour and taste. Its
saponifcation value is 189–195, iodine number is
127–138 and acid value is 0.3–3.0.

Constituents
• The oil contains triglycerides of oleic acid (26%),
linoleic acid (49%), linolenic acid (11%) and of
saturated acid 14%. Free fatty acids are usually
less than 1%. It also contains stigmasterol,
sitosterol and tocopherol and isofavones.
 Uses - Soybean
• It is used as vehicle for cooking.
• It is also blended with olive oil.
• It is used in the manufacture of margarine,
shortenings, candies and soaps.
• It is also used in industries for the manufacture
of paints, varnishes, linoleum, printing ink, etc.
 COD LIVER OIL /
SHARK LIVER OIL

• Biological Source: Cod liver oil is a fxed oil

prepared from the fresh liver of the codfsh
Gadus morhua. Similarly, shark liver oil is a
fxed oil obtained from the fresh liver of shark
fsh. Both the fsh liver oils are rich in vitamin A.
• Geographical Distribution: Major producers
of cod liver oil are UK and Iceland. Other
European countries such as, Norway, Germany
and Denmark also produce cod liver oil in
smaller quantities. Shark liver oil is produced in
India where it is used as oleum selachoidei in
Indian pharmacopoeia.
 Preparation
• Livers of the codfsh contain about 50% oil.
• Fresh livers of the codfsh are immediately
removed, cleaned, freed from attached tissues,
gall bladders, and steamed at 80oC.
• The crude oil, which starts foating is separated
and purifed or, in other words, refned.
• Refning is carried out under air free condition
in order to avoid oxidation.
• The refning stages involve the following:
 Separation of Impurities
• The hermetic automatic refning plant consists of
a battery of mixers linked to centrifuges.
• The crude oil is rapidly heated to 77oC in heat
exchangers and passed to disc type mixers where
controlled addition of a reagent takes place
which removes impurities.
• Oil from water is separated by a centrifugal
separator (7000 rpm) without bringing the oil in
contact with air.
The process is twice repeated.
Heat Exchanger
 Preparation (Contd.)
• Drying: Drying is carried out in a vacuum
drying tower which continuously evaporates any
small amount of residual water and discharges
clear, bright highly refned oil.
• Winterization: All medicinal oils are cooled to
0oC when stearin separates out. This solid is
removed by cold fltration in a flter press when a
polyunsaturated enriched product is obtained.
• Deodorization: Final deodorization is achieved
by steaming which removes about 0.02% of
aldehyde and ketone impurities.
• Standardization: The medicinal oil is fnally
standardized for vitamin content by blending, no
extra vitamins being added.
• Storage: The oil should be kept in well flled,
air tight containers protected from light and
heat. A small amount of antioxidant (dodecyl
gallate) is added as preservative.
• Characteristics: Medicinal cod liver oil is a
very pale yellow liquid with a slightly fshy odour
and taste. It is insoluble in water, sparingly
soluble in alcohol and freely soluble in non-polar
solvents. Its acid value should not be over 1.2.
The iodine number is 145–180 and saponifcation
number is 180–190.
 Constituents
• Cod liver oil contains large amounts of Vitamin A
and D.
• The oil consists of glycerides of unsaturated (85%)
and saturated (15%) fatty acids.
• Cod liver oil has high levels of the omega-3 fatty
acids, EPA (Eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA
(Docosahexaenoic acid).
• These are long chain of omega-3 polyunsaturated
essential fatty acids which are found in fsh.
Omega 3 fatty acids are essential because humans
are unable to synthesize them and therefore they
must be obtained through our diet.
 CH 2OH

HO
Vitamin A Vitamin D3; Cholecalciferol

COOH H3C
H3 C
COOH

Eicosapentaenoic acid Docosahexaenoic acid acid

 Chemical Tests
1.A solution of cod liver oil in chloroform when
treated with sulphuric acid, a violet colour
changing to purple or brown appears indicating
the presence of vitamin-A.
2. Saturated solution of antimony chloride in
chloroform is added to a solution of cod liver oil
in chloroform when a blue colour is formed due
to the presence vitamin A.
 Uses – Cod Liver Oil
• The medicinal properties of cod liver oil are due
to vitamin A and vitamins of D group.
• Cod liver oil is principally used for the prevention
and cure of rickets and in the treatment of
xerophthalmia (eye dryness) caused due to the
defciency of vitamin A.
• Cod liver oil is nutritive and is used as a tonic.
• Recent researches have established the activity
of cod liver oil in reducing blood cholesterol
level.
 Uses – Cod Liver Oil
• The eicosanoids are important because they regulate
pain and swelling.
• They have anti-infammatory type mechanisms of
action and also help maintain proper blood pressure.

• EPA is believed to be benefcial for many

autoimmune and infammatory disorders including
arthritis, asthma, infammatory bowel disease,
systemic lupus erythematosus, and psoriasis.
• Omega-3 appears to be benefcial for cardiovascular
health by reducing the risk of cardiac risk and
ischemic stroke.
• Lupus erythematosus: It is a collection of
autoimmune disease in which the human immune
system becomes hyperactive and attacks normal
healthy tissues. Symptoms of these diseases can
afect many diferent body systems, including
joints, kidneys, skin, blood cells, heart and lung.
• Psoriasis: It is an immune-mediated disease that
afects the skin. It is typically a lifelong condition.
There is currently no cure, but various treatments
can help to control the symptoms. Psoriasis
occurs when the immune system mistakes a
normal skin cell for a pathogen and sends out
faulty signals that cause overproduction of new
skin cells. It is not contagious.
 SPERMACETI

• Common Name: Cetaceum

• Biological Source: It is a solid wax obtained
from the head and blubber of the sperm whale,
Physeter catodon L. (Syn. P. macrocephalus L.
Family: Physeteridae), and also from other
species of Physeter. Part of the spermaceti of
commerce is obtained from the bottle-nosed
whale, Hyperoodon rostratus Billherg. (Family:
Ziphiidae).
 Geographical Distribution

• The whales are found in Pacifc, Atlantic and

Indian Oceans.
• It is found chiefy in Mozambique, Zanzibar and
Sri Lanka.
• The fshery base is in San Francisco.
 Collection and Preparation

• The head of the sperm whale is very large,

comprising about one-third of the whole animal,
which is 15-25 meters in length.
• In the upper region of the huge jaw and above
the right nostril an oily liquid is secreted.
• This cavity is emptied of its oil which, on cooling,
deposits a quantity of crystalline substance
called as spermaceti.
 Collection and Preparation
• It is separated by fltration under pressure and
purifed by melting and washing with dilute
solution of sodium hydroxide to free it from the
last traces of oil.
• The spermaceti is washed with boiling water to
separate it from the soap thus produced.
• When freed from excess of alkali and, on cooling
it forms white crystalline mass.
• The head oil yields about 11-12% solid matter.
 Characteristics
• Spermaceti occurs in translucent, crystalline mass,
partly white in colour and unctuous to touch.
• Its specifc gravity is 0.95-0.96; melting point 46º-
50ºC; acid value not more than 1; saponifcation
value 125-136; iodine value 3-5; refractive index at
80ºC is about 1.4330.
• It is insoluble in water and cold alcohol, but freely
soluble in ether, chloroform and boiling alcohol.
• It crystallizes out on cooling the alcoholic solution.
• It has little odour or taste.
 Constituents
• 80% of Spermaceti consists of mixture of cetyl
palmitate (C15H31COOC16H33) and cetyl myristate
(C13H27COOC16H33) in about equal proportions.
Small proportion of esters of other acids e.g.,
lauric acid is also present.
• It contains about 51.5 to 53% of wax alcohol.
• Cetyl alcohol can be prepared from spermaceti
which has been recrystallised from alcohol.
• Cetyl alcohol occurs in colourless, glistening
leafets having a melting point of about 49.5ºC.
• It is insoluble in water, freely soluble in ether
and in chloroform but less soluble in alcohol.
 Uses
• Cetaceum crystals are hard but oily to touch.
• It is a very useful ingredient in cosmetics,
leatherworking, and lubricants.
• It is used in making candles of a
standard photometric value,
• Used in the dressing of fabrics and as
pharmaceutical excipient specially in cerates and
ointments.
 Uses

• Cetyl alcohol is used in cosmetic industry as a

surfactant in shampoos, or as an emollient,
emulsifer or thickening agent
• It is used in the manufacture of skin creams and
lotions.  
• It is also employed as a lubricant for nuts and
bolts.
• It is also used in association with shellac or with
mastich as an enteric coating for pills.
 Adulterants
• Spermaceti is adulterated with stearic acid, stearin,
tallow, parafin wax and hydrogenated sperm oil.
Stearic and other fatty acids raise the acid value.
Stearin, tallow and parafin wax are decolouarized
in boiling alcohol. Stearin and tallow raise the
saponifcation value, but parafin wax lowers it.
• Hydrogenated Sperm Oil: It is prepared in
two forms, soft and hard, of which the latter
resembles spermaceti and can be detected by
fnding numerous small crystals of stearin in a
microscopical slide of the melted wax. 5% of
stearin mixed with spermaceti can be detected in a
similar way.
 WOOL FAT

• Common Name: Lanolin, wool grease

• Biological Source: Lanolin, which is
incorrectly termed as wool fat as it does not
contain glycerides of fatty acid, is obtained from
the domestic sheep Ovis aries (Family: Bovidae).
 Processing
• Raw wool contains 10 to 25 percent grease or
"lanolin," which is recovered during the scouring
(cleaning) process. 
• In the processing of wool, the feece is scoured
with an aqueous alkaline solution to remove
debris, wax, water-soluble material, and free
acids.
• The insoluble fraction, which constitutes about
15–20% of the weight of the original wool, is
crude lanolin which is separated from the
washings by mechanical means or by solvent
extraction and purifed.
 Characteristi
cs

• Wool fat is a pale yellow substance with a

characteristic odour.
• It is insoluble in water but freely soluble in ether
and chloroform.
• Its saponifcation value is 90–105; iodine number
18–32; acid value is not more than 1.
 Constituents
• Wool fat consists chiefy of cholesteryl and iso-
cholesteryl alcohols combined with lignoceric,
lanopalmitic, carnaubic, myristic, a little oleic,
and cerotic acids.
• Major constituents of wool fat are about 35%
cholesterol and 35 -40% lanosterol, unsaturated
monohydric alcohols free or combined with
lanoceric, lanopalmitic, carnaubic and other fatty
acids.
• Wool fat also contains aliphatic alcohols, such as
cetyl, cetyl and carnaubyl alcohols.
 Uses

• Purifed wool fat or anhydrous lanolin is used as

a base in cosmetics as skin moisturizer, lotions
and ointments. A particularly useful property of
lanolin is the formation of stable emulsions
containing up to 25% water. Unrefned lanolin
has some use in inks and as
a corrosion and rust preventative. 
• Adulterants: The adulterants of wool fat are
soft parafin or animal and vegetable fats and
oils.
 BEESWAX

• Biological Source: Beeswax is produced in the

beehive by the honeybees of various species of Apis.
The most common species is Apis mellifera
belonging to family Apidae.
• Geographical Distribution: Beeswax is prepared
by the honeybee in various countries of the world
such as Australia, New Zealand, USA, India, Africa
and in small scale, in several countries of the world.
It is estimated that bees fy 150,000 miles, roughly
six times around the earth, to yield one pound of
beeswax (530,000 km/kg).
• Description: Wax is an ester of long chain fatty
acids with long chain alcohols, which is secreted by
the honeybee on the under surface of its body. It
forms the walls of the cells of the honeycomb.
• Processing: Beeswax, a byproduct of honey, is
prepared by the worker bees, which are females.
They secrete beeswax from a series of glands on
the ventral side of their abdomen. The
honeybees produce honey which is stored in the
honeycomb made by the wax. In this honeycomb
cells the young ones of the bees are raised,
pollens are produced and is used for storage of
honey. After storage of honey the honeycomb is
sealed with wax.
• The ambient temperature in the hive has to be 33
to 36 °C (91 to 97 °F) for bees to secrete wax.
• The honey is extracted from the wax caps by
cutting of each honeycomb cell with a knife or
machine and centrifugation.
• During harvesting the honey, the wax can be
gathered as a byproduct of the honey production.

• The wax is clarifed by heating in water which

removes the water soluble impurities and
fltered.
• The product is the yellow wax of commerce.
White wax is obtained by exposing thin bands of
yellow wax for several weeks to sunlight and air.
It may be remelted to promote the bleaching by
 Chemical Constituents
• The constituents of beeswax vary depending on
its source, the weather conditions, the year and
the time of collection. 
• Beeswax is composed of the esters of long chain
saturated fatty acids with long straight chain
aliphatic alcohols.
• The constituents are about 70% esters, 1%
alcohols, 10% acids, 13% hydrocarbons, besides
other minor ingredients.
 Chemical Constituents (Contd.)

• The chief constituent of beeswax is

myricin (myricyl palmitate), melting point 64oC.
• It also contains cerotic acid (formerly called
cerin), C26H52O2, and melissic acid, C30H60O2.
• About 6% hydrocarbons of the parafin series,
including heptacosane, C27H56, and
hentracontane, C31H64 are also present.
• Melting point of Beeswax ranges from 62 – 64oC.
 Uses

Ozokerite

• It is estimated that globally about 10,000 tons of

wax is produced annually.
• Beeswax is mainly used to make honeycombs for
reuse by the bees. In this application it is
occasionally blended with ozokerite (a naturally
occuring mineral wax) and petroleum waxes.
• Beeswax is used commercially to make candles.
• Purifed and bleached beeswax is used in the
production of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals
including bone wax.
• It is also used in shoe polish, furniture polish and
as a component of modeling waxes.
• Beeswax candles are preferred because on
melting it does not drip and also does not
produce smoke or soot.
• It is also used as a coating for cheese, to protect
the food as it ages. It is used as a food additive
 Adulterations
• Beeswax may be adulterated with solid parafin, with
various fats and waxes of vegetable or animal origin,
resin, stearic acid, rosin, etc.
• When the wax is dissolved in oil of turpentine or
petroleum ether, starch meal and other insoluble
substances remain behind.
• Parafin is not attacked by hot concentrated sulphuric
acid, whereas beeswax is entirely destroyed.
• Therefore, heating of beeswax with concentrated
sulphuric acid for ffteen minutes at 160°C will not leave
appreciable amount of ether soluble matter.
• The purity of wax may be determined by the acid value,
which should not be less than 17.9 and the ester value
which should be about 69.6 to 76.1; the ratio of the acid
value to the ester value should be about 1 to 4.