Bat Algorithm: Literature Review and Applications

Xin-She Yang
School of Science and Technology, Middlesex University,
The Burroughs, London NW4 4BT, United Kingdom.
arXiv:1308.3900v1 [cs.AI] 18 Aug 2013

Reference to this article: Xin-She Yang, Bat algorithm: literature review and
applications, Int. J. Bio-Inspired Computation, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 141–149 (2013).
DOI: 10.1504/IJBIC.2013.055093

Abstract
Bat algorithm (BA) is a bio-inspired algorithm developed by Yang in 2010 and BA
has been found to be very efficient. As a result, the literature has expanded significantly
in the last 3 years. This paper provides a timely review of the bat algorithm and its
new variants. A wide range of diverse applications and case studies are also reviewed
and summarized briefly here. Further research topics are also discussed.

1 Introduction
Modern optimisation algorithms are often nature-inspired, typically based on swarm
intelligence. The ways for inspiration are diverse and consequently algorithms can be
many different types. However, all these algorithms tend to use some specific charac-
teristics for formulating the key updating formulae. For example, genetic algorithms
were inspired by Darwinian evolution characteristics of biological systems, and genetic
operators such as crossover and mutation and selection of the fittest are used. Solutions
in genetic algorithms are represented as chromosomes or binary/real strings. On the
other hand, particle swarm optimisation (PSO) was based on the swarming behaviour
of birds and fish, and this multi-agent system may have emergent characteristics of
swarm or group intelligence (Kennedy and Eberhart, 1995). Many variants of PSO and
improvements exist in the literature, and many new metaheuristic algorithms have been
developed (Cui, 2009; Yang, 2010; Yang and Deb, 2010; Yang et al., 2011; Yang et al.,
2013).
Algorithms such as genetic algorithms and PSO can be very useful, but they still
have some drawbacks in dealing with multimodal optimization problems. One major
improvement is the firefly algorithm (FA) which was based on the flashing characteristics
of tropical fireflies (Yang, 2008). The attraction behaviour, light intensity coding, and
distance dependence provides a surprising capability to enable firefly algorithm to handle
nonlinear, multimodal optimization problems efficiently. Furthermore, cuckoo search
(CS) was based on the brooding behaviour of some cuckoo species (Yang and Deb,
2009; Gandomi et al, 2013) which was combined with Lévy flights. The CS algorithm
is efficient because it has very good convergence behaviour that can be proved using
Markovian probability theory. Other methods such as eagle strategy are also very
effective (Yang and Deb, 2010; Gandomi et al, 2012).
As a novel feature, bat algorithm (BA) was based on the echolocation features of
microbats (Yang, 2010), and BA uses a frequency-tuning technique to increase the di-
versity of the solutions in the population, while at the same, it uses the automatic
zooming to try to balance exploration and exploitation during the search process by

1
mimicking the variations of pulse emission rates and loudness of bats when searching
for prey. As a result, it proves to be very efficient with a typical quick start. Obviously,
there is room for improvement. Therefore, this paper intends to review the latest devel-
opments of the bat algorithm. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces
the basic behaviour of echolocation and the standard formulation of the bat algorithm.
Section 3 provides a brief description of the variants of BA, and Section 4 highlights
the diverse applications of bat algorithm and its variants. Finally, Section 5 provides
some discussions and topics for further research.

2 The Standard Bat Algorithm

The standard bat algorithm was based on the echolocation or bio-sonar characteristics
of microbats. Before we outline the details of the algorithm, let us briefly introduce the
echolocation.

2.1 Echolocation of Microbats

There are about 1000 different species of bats ( Colin, 2000). Their sizes can vary widely,
ranging from the tiny bumblebee bat of about 1.5 to 2 grams to the giant bats with
wingspan of about 2 m and may weight up to about 1 kg. Most bats uses echolocation
to a certain degree; among all the species, microbats use echolocation extensively, while
megabats do not.
Microbats typically use a type of sonar, called, echolocation, to detect prey, avoid
obstacles, and locate their roosting crevices in the dark. They can emit a very loud
sound pulse and listen for the echo that bounces back from the surrounding objects
(Richardson, 2008). Their pulses vary in properties and can be correlated with their
hunting strategies, depending on the species. Most bats use short, frequency-modulated
signals to sweep through about an octave, and each pulse lasts a few thousandths of a
second (up to about 8 to 10 ms) in the frequency range of 25kHz to 150 kHz. Typically,
microbats can emit about 10 to 20 such sound bursts every second, and the rate of pulse
emission can be sped up to about 200 pulses per second when homing on their prey.
Since the speed of sound in air is about v = 340 m/s, the wavelength λ of the ultrasonic
sound bursts with a constant frequency f is given by λ = v/f , which is in the range of
2mm to 14mm for the typical frequency range from 25kHz to 150 kHz. Interestingly,
these wavelengths are in the same order of their prey sizes.
Though in reality microbats can also use time delay between their ears and loudness
variations to sense three-dimensional surroundings, we are mainly interested in some
features of the echolocation so that we can some link them with the objective function of
an optimization problem, which makes it possible to formulate a smart, bat algorithm.

2.2 Bat Algorithm

Based on the above description and characteristics of bat echolocation, Xin-She Yang
(2010) developed the bat algorithm with the following three idealised rules:
1. All bats use echolocation to sense distance, and they also ‘know’ the difference
between food/prey and background barriers in some magical way;
2. Bats fly randomly with velocity v i at position xi with a frequency fmin , varying
wavelength λ and loudness A0 to search for prey. They can automatically adjust
the wavelength (or frequency) of their emitted pulses and adjust the rate of pulse
emission r ∈ [0, 1], depending on the proximity of their target;
3. Although the loudness can vary in many ways, we assume that the loudness varies
from a large (positive) A0 to a minimum constant value Amin .

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 For simplicity, we do not use ray tracing in this algorithm, though it can form an
interesting feature for further extension. In general, ray tracing can be computational
extensive, but it can be a very useful feature for computational geometry and other
applications. Furthermore, a given frequency is intrinsically linked to a wavelength. For
example, a frequency range of [20kHz, 500kHz] corresponds to a range of wavelengths
from 0.7mm to 17mm in the air. Therefore, we can describe the change either in terms
of frequency f or wavelength λ to suit different applications, depending on the ease of
implementation and other factors.

2.3 Bat Motion

Each bat is associated with a velocity v ti and a location xti , at iteration t, in a d-
dimensional search or solution space. Among all the bats, there exists a current best
solution x∗ . Therefore, the above three rules can be translated into the updating
equations for xti and velocities v ti :

fi = fmin + (fmax − fmin)β, (1)

v ti = v t−1
i + (xt−1
i − x∗ )fi , (2)
xti = xt−1
i + v ti , (3)
where β ∈ [0, 1] is a random vector drawn from a uniform distribution.
As mentioned earlier, we can either use wavelengths or frequencies for implemen-
tation, we will use fmin = 0 and fmax = O(1), depending on the domain size of the
problem of interest. Initially, each bat is randomly assigned a frequency which is drawn
uniformly from [fmin , fmax ]. For this reason, bat algorithm can be considered as a
frequency-tuning algorithm to provide a balanced combination of exploration and ex-
ploitation. The loudness and pulse emission rates essentially provide a mechanism for
automatic control and auto zooming into the region with promising solutions.

2.4 Variations of Loudness and Pulse Rates

In order to provide an effective mechanism to control the exploration and exploitation
and switch to exploitation stage when necessary, we have to vary the loudness Ai and
the rate ri of pulse emission during the iterations. Since the loudness usually decreases
once a bat has found its prey, while the rate of pulse emission increases, the loudness
can be chosen as any value of convenience, between Amin and Amax , assuming Amin = 0
means that a bat has just found the prey and temporarily stop emitting any sound.
With these assumptions, we have

At+1
i = αAti , rit+1 = ri0 [1 − exp(−γt)], (4)

where α and γ are constants. In essence, here α is similar to the cooling factor of a
cooling schedule in simulated annealing. For any 0 < α < 1 and γ > 0, we have

Ati → 0, rit → ri0 , as t → ∞. (5)

In the simplest case, we can use α = γ, and we have used α = γ = 0.9 to 0.98 in our
simulations.

3 Variants of Bat Algorithm

The standard bat algorithm has many advantages, and one of the key advantages is
that it can provide very quick convergence at a very initial stage by switching from
exploration to exploitation. This makes it an efficient algorithm for applications such

3
as classifications and others when a quick solution is needed. However, if we allow the
algorithm to switch to exploitation stage too quickly by varying A and r too quickly, it
may lead to stagnation after some initial stage. In order to improve the performance,
many methods and strategies have been attempted to increase the diversity of the
solution and thus to enhance the performance, which produced a few good variants of
bat algorithm.
From a quick literature survey, we found the following bat algorithm variants:
• Fuzzy Logic Bat Algorithm (FLBA): Khan et al. (2011) presented a variant by
introducing fuzzy logic into the bat algorithm, they called their variant fuzzy bat
algorithm.
• Multiobjective bat algorithm (MOBA): Yang (2011) extended BA to deal with
multiobjective optimization, which has demonstrated its effectiveness for solving
a few design benchmarks in engineering.
• K-Means Bat Algorithm (KMBA): Komarasamy and Wahi (2012) presented a
combination of K-means and bat algorithm (KMBA) for efficient clustering.
• Chaotic Bat Algorithm (CBA): Lin et al. (2012) presented a chaotic bat algorithm
using Lévy flights and chaotic maps to carry out parameter estimation in dynamic
biological systems.
• Binary bat algorithm (BBA): Nakamura et al. (2012) developed a discrete version
of bat algorithm to solve classifications and feature selection problems.
• Differential Operator and Lévy flights Bat Algorithm (DLBA): Xie et al. (2013)
presented a variant of bat algorithm using differential operator and Lévy flights
to solve function optimization problems.
• Improved bat algorithm (IBA): Jamil et al. (2013) extended the bat algorithm
with a good combination of Lévy flights and subtle variations of loudness and
pulse emission rates. They tested the IBA versus over 70 different test functions
and proved to be very efficient.
There are other improvements and variants of bat algorithm. For example, Zhang
and Wang (2012) used mutation to enhance the diversity of solutions and then used
for image matching. In addition, Wang and Guo (2013) hybridized bat algorithm with
harmony search and have produced a hybrid bat algorithm for numerical optimization
of function benchmarks.
On the other hand, Fister Jr et al. (2013) developed a hybrid bat algorithm using
differential evolution as a local search part of bat algorithm, while Fister et al. (2013)
incorporate quaternions into bat algorithm and presented a quaternion bat algorithm
(QBA) for computational geometry and large-scale optimization problems with exten-
sive rotations. It can be expect that more variants are still under active research.

4 Applications of Bat Algorithm

The standard bat algorithm and its many variants mean that the applications are also
very diverse. In fact, since the original bat algorithm has been developed (Yang, 2010),
Bat algorithms have been applied in almost every area of optimization, classifications,
image processing, feature selection, scheduling, data mining and others. In the rest of
the paper, we will briefly highlight some of the applications (Yang, 2010;Parpinelli and
Lopes, 2011; Yang et al., 2012a; Yang, 2012; Yang, 2013; Gandomi et al., 2013).

4.1 Continuous Optimization

Among the first set of applications of bat algorithm, continuous optimization in the
context of engineering design optimization has been extensively studied, which demon-
strated that BA can deal with highly nonlinear problem efficiently and can find the

4
optimal solutions accurately (Yang, 2010; Yang and Gandomi, 2012; Yang, 2012; Yang
et al., 2012a). Case studies include pressure vessel design, car side design, spring and
beam design, truss systems, tower and tall building design and others. Tsai et al. (2011)
solved numerical optimization problems using bat algorithm.
In addition, Bora et al. (2012) optimized the brushless DC wheel motors using bat
algorithm with superior results. BA can also handle multiobjective problems effectively
(Yang, 2011).

4.2 Combinatorial Optimization and Scheduling

From computational complexity point of view, continuous optimization problems can
be considered as easy, though it may be still very challenging to solve. However, com-
binatorial problems can be really hard, often non-deterministic polynomial time hard
(NP-hard). Ramesh et al. (2013) presented a detailed study of combined economic
load and emission dispatch problems using bat algorithm. They compared bat algo-
rithm with ant colony algorithm (ABC), hybrid genetic algorithm and other methods,
and they concluded that bat algorithm is easy to implement and much superior to the
algorithms in terms of accuracy and efficiency.
Musikapun and Pongcharoen (2012) solved multi-stage, multi-machine, multi-product
scheduling problems using bat algorithm, and they solved a class of non-deterministic
polynomial time (NP) hard problems with a detailed parametric study. They also im-
plied that that the performance can be further improved by about 8.4% using optimal
set of parameters.

4.3 Inverse Problems and Parameter Estimation

Yang et al. (2012b) use the bat algorithm to study topological shape optimization in
microelectronic applications so that materials of different thermal properties can be
placed in such a way that the heat transfer is most efficient under stringent constraints.
It can also be applied to carry out parameter estimation as an inverse problem. If
an inverse problem can be properly formulated, then bat algorithm can provide better
results than least-squares methods and regularization methods.
Lin et al. (2012) presented a chaotic Lévy flight bat algorithm to estimate parameters
in nonlinear dynamic biological systems, which proved the effectiveness of the proposed
algorithm.

4.4 Classifications, Clustering and Data Mining

Komarasamy and Wahi (2012) studied K-means clustering using bat algorithm and they
concluded that the combination of both K-means and BA can achieve higher efficiency
and thus performs better than other algorithms.
Khan et al. (2011) presented a study of a clustering problem for office workplaces
using a fuzzy bat algorithm. Khan and Sahari (2012a) also presented a comparison study
of bat algorithm with PSO, GA, and other algorithms in the context for e-learning, and
thus suggested that bat algorithm has clearly some advantages over other algorithms.
Then, they (Khan and Sahari, 2012b) also presented a study of clustering problems
using bat algorithm and its extension as a bi-sonar optimization variant with good
results.
On the other hand, Mishra et al. (2012) used bat algorithm to classify microarray
data, while Natarajan et al. (2012) presented a comparison study of cuckoo search
and bat algorithm for Bloom filter optimization. Damodaram and Valarmathi (2012)
studied phishing website detection using modified bat algorithm and achieved very good
results.

5
 Marichelvam and Prabaharan (2012) used bat algorithm to study hybrid flow shop
scheduling problems so as to minimize the makespan and mean flow time. Their results
suggested that BA is an efficient approach for solving hybrid flow shop scheduling prob-
lems. Faritha Banu and Chandrasekar (2013) used a modified bat algorithm to record
deduplication as an optimization approach and data compression technique. Their study
suggest that the modified bat algorithm can perform better than genetic programming.

4.5 Image Processing

Abdel-Rahman et al. (2012) presented a study for full body human pose estimation
using bat algorithm, and they concluded that BA performs better than particle swarm
optimization (PSO), particle filter (PF) and annealed particle filter (APF).
Du and Liu (2012) presented a variant of bat algorithm with mutation for image
matching, and they indicated that their bat-based model is more effective and feasi-
ble in imagine matching than other models such as differential evolution and genetic
algorithms.

4.6 Fuzzy Logic and Other Applications

Reddy and Manoj (2012) presented a study of optimal capacitor placement for loss
reduction in distribution systems using bat algorithm. It combines with fuzzy logic to
find optimal capacitor sizes so as to minimize the losses. Their results suggested that
the real power loss can be reduced significantly.
Furthermore, Lemma et al. (2011) used fuzzy systems and bat algorithm for exergy
modelling, and later Tamiru and Hashim (2013) applied bat algorithm to study fuzzy
systems and to model exergy changes in a gas turbine.
At the time of writing when we searched the Google scholar and other databases,
we found other papers on bat algorithm that were either just accepted or conference
presentations. However, there is not enough detail to be included in this review. In fact,
as the literature is expanding, more and more papers on bat algorithm are emerging, a
further timely review will be needed within the next two years.

5 Discussions and Conclusions

Likely many metaheuristic algorithms, bat algorithm has the advantage of simplicity
and flexibility. BA is easy to implement, and such a simple algorithm can be very
flexible to solve a wide range of problems as we have seen in the above review.

5.1 Why Bat Algorithm is Efficient

A natural question is: why bat algorithm is so efficient? There are many reasons for the
success of bat-based algorithms. By analysing the key features and updating equations,
we can summarize the following three key points/features:
• Frequency tuning: BA uses echolocation and frequency tuning to solve problems.
Though echolocation is not directly used to mimic the true function in reality,
frequency variations are used. This capability can provide some functionality that
may be similar to the key feature used in particle swarm optimization and harmony
search. Therefore, BA possess the advantages of other swarm-intelligence-based
algorithms.
• Automatic zooming: BA has a distinct advantage over other metaheuristic al-
gorithms. That is, BA has a capability of automatically zooming into a region
where promising solutions have been found. This zooming is accompanied by the

6
 automatic switch from explorative moves to local intensive exploitation. As a re-
sult, BA has a quick convergence rate, at least at early stages of the iterations,
compared with other algorithms.
• Parameter control: Many metaheuristic algorithms used fixed parameters by using
some, pre-tuned algorithm-dependent parameters. In contrast, BA uses parameter
control, which can vary the values of parameters (A and r) as the iterations pro-
ceed. This provides a way to automatically switch from exploration to exploitation
when the optimal solution is approaching. This gives another advantages of BA
over other metaheuristic algorithms.
In addition, preliminary theoretical analysis by Huang et al.(2013) suggested that BA
has guaranteed global convergence properties under the right condition, and BA can
also solve large-scale problems effectively.

5.2 Further Research Topics

However, there are still some important issues that require more research. These key
issues are: parameter-tuning, parameter control and speedup of convergence.
Firstly, parameter-tuning is important for any metaheuristic algorithm to work prop-
erly. In almost all cases, the performance of an algorithm is largely dependent on the
parameters of the algorithm. To find the best parameter settings, detailed parametric
studies have to be carried out. It is not known yet if there is a method to automatically
tune parameters for an algorithm to achieve the optimal performance for a given set of
problems. This should be an important topic for further research.
Secondly, associated with the parameter tuning, there is an important issue of pa-
rameter control. In many algorithms, the parameter settings are fixed, and these settings
will not vary during the iterations. It could be advantageous and sometime necessary to
vary the values of algorithm-dependent parameters during the iterative search process.
How to vary or control these parameters is another, higher level, optimization problem,
which needs further studies. For bat algorithm, we have introduced the basic parameter
control strategy, there is still room for improvement. An open question is that: what is
the best control strategy so as to switch from exploration to exploitation at the right
time?
Finally, even though the bat algorithm and other algorithms are efficient, it is still
possible to improve and enhance their performance further. However, how to speed up
the convergence of an algorithm is still a very challenging question. It is hoped this
this paper can inspire more research in the near future. Future research should focus
on the theoretical understanding of metaheuristic algorithms and large-scale problems
in real-world applications.

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