Chapter I

Mechanics of Machinery I LINKAGES Dr. B.M.
El-Souhily
Mechanics of Machinery I
Dr. B.M. El-Souhily ‫ بسيوني السهيلي‬.‫د‬
References:
1- "Mechanics of Machinery", Vol. 1 ,Kinematics, E.M. Badawy, N.A.
Maharem, M.A. Mostafa, and H.M. El-Hares, the General Egyptian Book
Organization, 1973.
2- "Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines" G.H. Martin, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, 1969.
3- "Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery" H.H. Mabie, and F.W. Ocvirk,

JohnWiley and Sons.Inc, 1975.
4- "Design of Machinery", Third Edition by Robert L. Norton, the McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc. 2004.
1
Mechanics of Machinery I LINKAGES Dr. B.M. El-Souhily
CHAPTER I
LINKAGES
Introduction:
Kinematics: Kinematics is the study of the geometry of motion (or geometry in
motion). Displacement, velocity and acceleration are considered. Kinematics
concerns geometry with no mention of force.
Kinetics: Kinetics concerns the relation of force to motion.
Dynamics: Dynamics thus concerns the two pillars that are labeled by the words
kinematics and kinetics. Dynamics is useful for the analysis of, for example, fast
machines, vibrations, and ballistics.
Machine: machine is a device used to convert energy into different forms and
transmit energy.
- The electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy.
- The electric generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy.
- The gasoline engine is a machine for transferring mechanical energy.
Gasoline Engine
2
A link or (Element): is any part of a machine having a motion relative to some

other part. It must be capable of transmitting a force.
- Types of Links:
a- Tension Link
A belt, chain or a wire rope (tensile force)
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b- Compression Link
Fluid of the hydraulic jack (compressive force)
c- Rigid Link
(Tensile or compressive force)
Links of different order
4
A kinematic pair: is the connection which holds two adjacent links together.
- Kinds of pairs:
5
According to the nature of contact, the pairs are divided into higher pairs or half
joints and lower pairs or full joint.
- Higher pairs are so called, because of the relative displacement of any two
points of the elements is more complex than in the other case.
6
A kinematic chain: is a combination of kinematic pairs in which each element

or link forms part of two pairs.
- If the chain is constrained so that the motion of one link (the driver)
determines the motion of all other links, the chain becomes a mechanism of
one degree of freedom (Fig. a).
- If the chain is locked so that relative motion is not possible, the chain
becomes a structure (Fig. b and c).
- The following Fig. shows a chain of two degree of freedom.
- The following Fig. shows an open chain and a closed chain.
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Degrees of Freedom:
A link can be represented by a segment of constant length. But in x-y plane such a
segment is determined by three coordinates, the coordinates of any point on it and
its slope. We need three position coordinates for each link, except the fixed one,
i.e. a total of 3(L-1), where L is the number of links, for each joint, two equations
can be written (for example for a turning pair the abscissa and the ordinate of the
joint are the same for the two links)
If PL is the number of the lower pairs, and
If PH is the number of the higher pairs,
The degree of freedom is given by:
𝐷. 𝑂. 𝐹 = 3(𝐿 − 1) − 2𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝐻 𝐺𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Gruebler equation is not always applicable.
8
9
Example
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Mechanism:
When one link of the kinematic chain is fixed, the kinematic chain may used to
transmit or transform motion. It treated as a mechanism.
Cycle, Period, and Phase of Motion:

- When the parts of a mechanism have passed through all the possible positions
they can assume after starting from a simultaneous set of relative positions and
have returned to their original relative positions, they have competed a cycle of
motion.
- The time required for a cycle of motion is the period.
- The simultaneous relative positions of a mechanism at a given instant during a

cycle are a phase.
Path of motion and Distance:

The path of a moving point is the locus of its successive positions, and the
distance traveled by the point is the length of its path of motion.
Displacement Diagram:
It is a diagram of the displacement of some point (usually on the last driven link
o/p) corresponding to the displacement of some other point (usually on the first
driving link i/p).
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Inversions of a Mechanism:
If in a mechanism, the link which was originally fixed is allowed to move and
another link becomes fixed, the mechanism is said to be inverted.
The inversions of a mechanism don't change the motion of its links relative to each
other but change their absolute motions (relative to the ground).
Slider inversions
a- Slider-Crank Mechanism used in gasoline and diesel engines.
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b- Radial craft engine, the crank shaft is stationary and the crank-case and
cylinders rotated. The propeller is attached to the crank-case. (Quick-return
Mechanism).
c- Tilting-block mechanism, used in "Oscillating-cylinder steam engine".
d- Old-fashioned hand pump and Powder compacting press.
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Powder compacting press
Linkages:
1- Four-Bar Mechanism:
• A four bar linkage or simply a 4-bar or four-bar is the simplest
movable linkage. It consists of 4 rigid bodies (called bars or links), each
attached to two others by single joints or pivots to form a closed loop.
• If each joint has one rotational degree of freedom (i.e., it is a pivot), then
the mechanism is usually planar, and the 4-bar is determinate if the
positions of any two bodies are known (although there may be two
solutions). One body typically does not move (called the ground link,
fixed link, or the frame), so the position of only one other body is
needed to find all positions. The two links connected to the ground link
are called grounded links. The remaining link, not directly connected to
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the ground link, is called the coupler link. In terms of mechanical action,
one of the grounded links is selected to be the input link, i.e., the link to
which an external force is applied to rotate it. The second grounded link
is called the follower link, since its motion is completely determined by
the motion of the input link.
• Planar four-bar linkages perform a wide variety of motions with a few
simple parts. They were also popular in the past due to the ease of
calculations, prior to computers, compared to more complicated
mechanisms.
• Grashof's law is applied to pinned linkages and states; the sum of the
shortest and longest link of a planar four bar linkage cannot be greater
than the sum of remaining two links if there is to be continuous relative
motion between the links. Below are the possible types of pinned, four-
bar linkages;
Types of four bar linkages, s = shortest link, l = longest link
Four-Bar
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These mechanisms fall into three classes:
4-bar inversions
17
Considering the following:
s = length of shortest bar

l = length of longest bar
p, q = lengths of intermediate bar
Grashof's theorem states that a 4-bar mechanism has at least one
revolving link if:
s + l <= p + q
and all three mobile links will rock if:
s+l>p+q
Triple-rocker
A 4-bar mechanism is crank-rocker if:
O2C + CD < O2O4 +O4D R.E.P. (point D2)
(CD – O2C)+O4D > O2O4 L.E.P. (point D1)
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(R.E.P & L.E.P. = Right & Left Extreme

Position)
A 4-bar mechanism is double-rocker if:
O2C + CD < O2O4 +O4D
O4D + CD < O2O4 + O2C
A 4-bar mechanism is double-crank if:
O2C + CD > O2O4 +O4D
O4D + CD > O2O4 + O2C
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Examples of 4-Bar Mechanisms
a) Rear Window Wiper Mechanism:
 This mechanism transforms the rotary

motion of the motor into an oscillating
motion of the windshield wiper.
 This is a crank-rocker mechanism.
b) Beam Engine Mechanism:
Oil Pump Jack
c) Crimping Tool:
Crimping-Tool
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d) Deltoid toggle linkage used to control truck tailgate motion:
e) Front-End-Loader:
Front-End-Loader
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2- Slider-Crank Mechanism:
a b
Engine Mechanism
Dead Positions: in which the crank and connecting rod are inline.
(T.D.C. & B.D.C. Top & Bottom Dead Center)
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3- Quick-Return Mechanisms:
These mechanisms are used on machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke and a
quick return stroke.
There are several types of quick-return mechanisms which are:
a- Drag Link:
Developed from the 4-bar mechanism (double-crank).

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b- Whitworth:
Whitworth
Both links b & d make complete revolutions
c- Crank-Shaper:
Shaper
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Link 2 rotates completely Link 4 oscillates
β = cutting angle α = return angle = 360 – β
t1 = time of cutting stroke t2 = time of return stroke
β = ω t1 α = ω t2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝛽
Time ratio = = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 360−𝛽
4- Scotch Yoke Mechanisms:
This RRPP mechanism converts the rotary motion of a crank to a reciprocating

motion of the slider (in blue). The mechanism can be used as sinusoid generator.
5- Mechanisms with Large Mechanical Advantage "Toggle Mechanisms":
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Many mechanical linkages are based on the simple toggle that consists of two
links which tend to line up in a straight line at one point in their motion. The
mechanical advantage is the velocity ratio of the input point A with respect to the
outpoint point B: or VA/VB. As the angle α approaches 90º, the links come into
toggle, and the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio both approach infinity.
However, frictional effects reduce the forces to much less than infinity, although
they are still quite high.
In punch presses, large forces are needed at the lower end

of the work stroke. However, little force is required during
the remainder of the stroke. The crank and connecting rod
come into toggle at the lower end of the punch stroke,
giving a high mechanical advantage at exactly the time it
is most needed.
A cold-heading rivet machine is designed to

give each rivet two successive blows. Following
the first blow (point 2) the hammer moves
upward a short distance (to point 3). Following
the second blow (at point 4), the hammer then
moves upward a longer distance (to point 1) to
provide clearance for moving the workpiece.
Both strokes are produced by one revolution of
the crank, and at the lowest point of each stroke
(points 2 and 4) the links are in toggle.
A stone crusher has two toggle linkages in series

to obtain a high mechanical advantage. When the
vertical link I reaches the top of its stroke, it comes
into toggle with the driving crank II; at the same
time, link III comes into toggle and link IV. This
multiplication results in a very large crushing force.
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A toggle press has an increasing mechanical

advantage to counteract the resistance of the
material being compressed. A rotating
handwheel with a differential screw moves
nuts A and B together, and links I and II are
brought into toggle.
A scissors jack is used to raise a car for changing tires. Its compact geometry
allows easy storage. The gear pairs at the base and top allow the device one degree
of freedom. Note that the power screw (a helical joint) is replaced by a sliding joint
in this simulation file.
A scissors jack
Locking pliers: The pair of locking pliers (vise grip pliers) is used to hold two
pieces together at the toggle position of the four-bar linkage when the handle (in
blue) and the connecting link (in green) are collinear. The jaws can be opened by
lifting the handle.
Locking pliers
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6- Oldham Coupling:
Oldham Coupling is a mechanism to transfer torque between two parallel but
not collinear shafts. It has three discs, one coupled to the input, one coupled
to the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first two by tongue and
groove. The tongue and groove on one side is perpendicular to the tongue
and groove on the other. Often springs are used to reduce backlash of the
mechanism. The coupler is much more compact than, for example,
two universal joints.
This Oldham coupling provides motion at a constant velocity as its central

member describes a circle. The shaft offset can vary, but the shafts must
remain parallel. A small amount of axial freedom is possible. A tilt in the
central member can occur because of the offset of the slots. This can be
eliminated by enlarging its diameter and milling the slots in the same
transverse plane. An Oldham coupler is a method .
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7- Elliptic Trammel :
An elliptic trammel is a four-bar linkage with RPPR joints, an inversion of
Scotch Yoke. It can be used to trace ellipses (including circles).
Elliptic Trammel 1 2 Multi-points
For reasons that it traces an ellipse:

𝑥
= cos 𝜃
𝑎
𝑦
= sin 𝜃
𝑏
2 2
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2 + 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏
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8- Parallel-Motion Mechanisms :
9- Straight- Line Mechanisms :

a) Exact Straight-Line Motions:
Generation of straight line motion using linkage mechanisms has always been a
common requirement in machine design practice. Although exact straight line
cannot be generated using simple mechanisms though some simple mechanisms
are designed such that they can produce approximate straight lines for short range
of motion. These approximate straight line mechanisms has important applications
in machine design. These mechanisms were used extensively in classical machines
such as steam engines. Perfect straight lines can also be generated using linkage
mechanisms but those are relatively complex mechanisms.
• Mathematical introduction:
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A line OQF is turning about O such that the product (OQ . OF) remains always
constant, the point Q moving along a circumference pathing through O.
∆∆ 𝑂𝐹𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑅𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟,

𝑂𝑄 𝑂𝑅 𝑂𝑄.𝑂𝐹
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑋 =
𝑂𝑋 𝑂𝐹 𝑂𝑅
But OR is constant and OQ . OF is also constant,
∴ 𝑂𝑋 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐹 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ) ⊥ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑂𝑅𝑋
i. The Peaucellier Mechanism:
The first planar linkage was invented by Charles Nicolas Peaucellier (1832-
1913) in 1864. It uses eight links. Peaucellier linkage can convert an input
circular motion to the exact straight line motion. The construction of this
mechanism is such that the point which is connected to the crank moves in a
circular path and the point traversing the straight line is selected as the output
point. The linkage has a rhombic loop formed of the equal length members, 5,
6, 7 and 8. Two equal length links are connected to the opposite corners of the
rhombus at one end and to a common fixed point at the other ends. The point A
of the rhombus is connected to a fixed point O2 through the link 2. The length
of the link 2 is equal to the distance between points O 2 and O4. By the
constraints of the geometry point A moves in a circular path and as the point A
moves in a circle point P traverses an exact straight line path normal to the line
joining O2 and O4.
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂4 𝐷2 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅2 ,
𝑂4 𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ 2 = 𝐴𝐻
𝐴𝐷 ̅̅̅̅2 + 𝐻𝐷
̅̅̅̅2
𝑖. 𝑒 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂4 𝐷2 − ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐷2 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂4 𝐻2 − ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐻2 = (𝑂 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
4 𝐻 − 𝐴𝐻 )(𝑂4 𝐻 + 𝐴𝐻 )
= ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂4 𝐴 . ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂4 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑃
∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑂4 𝑂2
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The Peaucellier Mechanism
From the construction of the Peaucellier linkage it is clear that this is a much more
complex mechanism than the mechanisms generating approximate straight lines,
which were simple four bar linkages.
ii. The Hart Mechanism:
The Hart Mechanism:
AB = CD, AD = BC, HP = HO (H center of rotation of point P)
AC // OPQ // BD
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If O, P, Q are three fixed points on the AB, AD and BC rods, positioned so that
the straight line on which they lie is parallel to AC, the same will happen in
whatever position of the mechanism, and we will have OP · OQ = BQ · QC -
OA · OB = constant. Thus if O is fixed, the points P and Q correspond in a
circular inversion and, if P moves on a circumference passing through O, point
Q draws a straight line.
̅̅̅̅ 2 = 𝐵𝐷
𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ 2 − 2𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅2 + 𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ cos 𝐵𝐷𝐶
̅̅̅̅ . 𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ − 𝐴𝐶
𝐵𝐷 ̅̅̅̅
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 cos 𝐵𝐷𝐸 =
̅̅̅̅
2𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ − 𝐴𝐶
𝐵𝐷 ̅̅̅̅
∴ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐵𝐷 ̅̅̅̅ . ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷2 − 2𝐵𝐷 𝐶𝐷. = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ . 𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝐷2 + 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅
2𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
̅̅̅̅ . 𝐴𝐶
∴ 𝐵𝐷
△△ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 & 𝑂𝐵𝑄 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟:

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ . 𝑂𝑄
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
= 𝑜𝑟 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 =
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑄 ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵
△△ 𝐵𝐴𝐷 & 𝑂𝐴𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟:

̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . 𝑂𝑃
= 𝑜𝑟 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷 =
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐴 ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐴
̅̅̅̅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
̅̅̅̅ . 𝐴𝐶
∵ 𝐵𝐷
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 . 𝑂𝑃 𝐴𝐵 . ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑄
∴ . = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐴 ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵
̅̅̅̅ . ̅̅̅̅
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑄 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑂𝐻
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iii. Scott-Russell Exact Straight Line Mechanism:
Scott-Russell
The complexity of the mechanisms to generate exact straight lines can be reduced
by introduction of one or more slider crank linkages. It is possible to generate an
exact straight line using the slider crank mechanism but the range of motion is
limited. One such example is Scott-Russell Mechanism as shown. Based on the
geometry of the linkage the output motion is a simple sine function of the drive
link or a simple harmonic motion. It is evident from the figure that this mechanism
is made up of isosceles triangles; AB, AC and AO2 are of equal lengths.
b) Approximate Straight-Line Motions:
Approximate straight line mechanisms can generate straight line motion to a good
deal of accuracy for short range. Such mechanisms are generally four bar linkage
mechanisms. The straight line mechanism developed by James Watt, to guide the
piston of steam engines through a straight line path, is considered to be as the best
and simplest mechanism able to generate close to straight line motion for
considerable distance
i. The Watt Mechanism:
Watt's linkage (also known as the parallel linkage) is a type of mechanical linkage
invented by James Watt (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) to constrain the
movement of a steam engine piston in a straight line.
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The Watt Mechanism
Watt's linkage is a simple four bar mechanism of double-rocker type with the two
rockers (AB and CD) are connected through a coupler.
When in mid-position AB // CD. Point P (which divides the coupler inversely

proportional to the lengths of AB and CD) moves in an almost straight line path for
the motion close to coupler's mean position. AB and CD can be on the same side
and point P divides BC externally.
In 1784, James Watt designed this steam engine to produce power directly on a
shaft (in gray). At the time there were no means available for machining crosshead
guides that would accurately constrain the piston to move in a straight line. The
ingenious Watt's linkage is a straight line mechanism developed to circumvent this
difficulty. The double acting cylinder has a bore diameter of 19 inches with a 4 ft
stroke. Note that the sun gear and planet (in pink) gears have the same size.
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Watt steam engine
ii. Evans Straight-line Mechanism:
Evans linkage is a modification of Scott-Russell mechanism. CB on its mid

position is perpendicular to AC. Point C moves on large circular arc (practically
along a straight line).
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iii. The Grasshopper Mechanism:
The grasshopper escapement is an

unusual, low-friction escapement for
pendulum clocks invented by British
clockmaker John Harrison around 1722.
An escapement, a part of every
mechanical clock, is the mechanism that
releases the clock's gears to move forward
by a fixed amount at each swing of the
pendulum.
Grasshopper escapement
iv. The Chebyshev( Tchebicheff ) Mechanism:
The Chebyschev linkage, a double rocker, traces a straight line. A platform with a
connecting link. The coupler curve traces a straight line and the platform moves
horizontally along the straight line without rotation.
v. The Robert Mechanism:
Like the Chebyshev's mechanism Robert's approximate straight line mechanism is

a symmetrical four bar linkage. The construction of Robert's mechanism is
38
different from the approximate straight line mechanisms discussed so far, in the
sense that, this mechanism has an extension to the coupler at the coupler midpoint.
This extension is perpendicular to the line joining the two adjacent joints. The end
point of the coupler extension generates an approximate straight line for the motion
between the fixed pivots. (a=1/2 c)
Robert's mechanism
vi- The D-Drive Mechanism:
D-Drive
39
A segment of the coupler curve is close to a straight-line segment for film

advancement. The tip of the coupler (called film hook) is inserted into the
perforation of the film at an angle of approximately 90° to pull the film for
advancing one frame. The hook leaves the film strip also at an angle of
approximately 90°.
10- Intermittent motion Mechanisms :
Intermittent motion is motion which starts and stops regularly. For example, in a
cinema projector the film needs to be moved on one frame at a time then held
stationary while the light projects it onto the screen.
The intermittent mechanism must be employed in concert with a rotating shutter

which blocks light transmittance during the motion of the film and allows light
through while the film is held in place usually by one or more registration pins.
The intermittent mechanism can be accomplished in many ways, but most often, it
is done with sprocket wheels, claws, or pins coupled to the camera or projector
drive mechanism.
In movie theater projectors, the intermittent movement is often produced by a

Maltese cross mechanism. However, in a movie camera, it is done through a
process by which a shutter opens exposing the film negative to light for a split
second then the shutter closes blocking light from reaching the negative.
i- Geneva Wheel:
A Geneva mechanism converts the motion of a continuous rotating crank to an

intermittent motion of the Geneva wheel. For a four-slot wheel, the Geneva wheel
rotates 90 degrees for a complete rotation of a crank.
The mechanism was originally invented to prevent over-winding a watch spring.

The watch spring was wound by the shaft attached to the Geneva wheel and the
winding handle was fixed to the other shaft. When the designers omitted one of the
slots they restricted the number of turns, through which the winding handle could
be turned, thus protecting the spring. The mechanism is now used for indexing
purposes. For example, indexing of a turret of an automated lathe, an automatic
tool changer in a milling machine, or to move the film on one frame at a time in
film projectors.
40
An interesting example of intermittent gearing is the Geneva Wheel shown in

Figure. In this case the driven wheel, B, makes one fourth of a turn for one turn of
the driver, A, the pin, a, working in the slots, b, causing the motion of B. The
circular portion of the driver, coming in contact with the corresponding hollow
circular parts of the driven wheel, retains it in position when the pin or tooth a is
out of action. The wheel A is cut away near the pin a as shown, to provide
clearance for wheel B in its motion.
If one of the slots is closed, A can only move through part of the revolution in
either direction before pin a strikes the closed slot and thus stops the motion. The
device in this modified form was used in watches, music boxes, etc., to prevent
over winding. From this application it received the name Geneva stop. Arranged as
a stop, wheel A is secured to the spring shaft, and B turns on the axis of the spring
barrel. The number of slots or interval units in B depends upon the desired number
of turns for the spring shaft.
41
The center lines of the slot and crank are

perpendicular at engagement and at
disengagement (making these two
operations very smooth).
β ≡ half the angle subtended by adjacent

slots = 360/2n
n ≡ number of slots
c ≡ center distance, a ≡ crank radius
c = a/ sin β
ii- Linear Geneva:
As the crank rotates continuously, the output slider moves intermittently in the
linear Geneva mechanism.
42
iii- Ratchet Motion:
Ratchet Motion
A ratchet mechanism is based on a wheel that has teeth cut out of it and a pawl that
follows as the wheel turns. Studying the diagram you will see that as the ratchet
wheel turns and the pawl falls into the 'dip' between the teeth. The ratchet wheel
can only turn in one direction - in this case anticlockwise.
Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion only occurs in only one direction,
useful for winding gear which must not be allowed to drop. Ratchets are also used
in the freewheel mechanism of a bicycle.
43
iv- Intermittent Gears:
An intermittent gear mechanism includes two

intermittent gears mounted at opposite sides of a driving
gear driven by a motor. One of the intermittent gears is
normally held by a holding member at a position
disengaged from the driving gear while the other
intermittent gear engages the driving gear. When the
latter intermittent gear is driven, the former intermittent
gear is brought into engagement with the driving gear by
a simple initial driving assembly.
11- Automobile Steering Gears:
Note that: - This picture shows a hydraulic steering system in a modern car (new model).
44
Automotive Steering is the means by which a motor vehicle is controlled about

the vertical axis. It allows the driver to control the course of vehicle travel by
turning the steering wheel, which turns the input shaft in the steering gear. The
steering system has three major components: (1) the steering wheel and attached
shaft in the steering column which transmit the driver's movement to the steering
gear; (2) the steering gear that increases the mechanical advantage while changing
the rotary motion of the steering wheel to linear motion; and (3) the steering
linkage (including the tie rod and tie-rod ends) that carries the linear motion to the
steering-knuckle arms.
Turning the Car
You might be surprised to learn that when you turn your car, your front wheels are
not pointing in the same direction.
For a car to turn smoothly, each wheel must follow a different circle. Since the
inside wheel is following a circle with a smaller radius, it is actually making a
tighter turn than the outside wheel. If you draw a line perpendicular to each wheel,
the lines will intersect at the center point of the turn. The geometry of the steering
linkage makes the inside wheel turn more than the outside wheel.
45
Fundamental law of steering
EI EF + FI a + FI
cot  = = =
AE AE b
FI FI
cot  = =
CF b
a + FI FI a
 cot  − cot  = − =
b b b
Types of automotive steering gears

Rack-and-pinion and recirculating-ball are among the most common steering-gear
types used to convert the rotary motion of the steering wheel into the lateral motion
that actually controls the wheels. In current-day vehicles, the detail design and
engineering seem to have greater effects on the performance of the steering than
does the basic steering-gear type.
46
i- Rack-and-Pinion:
In a rack-and-pinion steering gear, a tubular housing contains the toothed rack

and a pinion gear. The housing is mounted rigidly to the vehicle body or frame to
take the reaction to the steering effort. The pinion gear is attached to the lower end
of the steering shaft, and meshes with rack teeth. Tie rods connect the ends of the
rack to the steering-knuckle arms at the wheels. As the steering wheel turns, the
pinion gear moves the rack right or left. This moves the tie rods and steering-
knuckle arms, which turn the wheels in or out for steering.
ii- Recirculating - Ball Steering Gear:
In a recirculating-ball steering gear, a worm gear is attached to the lower end of

the steering shaft. The worm gear turns inside a ball nut which rides on a set of
recirculating ball bearings. These ball bearings roll in the grooves in the worm
and inside the ball nut. Gear teeth on one outside flat of the ball nut mesh with a
sector of teeth on the output or sector shaft to which the pitman arm is attached.
As the steering wheel is turned, the rotary motion of the worm gear causes the
ball nut to move up or down, forcing the sector shaft and pitman arm to rotate.
This action moves the steering linkage to the right or left, turning the front
wheels in or out for steering.
47
48
iii- The Davis Steering Gear:
The Davis gear mechanism consists of cross link GH sliding parallel to another
link AC and is connected to the stub axle of the two front wheel by levers BAG
and DCH pivoted at A and C respectively. The cross link GH slides in the bearing
and cross pins at its ends G and H. The slide blocks are pivoted on these pins and
move with the turning of bell crank levers as the steering wheel is operated. When
the vehicle is running straight the gear is said to be in its mid-position. The short
arms AG and CH are inclined an angle 90+α to their stub axles AB and CD
respectively. The correct steering depends upon the suitable selection of cross arm
angle α, and is given by Tan α = a/2b Where a= AC = distance between the pivots
of front axle. b = wheel base.
- Steering is effected by moving GH to the right or left a small distance x of

its normal position.
49
AC - GH = 2c
c
tanα =
h
c+x
tan ( α + φ ) =
h
c-x
tan ( α - θ ) =
h
c−x tan  + tan  c h + tan  c+x
tan ( −  ) =  tan ( +  ) = = =
h 1 − tan  tan  1 − c h tan  h
xh
 c + h tan  = c + x − c 2 h tan  − cx h tan   tanφ = 2
h + cx + c 2
tan  − tan  c h − tan  c−x
tan ( −  ) = = =
1 + tan  tan  1 + c h tan  h
xh
 c − h tan  = c − x + c 2 h tan  − cx h tan   tanθ =
h - cx + c 2
2
h2 + cx + c 2 h 2 − cx + c 2 h 2 + cx + c 2 h 2 − cx + c 2 2cx 2c
cot  = , cot  =  cot  − cot  = −  cot  − cot  = =
xh xh xh xh xh h
 cotf - cotq = 2tana
a a a
For correct steering cotφ - cotθ =  2 tan  =  tanα =
b b 2b
Since tan α is a constant of design, this mechanism provides perfect steering.
50
iv- The Ackermann Steering Gear:
Ackermann steering geometry is a geometric arrangement of linkages in the

steering of a car or other vehicle designed to solve the problem of wheels on the
inside and outside of a turn needing to trace out circles of different radii.
This engineering solution is attributable to Langensperger in 1816, but was
patented by arrangement in London, in 1817, by Rudolph Ackermann, whose name
stuck to it. The same idea was also developed in France in the late 1870s, by
Bollée and Jeantaud.
When a vehicle is steered, it follows a path which is part of the circumference of its
turning circle, which will have a centre point somewhere along a line extending
from the axis of the fixed axle. The steered wheels must be angled so that they are
both at 90 degrees to a line drawn from the circle centre through the centre of the
wheel. Since the wheel on the outside of the turn will trace a larger circle than the
wheel on the inside, the wheels need to be set at different angles.
The Ackermann steering geometry arranges this automatically by moving the
steering pivot points inward so as to lie on a line drawn between the steering
kingpins and the centre of the rear axle. The steering pivot points are joined by a
rigid bar, the tie rod, which can also be part of the, for example, rack and pinion
steering mechanism. This arrangement ensures that at any angle of steering, the
centre point of all of the circles traced by all wheels will lie at a common point.
Modern cars do not use pure Ackermann steering, partly because it ignores
important dynamic and compliant effects, but the principle is sound for low speed
manoeuvres.
 The Ackermann steering gear mechanism consists of a cross link LM
connected to the short axles AP and BQ of two front wheels through the
short arms AL and BM, forming bell crank levers PAL and QBM
respectively. When the vehicle is running straight, the cross link LM is
parallel to AB, the short arm AL and BM both make angle α to the
horizontal axis of chassis. In order to satisfy the fundamental equation for
correct steering, the links AL and LM are suitably proportioned and angle α
is suitably selected. cotФ - cotѲ= a/b
51
Ackermann
Requirements of Steering System
• It must keep the wheel at all times in rolling motion without rubbing on the
road.
• This system should associate to control the speed.
• It must be light and stable.
• It should absorb the road shocks.
• It must easily be operated with less maintenance.
• It should have self-centering action to some extent.
52
Sheet (1)-i
For the following mechanisms draw the kinematic chain and find the degree of
freedom:
1- A pair of bolt cutters is shown in the following Figure. Select the lower handle as the
frame. The end of the upper handle and the cutting surface of the jaws should be
identified as points of interest.
2- A folding chair that is commonly used in stadiums is shown in the following Figure in
the following Figure.
3- A foot pump that can be used to fill bike tires, toys, and so forth is shown in the
following Figure. The foot pad should be identified as a point of interest.
4- A pair of pliers is shown in the following Figure. Select the lower handle as the
frame.
53
5- A mechanism for a window is shown in the following Figure.
6- A sketch of a device to move packages from an assembly bench to a conveyor is

shown in in the following Figure.
7- A sketch of a lift platform is shown in the following Figure.
54
8- A sketch of a truck used to deliver supplies to passenger jets is shown in the

following Figure.
9- A sketch of a backhoe is shown in in the following Figure.
10- A sketch of a front loader is shown in the following Figure.
55
11- Find the degree of freedom for the following mechanisms:
56
Sheet (1)-ii
1- The length of the consequent links of a four bar mechanism are 40,70,60
and 80 mm. different motions are obtained by fixing one of the links t a
time. Plot the relation between the output motion and input motion in all
possible cases.
2- If the largest link is fixed in the previous mechanism, trace the path f a
point on the middle of the coupler link. Also trace the path of a point on the
middle of the rocker on a plane rotating with the crank.
3- In the single slider crank chain mechanism the length of the crank and the
connecting rod are 60 and 150mm respectively. For all possible inversions,
plot the relation between the output motion and input motion one.
4- The driving crank AB of the quick return mechanism shown in fig. (1-1)
rotates at uniform speed ω. Determine the displacement diagram of the
ram as a function of the crank position θ.
5- For the crank shaper mechanism of problem 4, obtain the time ratio. When
the crank makes 30 degree with the horizontal datum in C.W. direction, B is
a point on the oscillatory link under the block. Trace the path of B on a
plane rotating with the crank.
6- the distance between the centers of the two blocks of an ellipse trammel is
75mm. trace a point at distance 37.5 mm a way from a the nearest block.
7- Fig. )1-2( depicts an out line of Zoller double piston engine. Plot the path of
B and displacement diagrams of both pistons C and D on the same line for
comparison.
8- Choose any suitable dimensions to construct Hart, watt, peaucellier, and

grasshopper straight line motion mechanisms. Trace the path of points that
move on a straight line in each case.
57
9- A point moves on a straight line by means of watts mechanism, it is

required to magnify its motion three times, construct such mechanism.
FIGURE (1-1)
FIGURE (1-2)
58

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Mechanics of Machinery I LINKAGES Dr. B.M.

2- "Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines" G.H. Martin, McGraw-Hill Book

3- "Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery" H.H. Mabie, and F.W. Ocvirk,

4- "Design of Machinery", Third Edition by Robert L. Norton, the McGraw-

A link or (Element): is any part of a machine having a motion relative to some

A belt, chain or a wire rope (tensile force)

Fluid of the hydraulic jack (compressive force)

(Tensile or compressive force)

Links of different order

A kinematic chain: is a combination of kinematic pairs in which each element

- The following Fig. shows a chain of two degree of freedom.

- The following Fig. shows an open chain and a closed chain.

If PL is the number of the lower pairs, and

If PH is the number of the higher pairs,

The degree of freedom is given by:

𝐷. 𝑂. 𝐹 = 3(𝐿 − 1) − 2𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝐻 𝐺𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Gruebler equation is not always applicable.

Cycle, Period, and Phase of Motion:

- The time required for a cycle of motion is the period.

- The simultaneous relative positions of a mechanism at a given instant during a

Path of motion and Distance:

c- Tilting-block mechanism, used in "Oscillating-cylinder steam engine".

d- Old-fashioned hand pump and Powder compacting press.

Powder compacting press

Types of four bar linkages, s = shortest link, l = longest link

These mechanisms fall into three classes:

Considering the following:

s = length of shortest bar

A 4-bar mechanism is crank-rocker if:

O2C + CD < O2O4 +O4D R.E.P. (point D2)

(CD – O2C)+O4D > O2O4 L.E.P. (point D1)

(R.E.P & L.E.P. = Right & Left Extreme

A 4-bar mechanism is double-rocker if:

O2C + CD < O2O4 +O4D

O4D + CD < O2O4 + O2C

A 4-bar mechanism is double-crank if:

O2C + CD > O2O4 +O4D

O4D + CD > O2O4 + O2C

Examples of 4-Bar Mechanisms

a) Rear Window Wiper Mechanism:

 This mechanism transforms the rotary

 This is a crank-rocker mechanism.

b) Beam Engine Mechanism:

Oil Pump Jack

d) Deltoid toggle linkage used to control truck tailgate motion:

There are several types of quick-return mechanisms which are:

Developed from the 4-bar mechanism (double-crank).

Both links b & d make complete revolutions

Link 2 rotates completely Link 4 oscillates

β = cutting angle α = return angle = 360 – β

t1 = time of cutting stroke t2 = time of return stroke

4- Scotch Yoke Mechanisms:

This RRPP mechanism converts the rotary motion of a crank to a reciprocating

5- Mechanisms with Large Mechanical Advantage "Toggle Mechanisms":

In punch presses, large forces are needed at the lower end

A cold-heading rivet machine is designed to

A stone crusher has two toggle linkages in series

A toggle press has an increasing mechanical

This Oldham coupling provides motion at a constant velocity as its central

Elliptic Trammel 1 2 Multi-points