Unit 3 DCN Lecture Notes 23 45

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Unit-3 DCN - Lecture notes 23-45
Data communications & Networks (Bangalore University)
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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 1 of 40
3. Digital Transmission
Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital in form.
Analog and Digital Signal
Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range.
Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
Comparison of Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Digital
Analog signal is a continuous signal which Digital signals are discrete time signals
transmits information as a response to generated by digital modulation.
changes in physical phenomenon.
Data transmission is poor quality Data transmission is high (good) quality
Response to Noise it is More affected. Response to Noise it is Less affected.
Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous values to

represent information represent information
Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Analog technology records waveforms as Converts analog waveforms into set of

they are. numbers and records them. The numbers
are converted into voltage stream for
representation.
Example Human voice in air Example Electronic devices

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Characteristic of Data signals
Digital Signals are
continuous
constant in intensity
require greater channel bandwidth than analogue signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called
a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods.
A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats
over time.
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or nonperiodic.
The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

A period is defined as the amount of time (expressed in seconds) required to complete
one full cycle.

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Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s. Note that period and frequency are
just one characteristic defined in two ways.
Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of period,
the following formulas shown below.
Frequency f= 1/T and Period T=1/f
Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
The phase is measured in degrees or radians (360 degrees is 2p radians)

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Time and Frequency Domain
A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.

The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is
an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.
To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we use frequency-domain

plot. A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value and the
frequency. Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown.
It is obvious that the frequency domain is easy to plot and conveys the information
that one can find in a time domain plot. The advantage of the frequency domain is
that we can immediately see the values of the frequency and peak amplitude. A
complete sine wave is represented by one spike. The position of the spike shows the
frequency; its height shows the peak amplitude.

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A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain.
Properties of Digital Transmission Systems

a) Bandwidth
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth (OR)
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
Bit interval and Bit rate
The bit interval is the time required to send one single bit.
The bit rate is the number of bit intervals in one second, usually expressed in bits
per second (bps).

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Amplitude
The amplitude of a signal is the value of the signal at any point on the wave. It is equal to
the vertical distance from a given point on the wave from the horizontal axis.
Amplitude is measured in volts, amperes, or watts, depending on the type of Signal.

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b) SIGNAL – TO- NOSIE RATIO (SNR)
The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
We need to consider the average signal power and the average noise
power because these may change with time.
SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the
signal is more corrupted by noise.
below figure shows the idea of SNR.

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c) DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send

data, in bits per second. over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by
Nyquist for a noiseless channel. another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
d) Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Signal Rate
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist signal rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 L
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of

signal levels used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have
any bit rate we want by increasing the number of signal levels. Although the idea is
theoretically correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the number of signal
levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a signal is just 2,
the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64,
the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels. In
other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
e) Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944,
Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the
Theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth x log2 (1+ SNR)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel; SNR is the signal-to-
noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.

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Note that in the Shannon formula there is no indication of the signal level, which
means that no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate higher
than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the formula defines a characteristic
of the channel, not the method of transmission.

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Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We assume
that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored
in computer memory as sequences of bits.
Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data
are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by
decoding the digital signal. Below fig shows the process.
There are several schemes in each category. We need to be familiar with all
schemes discussed in this section to understand the rest of the book. This section can
be used as a reference for schemes encountered later.
Digital Encoding
Schemes
Unipolar BiPolar polar

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Unipolar Scheme
In a Unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either
above or below. In unipolar encoding, we use only one voltage level.
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) traditionally, a Unipolar scheme was designed as a non-
return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit I and the
zero voltage defines bit O. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to
zero at the middle of the bit. Below Figure show a Unipolar NRZ scheme.

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Polar Schemes
In polar encoding, we use two voltage levels: positive & negative
Polar Schemes
In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example,
the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for I can be negative.
a). Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ): In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of

voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I,
as shown in the following Figure.
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit.
In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines the value
of the bit. In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change
in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit
is 0; if there is a change, the bit is 1.

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b) Return to Zero (RZ):
The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are
not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit
is starting. One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values:
positive, negative, and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the
bit. In the following figure, we see that the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit.
It remains there until the beginning of the next bit.
Bipolar Schemes
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.
In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage levels,
positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the
voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI).
In alternate mark inversion, a neutral zero voltage represents binary O. Binary 1s are
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
A variation of AMI encoding is called Pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as

a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.
The bipolar scheme was developed as an alternative to NRZ. The bipolar scheme has
the same signal rate as NRZ, but there is no DC component. The NRZ scheme has
most of its energy concentrated near zero frequency, which makes it unsuitable for
transmission over channels with poor performance around this frequency. The
concentration of the energy in bipolar encoding is around frequency N/2.

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Sketch the signal wave forms when 101011100 are transmitted in the
following codes Unipolar, Polar NRZ, Bipolar

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Modems and Digital modulation: Amplitude shift keying,

Frequency shift keying, Phase shift keying.
Amplitude shift keying (ASK):
ASK in the context of digital communications is a modulation process, which imparts to

a sinusoid two or more discrete amplitude levels. These are related to the number of
levels adopted by the digital message.
For a binary message sequence there are two levels, one of which is typically zero.
Thus the modulated waveform consists of bursts of a sinusoid.
Below figure illustrates a binary ASK signal (lower), together with the binary sequence
which initiated it (upper). Neither signal has been bandlimited.
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes. Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero
• application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

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Frequency shift keying (FSK):
As its name suggests, a frequency shift keyed transmitter has its frequency shifted
by the message.
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a method of transmitting digital signals. The two

binary states, logic 0 (low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an analog waveform.
Logic 0 is represented by a wave at a specific frequency, and logic 1 is represented by
a wave at a different frequency. A modem converts the binary data from a computer
to FSK for transmission over telephone lines, cables, optical fiber, or wireless media.
The modem also converts incoming FSK signals to digital low and high states, which
the computer can "understand."
Frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. peak amplitude

& phase remain constant during each bit interval.
• application: over voice lines, in high-freq. radio transmission, etc.

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Phase shift keying (PSK):
Phase shift keying (PSK) A digital-to-analog modulation method in which the phase of
the carrier signal is varied to represent a specific bit pattern.
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes. Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.
PSK – phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. peak amplitude &
freq. remain constant during each bit interval. PSK is equivalent to multiplying
carrier signal by +1 when the information is 1, and by -1 when the information is 0

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Transmission Medium
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Computers and telecommunication devices use signals to
represent data. These signals are transmitted from a device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy.
Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together. The twisting helps to reduce the interference (noise)
and crosstalk. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other
is used only as a ground reference.
Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital signals. The
bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance traveled, but several
megabits/sec can be achieved for a few kilometers in many cases. Due to their
adequate performance and low cost, twisted pairs are widely used.
Twisted-pair cable comes in two forms:
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair

cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh
covering that enhances each pair of insulated
conductors. The metal casing prevents the
penetration of electromagnetic noise. Materials and

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STP is costly than UTP but less susceptible to noise.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP cable is the most common type of

Telecommunication medium in use today.
The range is suitable for transmitting both
data and video. UTP is cheap, flexible,
and easy to install.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Two
kinds of coaxial cable are widely used. One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly used
when it is intended for digital transmission from the start. The other kind, 75-ohm
cable, is commonly used for analog transmission and cable television but is
becoming more important with the advent of Internet over cable.
A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating
material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely-
woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of high
bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. The bandwidth possible depends on the cable
quality, length, and signal-to-noise ratio of the data signal. Modern cables have a
bandwidth of close to 1 GHz.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COAXIAL CABLE

Low cost
Easy to install
Up to 10Mbps capacity
Medium immunity form EMI
Medium of attenuation
ADVANTAGES COAXIAL CABLE
Inexpensive
Easy to wire
Easy to expand
Moderate level of EMI immunity
DISADVANTAGE COAXIAL CABLE
Single cable failure can take down an entire network
Optical Fiber Cable
Metal cables transmit signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is made of
glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Light, a form of electromagnetic energy, travels at 300,000 Kilometers/second in a

vacuum. The speed of the light depends on the density of the medium through
which it is traveling ( the higher density, the slower the speed).
Figure (a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
An optical transmission system has three key components: the light source, the
transmission medium, and the detector. Conventionally, a pulse of light indicates a 1 bit
and the absence of light indicates a 0 bit. The transmission medium is an ultra-thin

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fiber of glass. The detector generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it. By
attaching a light source to one end of an optical fiber and a detector to the other, we
have a unidirectional data transmission system that accepts an electrical signal,
converts and transmits it by light pulses, and then reconverts the output to an
electrical signal at the receiving end.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
Types of Optical Fiber
There are two basic types of fiber: multimode fiber and single-mode fiber.
Multimode fiber is best designed for short transmission distances, and is suited for
use in LAN systems and video surveillance.
Single-mode fiber is best designed for longer transmission distances, making it

suitable for long-distance telephony and multichannel television broadcast systems.
Advantages of Optical Fiber
The major advantages offered by fiber-optic cable over twisted-pair and coaxial
cable are noise resistance, less signal attenuation, and higher bandwidth.
• Noise Resistance: Because fiber-optic transmission uses light rather than

electricity, noise is not a factor. External light, the only possible interference,
is blocked from the channel by the outer jacket.
• Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is

significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run for
miles without requiring regeneration.
• Higher bandwidth: Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-
optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and
reception technology available.

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Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
The main disadvantages of fiber optics are cost, installation/maintenance, and

fragility.
• Cost. Fiber-optic cable is expensive. Also, a laser light source can cost
thousands of dollars, compared to hundreds of dollars for electrical signal
generators.
• Installation/maintenance
• Fragility. Glass fiber is more easily broken than wire, making it less useful
for applications where hardware portability is required.
Radio Transmission
Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can penetrate
buildings easily, so they are widely used for communication, both indoors and
outdoors. Radio waves also are omni directional, meaning that they travel in all
directions from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be
carefully aligned physically.
The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies, radio
waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from
the source, roughly as 1/r2 in air. At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in
straight lines and bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. At all
frequencies, radio waves are subject to interference from motors and other electrical
equipment.
Due to radio's ability to travel long distances, interference between users is a problem.
For this reason, all governments tightly license the use of radio transmitters .
In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground, as illustrated in Fig-(a).
These waves can be detected for perhaps 1000 km at the lower frequencies, less at
the higher ones. Radio waves in these bands pass through buildings easily, which is
why portable radios work indoors. The main problem with using these bands for data
communication is their low bandwidth.

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Figure (a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth. (b) In the HF
band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the earth.
However, the waves that reach the ionosphere, a layer of charged particles circling the
earth at a height of 100 to 500 km, are refracted by it and sent back to earth, as
shown in Fig-(b). Under certain atmospheric conditions, the signals can bounce
several times. Amateur radio operators (hams) use these bands to talk long distance.
The military also communicate in the HF and VHF bands.
The terms VLF, LF, MF, and HF refer to very low, low, medium, and high
frequency, respectively.
Infra red Light
Unguided infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication. The remote
controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared communication. They
are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major drawback: they
do not pass through solid objects (try standing between your remote control and your
television and see if it still works). In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward
visible light, the waves behave more and more like light and less and less like radio.
On the other hand, the fact that infrared waves do not pass through solid walls well is
also a plus. It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not
interfere with a similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings: you cannot control your
neighbor's television with your remote control. Furthermore, security of infrared
systems against eavesdropping is better than that of radio systems precisely for this
reason. Therefore, no government license is needed to operate an infrared system, in
contrast to radio systems, which must be licensed outside the ISM bands. Infrared
communication has a limited use on the desktop, for example, connecting notebook
computers and printers, but it is not a major player in the communication game.

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Error detection and correction: Error detection, two dimensional parity

checks, internet checksum, polynomial codes and their error detection
capability
Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with acceptable
accuracy. For most applications, a system must guarantee that the data received are
identical to the data transmitted. Any time data are transmitted from one node to
the next, they can become corrupted in passage. Many factors can alter one or more
bits of a message. Some applications require a mechanism for detecting and
correcting errors.
Error detection
First, we discuss the idea of error detection in general terms, using the single parity
check code as an example. The basic idea in performing error detection is very
simple as shown in below fig.
The information produced by an application is encoded so that the stream that is input
into the communication channel satisfies a specific pattern or condition. The receiver
checks the stream coming out of the communication channel to see whether the
pattern is satisfied. if it is not, then error has occurred and therefore sets an alarm to
alert the user.
The simplest code is the single parity check code that takes k information bits and
appends a single check bit to form a codeword. The parity check ensures that the
total number of 1‘s in the codeword is even; that is, the codeword has even parity.
The check bit in this case is called a parity bit. This error-detection code is used in
ASCII where characters are represented by seven bits and the eighth bit consists of
parity bit. Thus if the information bits contain an even number of 1‘s, then the parity
bit will be 0; and if they contain an odd number, then the parity bit will be 1.
In the below fig, at the transmitter a checksum is calculated from the information
bits and transmitted along with the information. At the receiver, the checksum is

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recalculated, based on the received information. The received and recalculated

checksums are compared, and the error alarm is set if they disagree.

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Two-Dimension Parity Checks
A simple method to improve the error-detection capability of a single parity check

code is to arrange columns that consists of k information bits followed by a check bit
at the bottom of each column as shown below.
The right-most bit in each row is check bit of the other bits in the row, so the last
column is a check codeword over the previous m columns. The resulting encoded
matrix of bits satisfies the pattern that all rows have even parity and all columns have
even parity.
If one, two or three errors occurs anywhere in the matrix of bits during
transmission, then at least one row or parity check will fail, as shown in below fig.
however, some patterns with four errors are not detectable, as shown below fig.
The two-dimensional code was used in early data link controls where each column
consisted of seven bits and a parity bit and where an overall check character was
added at the end. The two-dimensional parity check code has the property that error-
detecting capabilities can be identified visually, but it does not have particularly good
performance.

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Polynomial Codes
The polynomial code, also known as a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). Polynomial
codes are based upon treating bit strings as representations of polynomials with
coefficients of 0 and 1 only. A k-bit frame is regarded as the coefficient list for a
polynomial with k terms, ranging from xk - 1 to x0. Such a polynomial is said to be
of degree k - 1. The high-order (leftmost) bit is the coefficient of xk - 1; the next bit
is the coefficient of xk - 2, and so on. For example, 110001 has 6 bits and thus
represents a six-term polynomial with coefficients 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, and 1: x5 + x4 + x0.
Polynomial arithmetic is done modulo 2, according to the rules of algebraic field

theory. There are no carries for addition or borrows for subtraction. Both addition and
subtraction are identical to exclusive OR. For example:

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Long division is carried out the same way as it is in binary except that the subtraction
is done modulo 2, as above. A divisor is said ''to go into'' a dividend if the dividend has
as many bits as the divisor.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
When data is transmitted on a network it is possible that the original data (i.e the
input) which is usually in binary format gets corrupted. In order to ensure that the
data received at the receiving end is not corrupted a binary code also called a
checksum is appended with the data. At the receiving end the receiver performs an
operation on the data bits to find the checksum and matches it with the code
appended to the data. If the checksum is same it accepts the data. If not then it sends
a 'negative acknowledgement' to the sender along with a request to retransmit the
data.
One simplest way to generate a checksum is by adding a single bit called the parity bit
which is calculated by XORing the data bits. This can be even or odd. On the receiver
side the data bits are again XORed. If the result complies with the parity bit the data
is accepted else a CRC error message is thrown.
CRC is a polynomial arithmetic based technique used to compute a checksum of 8, 16

or 32 bits which is then appended to the input data at the time to transmission. Here
the message/data is treated as a polynomial which is divided by a generator
polynomial. This generator polynomial is a pre agreed / fixed polynomial (sequence of
bits) which is accepted by both the sender and receiver and is in accordance to CRC
standards. For an r bit CRC the generator polynomial is also of degree r i.e to
generate a 16 bit CRC, the generator polynomial will also be a binary data of 16 bits.
The remainder obtained by dividing the message bits with the generator bits is the
CRC code which is then appended with the message being transmitted. On the
reciever side the same process is performed and the remainder found is compared to
the CRC attached with the data. If it doesn‘t matches the CRC error is thrown.

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The algorithm for computing the checksum is as follows:

1. Let r be the degree of G(x). Append r zero bits to the low-order end of the frame so
it now contains m + r bits and corresponds to the polynomial xrM(x).
2. Divide the bit string corresponding to G(x) into the bit string corresponding to
xrM(x), using modulo 2 division.
3. Subtract the remainder (which is always r or fewer bits) from the bit string
corresponding to xrM(x) using modulo 2 subtraction. The result is the checksummed
frame to be transmitted. Call its polynomial T(x).
The below figure illustrates the calculation for a frame 1101011011 using the
generator G(x) = x4 + x + 1.

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JUST for GLANCE (for more Reference)

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Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing,

Wavelength Division Multiplexing, SONET Multiplexing
Multiplexing:
Multiplexer(many to one) is a device that can accept ‗n‘ different inputs and
sends out one single output.
The output can be transmitted over a link or medium to its destination, where original
input can be recovered. This is done by demultiplexer (one to many).
Types of Multiplexing

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Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
Frequency spectrum is divided into several non-overlapping frequency bands. Each

user uses a unique band.
The traditional way of using a satellite is FDM. If there are N users, the bandwidth is
divided up into N equal sized portions, each user being assigned one portion. Since
each user has his own private frequency to use, there is no interference between
users. It is the basis for broadcast radio.
Several stations can transmit simultaneously without interfering with each other
provided they use separate carrier frequencies ( separate channels). In data
communications FDM is implemented by sending multiple carrier waves over the
same copper wire. At the receiver‘s end, demultiplexing is performed by filtering out
the frequencies other than the one carrying the expected transmission.
Channels are separated from each other by guard bands to make sure there is
no interference among the channels.
Example: Cable TV where 10-15 TV channels share the same coaxial cable medium
without interfering with each other.

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Time Division Multiplexing
All senders use the same frequency but at different points in time.
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time: one guy talks at a
time.
• Precise synchronization is needed.
– All senders have precise clocks and scheduling.
– Or, there has to a way to distribute synchronization signals.
– Receivers have to listen to the right frequency at exactly the right points in
time. - Flexible, adaptive to users with different loads.
ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing—that is why it is called

Asynchronous Transfer Mode—to multiplex cells coming from different channels. It
uses fixed-size slots the size of a cell. ATM multiplexers fill a slot with a cell from any
input channel that has a cell; the slot is empty if none of the channels has a cell to
send.
The below fig shows, how cells from three inputs are multiplexed. At the first tick of
the clock, channel 2 has no cell (empty input slot), so the multiplexer fills the slot
with a cell from the third channel. When all the cells from all the channels are
multiplexed, the output slots are empty.

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Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals. Wavelength-
division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-
optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic
transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available
bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.
WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The
idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The
difference is that the frequencies are very high.
In optical transmissions, FDM is known as Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
With light different frequencies correspond to different colors. Several transmissions

can be send over the same fiber by using different light colors, and combining into a
single light stream.
Prisms are used as multiplexors and demultiplexors.

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SONET Multiplexing
SONET stands for ―Synchronous Optical Network‖, and is a method for communicating
digital information using laser or LED‘s and a single clock is used to handle the timing,
control and functionality of all the network equipments.
The high bandwidths of fiber-optic cable are suitable for today‘s highest data rate
technologies (such as video conferencing) and for carrying large numbers of lower-
rate technologies at the same time. ANSI created a set of standards called
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) to handle the use of fiber-optic cables. It
is used to transmit high-speed data. It can be used to deliver text, audio, and video.
SONET first defines a set of electrical signals called synchronous transport signals
(STSs). It then converts these signals to optical signals called optical carriers
(OCs). The optical signals are transmitted at 8000 frames per second.

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Circuit Switches: Space division switches, Time division switches
Circuit switching uses any of the three technologies: Space-division switches,
Time-division switches or a combination of both. Space Division Switching:
In space-division switching each input takes a different physical path in the switch
matrix depending on the out-put. Hence, when a connection is established through a
space switch matrix, a permanent physical contact is made on the matrix of cross-
points.
This was originally developed for the analog environment, and has been carried over to
the digital domain. Some of the space switches are crossbar switches; Multi-stage
switches.
A crossbar switch is shown below, Basic building block of the switch is a metallic
crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
A crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, using electronic microswitches

(transistors) at each crosspoint. The major limitation of this design is the number of
crosspoints required. To connect n inputs to m outputs using a crossbar switch requires n
x m crosspoints. For example, to connect 1000 inputs to 1000 outputs requires a switch
with 1,000,000 crosspoints. A crossbar with this number of crosspoints is impractical.
Such a switch is also inefficient because statistics show that,

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in practice, fewer than 25 percent of the crosspoints are in use at any given time.
The rest are idle.
Multistage Switch
The solution to the limitations of the crossbar switch is the multistage switch,
which combines crossbar switches in several (normally three) stages, as shown in
Figure. In a single crossbar switch, only one row or column (one path) is active for
any connection. So we need N x N crosspoints. If we can allow multiple paths
inside the switch, we can decrease the number of crosspoints. Each crosspoint in
the middle stage can be accessed by multiple crosspoints in the first or third stage.
The image illustrates how 2 CPU's A (001) and B (011) accesses two different
memory blocks M (001) and N (110).
The CPU A puts 001 for memory module 001 onto the Module-Field of the message.
The first stage looks at the first bit witch is 0 and activates the output line 1B.X. The
second stage 2C analyses the 2nd bit witch is also 0 and activates the output line
2C.X. The last bit is analyzed by the last stage. The 3A switch activates the 3A.Y
output since the last bit is 1.
If an other CPU wants to access the memory 001 it has to wait. Therefore the
omega network is a blocking network.

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Time Division Switching:
Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing (TDM) inside a switch.

The most popular technology is called the time-slot interchange (TSI). Time-slot
interchange (TSI) changes the order of the slots based on the desired connection.
TSI consists of RAM with several memory locations.
• The size of each location = the size of a single time slot.
• The number of locations = the number of inputs.
• The RAM fills up with incoming data from time slots in the order received. Slots are
then sent out in an order based on the decisions of a control unit

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Unit-3 DCN - Lecture notes 23-45

Data communications & Networks (Bangalore University)

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 1 of 40

Analog and Digital Signal

Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range.

Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

Comparison of Analog and Digital Signals

Data transmission is poor quality Data transmission is high (good) quality

Response to Noise it is More affected. Response to Noise it is Less affected.

Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous values to

Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves

Analog technology records waveforms as Converts analog waveforms into set of

Example Human voice in air Example Electronic devices

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 2 of 40

Characteristic of Data signals

Digital Signals are

require greater channel bandwidth than analogue signals

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 3 of 40

Period and Frequency

Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of period,

the following formulas shown below.

Frequency f= 1/T and Period T=1/f

Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.

The phase is measured in degrees or radians (360 degrees is 2p radians)

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 4 of 40

Time and Frequency Domain

A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.

To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we use frequency-domain

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 5 of 40

Properties of Digital Transmission Systems

The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth (OR)

Bit interval and Bit rate

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 6 of 40

Amplitude is measured in volts, amperes, or watts, depending on the type of Signal.

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 7 of 40

b) SIGNAL – TO- NOSIE RATIO (SNR)

The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

below figure shows the idea of SNR.

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BCA404T- Data Communications and Networks Page 8 of 40

c) DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send

1. The bandwidth available

2. The level of the signals we use

3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

d) Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Signal Rate

In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of

e) Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

Theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel: