National Policies and Strategies

National Policies on Literacy / Non-formal Education in Latest Policy Document on Education

a. The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 14, section 2 provides that the State shall encourage
nonformal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as self-learning independent,
and out-of-school study programmes particularly those that respond to community needs.
b. The Education for All Philippine Plan of Action (EFA-PPA) - Emphasizes the need to
develop nonformal literacy and continuing education programmes especially to meet the
educational needs of the poor and underserved communities.
c. R.A. 7165 states that it is the policy of the State to give highest priority to the adoption of
measures for the total eradication of illiteracy.
d. Administrative Order No. 116, signed by the former President of the Republic of the
Philippines, mandates all government agencies and local government units to support the
Nonformal Education Accreditation and Equivalency (NFE A&E) System.

Current Literacy / Non-formal Education Objectives /Strategies

a. Provision of a system for assessing and certifying levels of literacy and nonformal learning
achievement
b. Development and institutionalization of an alternative learning system, incorporating a
Nonformal Education Accreditation and Equivalency (NFE A&E) System
c. Provision of an alternative pathway of learning to out-of-school youth and adults to gain
reading, writing and numeracy skills
d. Partnership with local government units and nongovernmental organization
e. Intensification of advocacy and social mobilization as starting points of all literacy efforts

Lessons Learned from Past Literacy Programmes and Activities

The various literacy programmes and activities conducted in the past have provided numerous
lessons which serve as valuable inputs in improving the current and subsequent literacy
programmes in the country. Among these major lessons are the following:

One Lesson:

The NFE programmes are most functional if developed community-based. This points out the
need to involve all key sectors of the community in NFE to ensure not only the acceptability but
also the sustainability of the programme in the very community it is intended to serve. This
implies the following needs:

a. to conduct a rapid community assessment prior to literacy programme/project development,

b. to localize the literacy curriculum,
c. to develop learning materials on site utilizing local writers, artists and other resources. There
is likewise the strong need to involve the local management and personnel in hands-on
training in the various aspects of literacy programmes.
Another lesson:
The various initiatives and efforts in literacy programme components development (NFE
Curriculum Framework, literacy materials preparation, delivery systems development, and other
related developments) need to be considered and harmonized.

Partnerships - While the Philippine Government is constitutionally mandated to provide

quality basic education to its citizenry, it was recognized that education is much too
important to be left to the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) alone. With
the rapidly growing population (an average Filipino family size is far bigger than in many
other nations) limited financial and human resources and the economic crisis it currently
faces, DECS cannot meet the basic education needs of the entire nation. Nonformal
education, which serves the millions of out-of-school youth and adults, has a very limited
budget for its programmes (only 0.3% of the total DECS budget) and therefore cannot win
the fight against functional illiteracy alone. The BNFE therefore linked with
nongovernmental organizations, local government units, state and private universities and
colleges, community-based organizations and other government organizations as partners,
not only to fund the nonformal education programmes but also to implement and manage the
NFE A&E programmes in their respective localities. These partnerships were
institutionalized through the use of a Service Contracting Scheme (the Learning Support
Delivery System) to provide learning support services to NFE A&E Learners. The Service
Contracting Scheme uses a variety of delivery modes including individual service providers
which are NGOs, local government units, private and state colleges and universities, peoples'
and church-based organizations, NGO umbrella organizations and the DECS itself.
Flexible Learning Philosophy - By flexible learning we mean an approach to learning, which
gives learners as much control and choice as possible regarding the content, sequence, time,
place and method of learning within the constraints of limited resources. This includes:
allowing multiple entry and exit points; using a range of alternative delivery modes which
support self-paced study options; having flexible programme requirements; encouraging the
formulation and renegotiation of individual learning goals, individual learning plans and
individual learning agreements; encouraging learner choice of curriculum materials according
to individual learning needs, interests and learning styles; providing for pre-entry and on-
going counseling; recognizing learners' prior learning (RPL); using learning portfolios and
other authentic assessment methodologies; and providing access to appropriate interactive
learning resources.
Range of Alternative Delivery Modes - NFE A&E uses a range of alternative delivery modes
in order to maximize the flexibility of the programme and meet individual learning needs and
learning styles. This includes the use of facilitator-aided and interactive self-instructional
print and audio-based learning materials, video tapes, face-to-face structured learning groups,
semi-structured and unstructured discussions, one-on-one tutorials, study groups or circles
and self-learning groups, demonstration sessions, home visits, mentoring and remediation.
Focused Learner Target Group- The NFE A&E specifically targets Out-of-School Youth and
adults who are basically literate and who are 15 years and above. The decision to focus on
young adults/adults rather than children, was deliberate as it enabled the curriculum, learning
materials, learning process and learning support strategies to be built around adult learning
principles and respond to adult learning needs. The NFE A&E is thereby clearly defined as a
second-chance education for those who either were unable to avail themselves of the
educational services of the formal school system when they were younger, or who had
dropped out of school for a significant period of time. This decision further clarifies issues of
jurisdiction and responsibility within the DECS re: the provision of basic education services,
with the formal school system taking responsibility for serving under-15-year-old children
through traditional and alternative delivery strategies.
Linkages and Articulation Agreements - The BNFE recognized that in order to
institutionalize the NFE A&E as a truly alternative learning system linkages and articulation
agreements with other stakeholders of the Philippine Basic Education System had to be
established. This was accomplished through the negotiation of a series of formal memoranda
of agreements with a range of institutions, which duly recognized the Elementary and
Secondary Certificates of the NFE A&E System as legitimate and comparable forms of
certification to that of the formal school system. For example articulation agreements were
signed with the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) to give
NFE A&E test passers access to TESDA's vocational training and education programmes;
with the Commission on Higher Education and the Philippine Association of State
Universities and Colleges (PASUC) in order that NFE A&E secondary level passers be
accepted into colleges and universities; Meralco Foundation, Inc. which accepts the NFE
A&E test passers as scholars in their technical courses; and the Civil Service Commission
which recognizes the NFE A&E certificates as valid documents for permanent appointments
to government positions requiring elementary and secondary certificates provided other
requirements are met. These linkages provide recognition and acceptance of the NFE A&E
System as a legitimate alternative to formal schooling and thereby give NFE A&E graduates
access to a wide range of post-elementary and post-secondary education and training
opportunities once they exit the NFE A&E System.
High Standards of Quality Assurance - Nonformal Education has been traditionally been
viewed as a poorer cousin of the formal school system in terms of quality of educational
services and learning results. In order for the NFE A&E System to be effective as a
recognized alternative pathway to elementary and secondary certification, it had to avoid
being regarded as an easy or inferior option to a qualification. The BNFE therefore
prioritized the institutionalization of high standards of quality assurance in order to establish
the legitimacy, credibility and acceptability of the NFE A&E as an alternative learning
system to that of formal schooling. This involves using strict policies and procedures
throughout every phase of the NFE A&E Testing registration and administration process to
ensure the credibility and academic integrity of the NFE A&E Certification System.
Intensive Capability Building Programme - The NFE A&E System is a radically new
approach to nonformal education in the Philippines, utilizing an array of innovative strategies
in the provision of basic education. In order to successfully operationalize these innovations
an intensive and comprehensive Capability Building Programme for programme
implementers and stakeholders was needed. An enormous investment was given to the
orientation and training of NFE A&E implementers, the DECS national, regional, division
and district officials, service providers, instructional managers, test registration officers,
examiners, proctors, test monitors and other project stakeholders. Training programmes are
not provided as one-off interventions but institutionalized as an on-going and continuous
capability building process within the programme implementation cycle. Experiential training
methodologies have proven highly successful in facilitating the development of essential
programme skills and competencies within tight time frames.
Strong Advocacy and Social Mobilization Efforts - Advocacy and social mobilization is a
very critical factor in the success of the programme because unless there is a strong advocacy
and social mobilization support, learners will not be attracted to join or remain in the
programme. Advertisements in newspapers, broadsheets and tabloids and radio plugs proved
very effective in the recruitment of learners and test takers. Advocacy efforts have also
involved mobilizing community, private sector and government support for the NFE A&E
System through consultations, orientations, networking, development and dissemination of
Information, Communication and Education (IEC) materials, community meetings,
conducting of contests, securing of LGU and business sponsorships and media press releases.
High Quality Learning Materials - The NFE A&E self-instructional and facilitator-aided
learning materials incorporate proven adult learning principles and high standards of
instructional design in order to ensure they are effective, relevant and appropriate to the
everyday life contexts and learning needs of NFE learners. Some 232 interactive learning
modules provide the principal source of learning in the NFE A&E System. They provide a
comprehensive coverage of the competencies of the NFE A&E Curriculum Framework and a
vehicle for the development of learning to learn skills. The modules are clustered around five
learning areas or learning strands which are based on the new national definition of
functional literacy. In view of the bilingual policy of the DECS, these modules are now
available in both Filipino and English. Audio and videotapes accompany some learning
modules.
Strong Management Systems - In building the NFE A&E as an alternative learning system, it
was essential that the programme be supported by strong management support systems such
as an effective NFE A&E monitoring and evaluation system, and a responsive management
information system. A systematic monitoring and evaluation system has been established for
each level of project implementation (from Instructional Managers and Service Providers
through each of the DECS organizational levels up to the national office). A fully integrated
computerized NFE MIS has been developed in cooperation with SEAMEO INNOTECH,
which provides an information backbone for the entire NFE A&E System.
Strong Level of Government Support - Strong support from the highest levels of the DECS
and the Government for the NFE A&E System during its embryonic years contributed greatly
to the success of the programme. The former President issued Administrative Order No. 116,
which mandates all government agencies and local government units to support the NFE
A&E System. The Chairmen of the Committee on Education in both the Senate and Congress
demonstrated their support and commitment to the programme and the provincial governors
and local government officials provided a high level of political, financial and administrative
support to the local activities conducted in their respective communities.
Support from International Agencies - The development of the NFE A&E System was made
possible due to the funding support from the Asian Development Bank, under the Philippines
Nonformal Education Project. Administrative and financial support from other international
funding agencies has also helped in the success of the programmes. Small grants from
UNESCO-PROAP have helped expand and institutionalize the NFE A&E as a component of
a broader alternative learner system, which articulates with other NFE programmes. UNICEF
has provided pencils to all the NFE A&E test takers in order to facilitate the test
 administration process. ACCU has provided training and financial assistance for NFE
materials development, translation and reproduction, the materials of which, both print and
audio, are made available to the learners in both project and non-project sites. These
assistance and grants have a big impact on the implementation of NFE programmes
considering that the BNFE only receives about 0.03% of the budget of the DECS.
Access to Effective Technical Assistance - Responsive and high quality technical assistance
from international consultants at critical points during the development of the NFE A&E
System contributed greatly to the success and innovative dimensions of the Programme.
Consultants did not merely provide technical advice but produced real outputs, which helped
propel the Programme development process forward. Having access to a long-term full-time
Project consultant also helped provide continuity of technical assistance to technical staff and
management. In the early years of the Project, short-term assignments were given to
consultants, but this strategy was not found to be effective.
Commitment and Dedication of Staff - A group of hard core dedicated BNFE staff and
Instructional Managers who spent long hours beyond regular official time is a foundation of
the success of this programme. Their dedication, commitment and personal conviction that
NFE A&E is a programme that can help improve the quality of life of its learners provide the
energy and momentum for continuous development and improvement of the programme in
the face of great challenges of limited resources and working in the Philippine Government's
largest bureaucracy. The staff are totally immersed in their desire to maintain the standard,
quality and integrity of the programme particularly in the new dimension they are presently
working on, the expansion of the NFE Assessment and Certification System to include more
authentic assessment methodologies.
Innovation - The driving force behind the successful development of the NFE A&E System
as a uniquely nonformal alternative learning system has been innovation. Major innovations
include: development of the new national definition of functional literacy by the Literacy
Coordinating Council; development of a truly nonformal NFE A&E Curriculum Framework;
development of new alternative delivery mechanisms for the provision of learning support
services; development of state- of-the-art self-instructional learning materials which
incorporate the principles of adult learning, and the four pillars of education (learning to
know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to live together); development and use of
learner-centred technologies such as flexible learning strategies, individual learning
agreements, learning portfolios and project-based learning; development of nonformal
equivalency testing and authentic assessment methodologies; development of a computerized
NFE MIS and management support system. All these innovations, which were developed
under extremely tight time constraints, paved the way for the success of the programme,
making possible the winning of the UNESCO International NOMA Literacy Prize for the
Year 2000. 
Search on for 2005 National Literacy Awardees 

     To recognize the invaluable contributions of outstanding individuals, institutions and local government units in the promotion of
literacy in the country, the Department of Education (DepED), through the Literacy Coordinating Council (LCC) is conducting the
2005 National Literacy Awards (NLA).
     The awards consist of three categories: Literacy Worker, Literacy Program, and Local Government Unit.
     The search specifically seeks to contribute to the realization of the goal of universalizing literacy in the Philippines by creating
public awareness of and interest in the programs and projects addressing this concern;  sustain, expand and institutionalize literacy
efforts by motivating and recognizing individuals, institutions and local government units through awards and appropriate
recognition;  encourage the development and replication of innovative, creative and indigenous literacy programs; and bestow honor
and recognition to outstanding individuals, government and non-government organizations for their dedication, commitment and
contribution to the univer-salization of literacy in their respective communities.
     The nominee for Literacy Worker must be an individual who does not belong to any organization, foundation or any religious
sector that is primarily responsible for the direct delivery of literacy and continuing education initiatives and programs to the
beneficiaries.
     The   Literacy   Program Award  is for   literacy   programs   initiated   by non government organizations, non government
educational institutions, people’s organizations, academe and socio-civic groups.
     For the Local Government Unit Literacy Award, the leadership of the local chief executive would be noted and recognized but the
main consideration is the efforts of the local government units.  The focus should be on the literacy development endeavors of the
various sectoral groups, both government and non-government which include agriculture sector, social services and other groups: 
youth, elderly, women’s groups, indigenous peoples,  persons with disabilities,  among others.
     Abad also stated that selection of regional winners is underway until April.  Regional winners must be submitted to the Literacy
Coordinating Council on or before May 31, 2005.  Late entries shall be disqualified from the shortlisting process.
     For further details, contact Dr. Norma L. Salcedo, Head of the DepED Literacy Coordinating Secretariat at telephone numbers
6310579/6359996, telefax nos. 6310590 or 6310579. 

Literacy Information in the Philippines

By Dr. Norma L. Salcedo

Head, LCC Secretariat

The 2003 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS) is a national survey that gathers information on basic
and functional literacy status of the population which will be used as basis for the formulation of education policies and programs
that will improve the coverage and quality of education and literacy in the country. It is the third in a series of functional literacy
surveys conducted in 1989 and 1994.

The 2003 FLEMMS is conducted by the National Statistics Office (NSO) in coordination with the Literacy Coordinating Council
(LCC) and the Department of Education (DepEd). LCC provides overall coordination in policy formulation and program
implementation of all inter-agency activities to achieve the goal of the United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD) of increasing global
literacy levels by 50 percent by 2015. With LCC at the helm, the DepEd, Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG),
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), Philippine Information Agency (PIA), Philippine Normal University (PNU),
the Senate, House of Representatives, and Non-Government Organization (NGO), and other agencies involved in the promotion of
literacy from the private and government sectors, the Philippines strongly supports this UNLD goal.

Highest Educational Attainment

The largest proportion of Filipinos aged six years and older were elementary graders. According to the 2003 FLEMMS, 29% of the
estimated 69 million population 6 years old and above in 2003, or three out of 10 persons in that age group, have attended
elementary school but did not complete the elementary level. One in every 10 had no formal education (9.0%). This proportion is
somewhat high despite the government's commitment to provide basic education to all Filipinos. Those who have graduated from an
elementary school but did not proceed to a secondary level comprised 11 percent. Sixteen percent have reached but did not finish
high school level while another 16 percent have finished high school level. Likewise, 16 percent either have reached but did not
complete college level (8.3%) or have actually finished college or any higher level of education (8.0%).

Attendance in School

Two-thirds of the estimated 34 million population 6 to 24 years old, were attending school during the school year covering June
2003 to March or April 2004, or semester covering November 2003 to March or April 2004. In Western Visayas (Region VI), Bicol
(Region V), CAR, Cagayan Valley (Region II), and Mindoro, Marinduque, Romblon, and Palawan (MIMAROPA), approximately
seven out of 10 children and youth were enrolled during the cited school year or semester. In ARMM, only about five in every 10
children and youth were enrolled.

Net Enrollment Ratio

The net enrollment ratio for the primary school age children or the ratio of the number of children six to 11 years old who were
enrolled in elementary grades to the total number of children in this age group is around 82 percent. The net enrollment ratios for the
population in the secondary school ages and those in the tertiary school ages are much lower. Approximately six out of 10 persons
of secondary school ages, or persons aged 12 to 15 years were enrolled in high school. Only one-fifth of those in the tertiary school
ages or persons aged 16 to 24 years were attending college. The net enrollment ratio among females is generally higher than
males.

Mode of Travel to School

The children's mode of travel to school shows that more than half of the students aged six 24 years went to school by walking
(54.5%). Tricycle and jeepney were also commonly used. Two out of five students either took a tricycle or a jeepney.

Reason for not Attending School

Of the 34 million population aged 6-24, 34 percent or 11.6 million were not attending school. Of this number, 30 percent were not
attending school mainly because they were working or looking for work, 22 percent lacked interest in going to school, and 20
percent could not afford the high cost of education.

Basic or Simple Literacy

Of the estimated 62 million Filipinos 10 years old and over, around 93 percent were basically literate. Basic or simple literacy is the
ability of a person to read and write with understanding a simple message in any language or dialect. The basic literacy rate in 2003
is similar to the 1994 rate of 94 percent. The basic literacy rate among females (94.3%) is higher compared to their male counterpart
(92.6%).

Functional Literacy

A self-administered functional literacy questionnaire was accomplished by persons 10 to 64 years old in order to determine their
literacy status. The 2003 FLEMMS revealed a functional literacy rate which is similar to the 1994 rate of 84 percent. Of the
estimated 58 million Filipinos 10 to 64 years old, around 49 million were functionally literate. The functional literacy rate among
females is higher than among males (86.3% vs. 81.9%). Survey results also show that seven out of 10 persons aged 10 to 64 years
who were poor were functionally literate compared to nine out of 10 among the non-poor.

Mass Media

One question in the FLEMMS self-administered questionnaires asked the respondents to choose which among the different forms of
mass media can give him or her knowledge and information. Among the 12 different forms of mass media, TV (61.8%), radio
(56.7%), and newspaper (46.5%) were most commonly cited by the respondents as possible sources of knowledge and information
to them. Other forms of mass media reported by at least two in every 10 respondents are magazine/book (35.7%), meetings of
barangay, church and other organizations (32.2%), and computer/internet (20.0%).

Attendance in Nonformal Training

Of the 51 million population 15 years old and over, 19 percent (9.7 million) have attended a livelihood adult literacy program or non-
ormal training. Nonformal training includes basic literacy, functional literacy, livelihood training, basic vocational training, citizenship
training, values development, and leadership training. Of those who attended livelihood training, 18 percent participated in values
development training, and 13 percent joined leadership training.

Strategic Partners

The national campaign against illiteracy, as designed by the LCC, is built on the concept of a grand alliance among the public
education sector, the private sector, and the local government unit with the local authorities assuming full leadership and
responsibility to make the program sustainable. The Council is set to review and evaluate its program and hopefully, take it to the
next level of advocacy—total local government involvement. To cultivate strategic partnerships with local governments, the Council
undertook an awards program that is calculated to cultivate literacy advocacy among the local government units (LGUs) and
harness local power and resources to combat illiteracy. One success story is Antipolo City which made history by winning the first
ever Hall of Fame Award for the Most Outstanding Local Government Unit category. For three consecutive years, from 2002-2004,
Antipolo City was declared as the Most Outstanding Local Government Unit for the Component City category. As a result, Antipolo
City helped the five-year-old Outstanding Literacy Program Awards establish a significant benchmark in the drive to eradicate
illiteracy in the Philippines. This also proves that strong and sustained support from LGUs greatly helps in achieving the desired
literacy results. Although this is a significant stride in the literacy program, a more concerted effort among educators, learners,
communities, and the government is still needed to raise the level of literacy in the country. 

 OBJECTIVES Media Detective is a 10-lesson elementaryschool substance use prevention program developed

onthe basis of the message interpretation processing model designed to increase children's critical thinking skills
about media messages and reduce intent to use tobacco and alcohol products. The purpose of this study was to
conduct a short-term, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of Media Detective for achievingthese
goals.

METHODS Elementary schools were randomly assigned to conditions to either receive the Media

Detectiveprogram (n = 344) or serve in a waiting list control group (n = 335).

RESULTS Boys in the Media Detective group reported significantly less interest in alcohol-branded merchandise than
boys in the control group. Also, students who were inthe Media Detective group and had used alcohol or tobacco
in the past reported significantly less intention to use and more self-efficacy to refuse substances than students who
were in the control group and had previously used alcohol or tobacco.

CONCLUSIONS This evaluation provides evidence that Media Detective can be effective for substance use
prevention in elementary school–aged children. Notably, media-related cognitions about alcohol and tobacco
products are malleable and relevant to the development and maintenance of substance use behaviors during late
childhood. The findings from this study suggest that media literacy–basedinterventions may serve as both a
universal and a targeted prevention program that has potential for assisting elementary school children in making
healthier, more informed decisions about use of alcoholand tobacco products.

Abstract:

Do early intervention literacy programs promote long-lasting gains for students in middle school and beyond? By
middle school, student performance and achievement in all content areas hinges on demonstrated reading and
writing skills. In light of this, early intervention to promote the development of literacy skills is critical. As an early
intervention literacy program, Reading Recovery (RR) has provided intensive reading instruction to low-achieving
first-grade students. Reading Recovery has been in operation in the United States for over ten years. During that
time, nearly one-half million children have received instruction and 15,000 teachers have participated in training.
Lyons (1998) found greater incidence of academic success for students who participate in Reading Recovery
programs as a method of intervention for literacy in the early grades. A vast body of literature suggests that Reading
Recovery has a positive impact on children's literacy development (Clay, 1985). The purpose of this research study
was to examine the long-term effects of this early intervention.

The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, the purpose was to examine the long-term effects of an early reading
intervention on students currently in middle school. Reading Recovery participants were compared to a randomized
sample of students fitting specific criteria. The second purpose was to analyze the demographic relationship among
RR participants and the control group. A great deal of research has been done on Reading Recovery programs, but
there is limited data to prove that participants were able to sustain gains made over the course of their educational
experiences. This research showed no statistical significance using selected parametric statistics, but did present
important observations for the practitioner. Statistically, students were able sustain gains made, when compared to
the control group. However, observations show that in all cases, students that were identified for Reading Recovery
and were subsequently discontinued from the program were consistently behind their counterparts with relation to
test scores.
There was an expectation on the part of this researcher that the scores of Reading Recovery students in middle
school would not be at an average level. To some degree, that was accurate, as in all cases students performed
below their counterparts. In ELA Performance, there were over two times as many students in the control group
achieving at a level 4, which is the highest level of proficiency. The sample of students may not have been large
enough to show a level of statistical significance, but it does show a need for further intervention and improvement in
order to assert that Reading Recovery is a program with long-lasting effects on the learner.

Middle-school students are at a very complex stage in their development physically, mentally, and emotionally. As
they go through the fundamental changes associated with adolescence, they may be in need of more intervention
that will allow them to continue to be successful, as they have been since early elementary. There is an expectation
among middle school teachers that students have the basic reading and 79 writing skills needed to be successful in
the content areas. It is not always the case that students are entirely self-sufficient with relation to literacy skills.

Had they never had the intervention in first grade it is likely that they would have fallen far behind their peers. Skills
learned in first grade may have led to a level of achievement for seventh graders that allows them to experience
content at the secondary level without the struggle of literacy issues.

There is a financial crisis in public schools. In light of this, every dollar spent should and must be designated to
programs that improve student achievement and support direct needs of learners. Reading Recovery is an expensive
program, and continued research should be conducted to support the continuation of the program. It is possible that
without this intervention, students may have fallen far behind in terms of grade level performance. If that is the case,
Reading Recovery has successful results with discontinued students. This research shows that the intervention led to
average performance on standardized test scores, it also leads to many questions to be explored in the future.

SSUE: Educational technology is nudging literacy instruction beyond its oral and

print-based tradition to embrace online and electronic texts as well as multimedia.
Computers are creating new opportunities for writing and collaborating. The Internet
is constructing global bridges for students to communicate, underscoring the need for
rock-solid reading and writing skills. By changing the way that information is
absorbed, processed, and used, technology is influencing how people read, write,
listen, and communicate.

Although technology promises new ways to promote literacy, educators' reactions to it

have been mixed. Some have embraced technology with unbridled enthusiasm while
others have held it at arm's length with a healthy skepticism. Yet the growing
influence of technology has caused many educators to acknowledge that they need
information on teaching literacy skills in the Digital Age. To serve that need, this
Critical Issue offers research, best practices, and resources that support integration of
new technologies into literacy instruction.

OVERVIEW: Literacy instruction traditionally refers to the teaching of basic literacy

skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking. In today's digital world, however,
technology has contributed to an expanded understanding of literacy. Besides having
basic literacy skills, today's students also need technology skills for communicating,
investigating, accessing and using information, computing, thinking critically about
messages inherent in new media, and understanding and evaluating data. As
policymakers and educators ponder what it means to be literate in a digitized
society, an array of literacy definitions is emerging. Among them are the following
examples:

 Research: What empirical evidence exists to confirm that new technologies

can be effective in support of literacy instruction? What technologies actually
improve literacy programs? What technologies have little or no effect? Are any
technologies, in fact, harmful to development of successful literacy instruction?

 Practice: Precisely which technologies, to date, are being used successfully to

support literacy instruction? What technologies hold promise for the future?
How are teachers integrating them into literacy instruction?

 Professional Development: How has professional development in literacy-

based contexts been influenced by the advent of educational technologies?
What skills do teachers need for integrating technology into literacy
instruction?

Research on Technology and Literacy

Educational researchers and practitioners alike assert that the potential of new
technologies for learning is likely to be found not in the technologies themselves but
in the way in which these technologies are used as tools for learning (Means & Olson,
1995; Owston, 1997; Valdez et al., 1999). In literacy instruction, technology has both
traditional and authentic uses (see Singh & Means, 1994). A traditional use of
technology is skills reinforcement; for example, students who need additional practice
in reading might work individually on computers equipped with reading-
comprehension software. An authentic use of technology is using it as a tool to
accomplish a complex task; for example, students who are creating a written report
might use the Internet for research, word-processing software to write and format the
text, and hypermedia software to add images. Therefore, it makes sense to consider
the variety of uses as they illustrate best practices.

Although many reviews of empirical studies and volumes of observations relate to the
use of new technologies in support of literacy education (see Kamil, Intrator, & Kim,
2000; Leu, 2000), two challenges emerge when educators look for evidence that might
anchor recommendations for using technologies in literacy instruction. These
challenges are the "moving target" problem that is inherent in the subject being
researched, and the scarcity of comprehensive literacy studies offering informed
commentary.

The "Moving Target" Problem. Much of the evidence that the researchers have
been able to generate with regard to educational technologies is about innovations that
aptly are described as a "moving target" (Valdez et al., 1999, p. 1). In other words,
even as researchers begin to describe empirical evidence supporting the effects a
particular technology on an educational practice, that technology itself is changing
and in some cases even becoming obsolete. In addition, the evolving nature of
educational technologies precludes any efforts to predict the success of, and establish
guidelines for, subsequent educational practices. "As newer technologies of
information and communication continually appear, they raise concerns about the
generalizability of findings from earlier technologies," notes Leu (2000). "It is
important to be cautious about generalizing findings from traditional texts to different
forms of hypermedia because each technology contains different contexts and
resources for constructing meanings and requires somewhat different strategies for
doing so" (p. 749).

Scarcity of Comprehensive Literacy Studies. Not only does technology change

faster than guidelines for innovations can be established, but relatively few thorough
studies have evaluated the efficacy of new technologies for literacy education. For
example, a review by Kamil and Lane (1998) examined literacy research during the
years between 1990 and 1995. (For a discussion, see Kamil, Intrator, & Kim, 2000;
Leu, 2000.) This review looked at four mainstream literary journals with the highest
citation rates for literacy research: Reading Research Quarterly, Journal of Reading
Behavior (since changed to Journal of Literacy Research),Written Communication,
and Research in the Teaching of English. In the two reading journals, only 1 percent
of the articles dealt with technology issues. In the two writing journals, only 5 percent
of the articles dealt with technology issues. In summary, Kamil and Lane (1998) note,
"Research into the problems and processes of literacy and technology has advanced
little beyond what it was 10 years ago" (p. 338).

Some researchers suggest that the challenges related to technology and literacy must
become more integral to mainstream literacy research. Collins (1992), for example,
suggests that research should shift from an emphasis on
traditional summative evaluation (in which data is acquired at the end of an activity)
to include more formative design approaches (which are informed by data acquired
during the planning and development of the activity). In fact, the formative-design
experiment approach—in which research questions focus on the resources needed to
make a specific implementation succeed (see Reinking & Watkins, 1996)—is likely to
become a trend in future educational research. As Kamil and Lane (1998) comment,
"It is too late to ask questions such as whether we should allow students access to the
Internet. Rather, we should be conducting research that asks questions such as, 'What
does it take to use Internet connections successfully in teaching literacy?' " (p. 339).

Some educators believe that schools should provide students with exposure to current
technologies used in the business world regardless of whether those technologies have
been proven effective through research. Leu (2000) states, "It may become
unimportant to demonstrate the advantages of new technologies for educational
contexts if it is already clear those technologies will define the literacies of our
students' futures" (p. 762).

Technologies That Support Students' Reading Development

Educational technologies that support the development of students' reading skills

include audiobooks, electronic books and online texts, electronic talking books, and
programmed reading instruction.

Audiobooks. Audiobooks, sometimes known as books on tape, are professionally

recorded, unabridged versions of fiction or nonfiction books. They are available on
regular audiocassettes or four-track cassettes that require a special cassette player.
Audiobooks promote students' interest in reading and improve their comprehension of
text, notes Beers (1998). They also have been used successfully by students who
cannot read traditional printed books because of visual or physical handicaps.

When used in conjunction with written texts, audiobooks help improve children's
reading skills. Children can listen to the audio version of a book and follow along
silently with the printed version. Also, they can gain practice in reading aloud the text
in conjunction with the audio. "Hearing text read aloud improves reading ability,"
states Beers (1998). "The use of audiobooks with struggling, reluctant, or second-
language learners is powerful since they act as a scaffold that allows students to read
above their actual reading level. This is critical with older students who may still read
at a beginner level."

Electronic Books and Online Texts. Electronic books, also known as e-books, are
electronic texts that are presented visually. Whether available on CD-ROM, the
Internet, or special disks, electronic books always provide the text in a visual
component. Some electronic books incorporate text enhancements, such as definitions
of words or background information on ideas. Others offer illustrations that
complement the story. The downside of electronic books is that they can be viewed
only with a computer or a special palm-sized digital reader; often the text resolution is
poor. In terms of their advantages, Anderson-Inman and Horney (1999) note that
electronic books are searchable, modifiable (for example, font sizes can be increased
to meet the needs of the reader), and enhanceable with embedded resources (for
example, definitions and details).

Online texts are those that are available on the World Wide Web. With access to an
Internet-connected computer, students can find a wide variety of free online reading
materials, including books, plays, short stories, magazines, and reference materials.
This benefit is especially useful for students in schools that have few resources for the
acquisition of new books.

Electronic books and online texts often are equipped with hypermedia—links to text,
data, graphics, audio, or video. As students read the text, they are able to click on the
links to access definitions of words, additional information on concepts, illustrations,
animations, and video—all of which can increase their understanding of the material.
Research indicates that hypermedia software has positive effects on student learning
and comprehension (see Anderson-Inman & Horney, 1998; Anderson-Inman, Horney,
Chin, & Lewis, 1994; Hillinger, 1992; Hillinger & Leu, 1994; Leu & Hillinger, 1994).

The use of hypermedia to improve student comprehension of text likely is related to

its ability to respond to the needs of an individual learner for information, which
results in an increased sense of control over the learning environment and higher
levels of intrinsic motivation (Becker & Dwyer, 1994). That is, the interactive features
of hypermedia and the users' control of their direction within these information
environments may explain some of the learning gains in comprehension (for a
discussion, see Leu, 2000).

Electronic Talking Books. The term electronic talking books has been coined by

some researchers to refer to electronic texts that also provide embedded speech. The
speech component offers a digitized reading of general sections as well as
pronunciations of specific words within the text; it supports and coaches students as
they read the text of the story (Leu, 2000; McKenna, 1998). Although research is
ongoing about the effectiveness of electronic talking books, there already is much to
be said in their favor (for a review, see Leu, 2000; McKenna, 1998). "Computers,
especially those equipped with devices that produce artificial speech, may provide an
effective means for increasing decoding skills and reading fluency," note Reinking
and Bridwell-Bowles (1966, p. 321).

McKenna (1998) notes that electronic talking books increase motivation to read as
well as promote basic word recognition. According to some research, the use of
talking books has shown positive results as an aid to help children improve their
comprehension of texts (Hastings, 1997; Lewin, 1997; McKenna, 1998; Reitsma
1988). In addition, children's decoding skills have been shown to improve with the use
of talking books (Miller, Blackstock, & Miller, 1994; Olson & Wise, 1992; Reitsma,
1988; Wise & Olson, 1994). For slightly older readers, talking books feature glossary
entries, explanatory notes, and simplified rewordings that provide additional
background information needed to understand new concepts in texts (Anderson-Inman
& Horney, 1998).

In general, electronic talking books have been found to support reading instruction by
providing background information, extended response actions, play actions, and
explanatory notes. Talking books also show promise of accelerating reading growth
by offering readers immediate access to a word's pronunciation—thus easing the need
of the student to rely on context cues to understand new words. They also can be
equipped with a tracking system for troublesome pronunciations; this system can
provide feedback to teachers, enabling them to identify particular categories of words
for further student study.

Programmed Reading Instruction. Various types of software programs, computer-

assisted instruction, and integrated learning systems offer programmed reading
instruction for students. This skills-based instruction ranges from letter recognition to
phonics instruction to vocabulary building. A study by Barker and Torgeson (1995)
also indicated that computer-assisted instruction is valuable in improving the
phonological awareness of 6-year-olds. The computer program helped the children
learn to discriminate and sequence the sound in words, which improved their word-
reading ability.

Although programmed reading instruction was one of the first uses of technology in
literacy instruction, this area is generating new developments as technology becomes
more sophisticated. Recent developments in software programs for literacy instruction
include voice-activated reading software and software for culturally mediated
instruction. Project LISTEN is an example of research-in-progress on a computerized
reading tutor; this software application "listens" as children read and "coaches" (talks)
when the reader makes mistakes, gets stuck, clicks for help, or is likely to encounter
difficulty.

Technologies That Support Students' Writing Development

Educational technologies that support the development of students' writing skills

include word processing, desktop publishing, multimedia composing, online
publishing, and Internet communication.

Word Processing. Word processing is the pioneer application of educational

technology used in writing instruction. Although it requires the mastery of basic
keyboarding skills, word processing allows many students to write and edit their work
more easily. In addition, word-processing tools such as spelling checkers are useful
aids that improve the quality of student writing. Research indicates that students who
are comfortable with word processing write longer papers, spend more time writing
and revising, and show improved mechanics and word choice (Lehr, 1995).
Nevertheless, research also indicates that using a word processor does not by itself
improve student writing. Rather, the teacher has a critical role in guiding the writing
process, providing feedback, and encouraging revision (Reinking & Bridwell-Bowles,
1996).

The arguments for promoting word processing in K-12 education are several. First,
some educators acknowledge that because of the prevalence of word processing in the
workplace, students should be taught at least the rudiments of word processing, much
the same way that students have learned typing skills and their related content-based
counterparts such as organizing a term paper, composing a letter, or drafting
documents for research in various subject areas. Today's comparison might extend
that argument to include acquiring such skills to produce traditional documents as
well as hypertext, interactive documents.

The general claim behind the need to shift from typing or pen-and-paper compositions
to word processing is that the latter is more efficient, and therefore the offloading of
the mechanics of writing by word processing will improve the quality of writing.
Researchers have investigated these claims. A meta-analysis of 32 studies comparing
two groups of students who received identical writing instruction—with one group
using word processing for writing assignments and the other group writing by hand—
found that the quality of writing was higher for students using word processing
(Bangert-Drowns, 1993). These studies—which included various grade levels, from
college and high school down to elementary—indicated that the greatest successes
with word processing were at the higher grade levels. More recent research indicates
that younger students also benefit from word-processing skills. A study of children's
writing in a high-computer-access setting compared to a setting with infrequent usage,
conducted during a three-year period beginning with third grade, showed that frequent
use of word processing contributed to improved writing skills (Owston & Wideman,
1997). Another study of second-grade students indicated that word processing
improved children's general writing skills and contributed to longer compositions
(Jones, 1994).

Other researchers have tempered this finding by showing that without additional and
appropriate structures for refining the quality of the writing, students' work does not
automatically improve with word processing alone. For example, one researcher
suggested that revisions of written work do not automatically result from the shift
from pen-and-paper to word processing unless prompts for revision are explicitly
added (Daiute & Kruidenier, 1985; Daiute, 1986). On the basis of this research,
researchers strongly recommend that teachers actively adapt word-processing
programs to instruction, thereby making an effective tool for learning.

The use of the computer for word processing also promotes collaborative writing
among students. The computer screen enables students in small groups to see the
writing that has been input, discuss its fine points, and make suggestions that will
improve the quality. Wood (2000) notes that when using computers collaboratively
"children worked together more than they normally would to write stories, search the
Web, or create multimedia presentations" (p. 120).

Desktop Publishing of Student Work. An extension of word processing is desktop

publishing, in which students learn to format text, plan the layout of pages, insert
charts and graphics, and produce a professional-looking final copy. As students are
mastering word-processing skills, they can gain practice in desktop-publishing their
reports, stories, and poems. Teachers also may require students to keep an electronic
portfolio of their work, which can be printed at the end of the year and used to show
improvements in each student's writing skills. Some classrooms enjoy writing and
producing a class newspaper.

Multimedia Composing. Besides text-based writing, technology encourages students

to integrate visual and aural multimedia in their school projects. Various software
programs allow students to insert images, sounds, and video, thereby creating
complex, multilayered compositions. For students who have difficulty with writing,
multimedia composing presents a means of self-expression and provides support for
development of reading and writing skills.

Online Publishing of Student Work. Providing opportunities for online publishing

of students' work is another means to motivate student writing. "Publishing online is a
motivating factor when completing classroom assignments," notes Karchmer (2000).
"Students feel their work could have far-reaching effects, which in turn encourages
them to put more effort into it" (p. 83). One way to accomplish online publishing is
through the school's Web site. Classrooms often have their own Web pages, which
can display student assignments and extracurricular writing. If a school does not have
its own Web site, opportunities to develop and house a Web site can be found at The
Collaboratory Project and Web66: A K-12 World Wide Web Project. These projects,
sponsored by educational organizations and businesses, support the development of a
school's Web site and offer to maintain the school's server. They also are based on the
premise that many literacy teachers need additional technology support to publish
documents online.

Online publishing also can be accomplished through online magazines and

educational organizations that post students' writing on the Web. Three examples
are Midlink Magazine, The Young Writers Club, and International Kids' Space.
The World of Reading posts book reviews that are submitted by children.

Internet-Based Communication. Another way to promote student writing is through

electronic mail (e-mail), electronic bulletin boards, and e-mail lists. Such Internet-
based communication can be with peers, adults, or professional experts from around
the world. Students in classrooms across the country can become online penpals
(sometimes called e-pals or keypals). Some classrooms enjoy pairing up with older
adults who live in retirement homes. Still another use is online communication with
adult experts who have agreed to answer students' e-mail questions.

Writing to an authentic reader has a positive effect on students' writing performance

and motivation (Reinking & Bridwell-Bowles, 1996). "Simple exchanges of e-mail
can get students writing and reading with the same intensity they bring to the most
exciting video game," note Meyer and Rose (2000). "Receiving feedback from across
the globe conveys to young children the power of reading and writing and
demonstrates their ultimate purpose—to communicate across time and space."

Technologies That Support Students' Research and Collaboration Skills

Technologies that support students' research and collaboration skills include Internet
search engines, online tools for evaluating Web-based information, and Web sites that
offer collaborative activities.

Internet Search Engines. The Internet has gained momentum as the infrastructure on

which international knowledge is created and shared. Use of the Internet search
engines can promote students' research and investigation skills and enable them to
locate online information on any possible topic. Students also can access online
journals, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, and informative Web sites.
Unfortunately, some information on the Web is neither accurate nor reputable.
Students need to learn how to evaluate this information.

Online Tools for Evaluating Web-Based Information. The need to evaluate online

information sources is gaining importance as a basic literacy skill. Online tools
for evaluating online information provide strategies for determining the accuracy,
quality, and timeliness of online information.

Web Sites That Offer Collaborative Activities. Educational technology has

expanded the instructional potential of collaboration. In the recent past, student
collaboration in literacy activities might have meant one classroom joining with
another classroom across the hall to engage in joint reading, writing, listening,
speaking, or research projects. Today, educators can access and share a global
curriculum-development lab with other educators. They can engage their class with
another in literacy-based projects without geographic boundaries.

Although collaboration in itself does not necessarily promise to improve literacy skills
or guarantee learning, it has proven to be a powerful motivation tool for students.
Anecdotal evidence abounds from teachers who cite measurable improvements in
reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills among students whose classroom walls
have widened to embrace the global community. One Web site that offers
collaborative learning projects with students worldwide is the Global Schoolhouse.
Many of the projects focus on development of writing skills.

Professional Development in Technology and Literacy

Edyth E. Young, Ph.D., NCREL program director/research, Center for Literacy

relates the professional impact of her first teaching position . 
[QuickTime Video and text, information about QuickTime is available]. 

Requirements for professional development in literacy are aptly summarized by Leu

(2000), who reflects on the rapidly changing nature of what it means to be a "literate"
person in the 21st century:

"Traditionally, we have selected teachers who were already literate and could pass
their literacy along to our children. Now, however, the very nature of literacy is
regularly changing because of new information and communication technologies.
Many teachers literate in older technologies quickly become illiterate as newer
technologies of information and communication replace previous technologies.... We
must begin to develop strategies to help each of us keep up with the continually
changing definitions of literacy that will exist in our world." (p. 763)

The importance of ongoing professional development in educational technology has

been reiterated by researchers reviewing not only the needs of teachers of language
arts and English but also those of educators across all curricular contexts (Means &
Olson, 1995; Valdez et al., 1999). Leu (2000) notes the necessity of "staff
development to continually support teachers as new technologies regularly appear" (p.
757). Many literacy educators feel the surge of new technology rumbling under their
feet while they try to maintain a firm footing on the solid ground of basic reading,
writing, and speaking instruction. The challenge is how to continue teaching
traditional literacy skills while simultaneously learning new technologies and
instructing their students in those technologies.
In general, teachers need ongoing, hands-on training in various literacy-based
technologies. This training should enable them to become proficient in word
processing, basic computer skills, e-mail, classroom conferencing, and electronic
bulletin boards. It also should provide exposure to literacy software programs and
computer-assisted instruction, electronic books, audiobooks, and multimedia
composing. Of utmost importance is learning how to effectively integrate these
technologies into literacy instuction. Other important components of effective
professional development include adequate time, curriculum-specific applications,
technical assistance and support, and a connection to student learning. (Refer to the
Critical Issue Providing Professional Development for Effective Technology Use.)

Peggy Grant, Ph.D, NCREL program associate/research, Center for Literacy talks
about the challenge of a student-centered class. 
[QuickTime Video and text, information about QuickTime is available]. 

As educational technologies move the classroom toward a student-centered model, the

role of the literacy teacher becomes that of coach, facilitator, or mentor. In this model,
responsibility for learning is shared as students engage in peer mentoring, reflection,
and self-evaluation. The literacy curriculum in particular is likely to be a primary
model for this situation because the skills of reading, writing, listening, and
investigating lend themselves to self-development and peer work to reach measurable
learning goals. Professional development in this context is likely to occur within the
learn-by-doing venture.

Although numerous technologies currently are available to support the development

of literacy skills, educators are wise to be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of
each type. Future developments no doubt will continue to provide improvements in
the quality and value of such technologies, but the value of traditional literacy
instruction will remain. "Computers should and will play a major role in the reading
classroom but will almost certainly not replace books or teachers. They will influence
and perhaps even redefine traditional books, literacy, and the role of teachers, but all
three will survive and thrive," state Meyer and Rose (2000). "Developing a clear-
sighted, open-minded understanding of both old and new technologies will help
develop a complementary relationship between them."

 GOALS:

 The school or district has a clear set of goals, expectations, and criteria for
improvements in student literacy.
  Educational technology supports literacy instruction in the classroom and is
integrated into the literacy curriculum.

 All students have opportunities to use educational technology to improve their

literacy skills.

 Ongoing professional development on literacy and technology provides

educators with current and practical applications for enhancing students'
literacy skills.

 ACTION OPTIONS: Administrators, teachers, library-media specialists, and

parents and community members can take the following steps to promote technology
for enriching students' reading and writing skills.

Administrators

 Work with teams of teachers, parents, and community members to ensure that
the school or district technology plan promotes the curricular goals of the
literacy program. (Refer to the Critical Issue Developing a School or District
Technology Plan.)

 Develop strategies for increasing the use of technology within the curriculum
as it supports literacy-based teaching and learning experiences.

 Develop and make explicit to teachers, parents, students, and community

members the district and schoolwide guidelines for the integration and use of
new technologies within literacy programs.

 Refer to Learning to Read in the Computer Age, Computer Technology and

Reading Instruction, More Than Words: Learning to Write in the Digital
World, and Reading Programs That Work, and to learn about current reading
and writing technologies and new technology applications in development.

 Develop firm policies prohibiting student plagiarism of online materials.

 Ensure that all students have equal access to literacy-based technology to

improve their reading and writing skills. (Refer to the Critical Issues Ensuring
Equitable Use of Education Technology, Using Technology to Enhance
Engaged Learning for At-Risk Students, and Using Technology to Improve
Student Achievement.)
  Become familiar with the evolving Technology Standards for School
Administrators and participate in ongoing professional development in
technology use.

 Review current research and best practice on technology and literacy. (A

starting point is NCREL's Literacy Research and Best Practices.) Use those
materials that best suit the needs of the district or school as springboards for
professional development opportunities.

Teachers

 Participate in the development of the school or district technology plan to

ensure that literacy goals are well-integrated throughout the plan.

 Be involved in discussions and selection committees to choose specific

technologies and software that support the literacy curriculum.

 Become familiar with Standards for the English Language Arts, developed by

the National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading
Association, and the Technology Foundation Standards for All Students,
developed as part of the National Educational Technology Standards by the
International Society for Technology in Education. Determine how these two
types of standards can be used in conjunction to promote literacy and
technology in the classroom.

 Consider technology tools as an extension of—not a substitute for—traditional

literacy instruction in the classroom.

 Determine how electronic books can be used in the classroom.

 Besides integrating video and audio cassettes into literature programs, go

beyond these resources to embrace newer technologies for enhancing literacy.

 Be aware of online lists of award-winning children's books that can be

suggested to children for reading.

 Develop strategies for using microcomputers in elementary language arts

instruction.

 Monitor and reinforce the literacy skills that students are learning through
classroom software.
  Follow appropriate guidelines for computer-assisted reading instruction in the
classroom.

 Use computer-assisted writing instruction to promote students' writing skills.

 Guide students' writing, provide feedback, and encourage word processing

for revision in the writing process.

 Use electronic portfolios to collect students' writing assignments and document

their improvements in writing.

 Provide opportunities for publishing students' work on the Internet.

 Search the NETS database of lessons and units for grade-specific reading and

writing activities that integrate technology into literacy instruction.

 Gain practice in evaluating online educational materials for use in instruction.

 Become aware of the National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) for

teachers and take steps to meet these standards.

 Participate in ongoing professional development on literacy and technology.

Keep abreast of current realities as well as innovations, either through personal
involvement in professional organizations that foster the understanding of
technology and literacy across the curriculum, or through connections with
computer-support personnel throughout the district.

Library-Media Specialists

 Help identify new technology and software for enriching students' reading and
writing skills.

 Encourage school administrators to provide funds for the purchase of literacy

technology and software.

 Provide information and support for teachers as they integrate literacy

technology and software into their classrooms.

Parents and Community Members

 Provide children with access to technology and literacy in the home, at the local
library, or through educational or not-for-profit community organizations.
  Become involved in parent organizations that foster an understanding of new
technologies to promote children's literacy learning.

 Participate on the school or district technology planning team to help formulate

or evaluate guidelines for the integration and use of new technologies within
literacy programs.

An Evaluation of
The Sustainable Schools Project
2003-2004
Prepared for
Shelburne Farms
The Vermont Education for Sustainability Project
and
The Place-based Education Evaluation Collaborative

Prepared by:
Amy L. Powers, Michael Duffin,
& Program Evaluation & Educational Research (PEER)
Associates

September 8, 2004

Executive Summary
Introduction
The Sustainable Schools Project (SSP) is a partnership program of Shelburne Farms and Vermont Education for
Sustainability (VT EFS). The project uses sustainability as the integrating context on a school-wide level, seeking to
connect science, literacy, ecology, and community. SSP focused its first school year (2002-2003) piloting its program in
one urban elementary school in Burlington, Vermont. In this, its second year, SSP continued its intensive work with the
same elementary school while beginning to make inroads into its next elementary school site on the other side of
Burlington. Full-fledged involvement with the second site will take place in the third year of programming.

The primary goal of SSP is to use sustainability as an integrating context for strengthening a whole school’s curriculum
improvement efforts, teacher leadership, community partnerships, and campus ecology.
SSP strives to help a school become more connected and collaborative internally, as well as more connected with the
school’s local community and natural environment. SSP staff describe the desired outcome as creating a more
connected, coherent learning experience that inspires teachers to collaborate, and inspires students to engage with their
school, community, and environment.

The SSP Logic Model (see Appendix A) further describes the program’s short and long term outcomes. The evaluation
team worked with key program stakeholders to develop this year’s evaluation plans by using the SSP Logic Model as
the anchor.

SSP’s sponsoring organizations are among the founding members of the Place-based Education Evaluation
Collaborative (PEEC), recently formed to evaluate the individual programs of its members and also to lay the
groundwork for broader research into the effectiveness of place-based education.

Methods
The first cycle of program evaluation sought to understand the successes and challenges of SSP’s process of program
development and implementation, and to measure the degree to which its short-term projected outcomes were attained.
The second year of evaluation continued to monitor progress at Champlain Elementary School, observing program
impacts on faculty and students, investigating the integration of literacy and sustainability, and assessing the program’s
staying power. The current evaluation cycle also involved gathering baseline data for the newer SSP school, Barnes
Elementary.

While this is primarily a formative evaluation, the report does provide evidence of positive outcomes as well as
suggestions for program improvements. The evaluation is intended to be useful to program managers, funders and
interested stakeholders, and to contribute to the field of place-based education.

Based on the SSP Logic Model, and the objectives of the program stakeholders, the evaluation team developed the
questions listed in the Figure M1. After SSP staff reviewed and approved the questions, the evaluators designed
appropriate research instruments to explore questions.

The evaluation utilized multiple methods. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were conducted with teachers,
administrators, parents, community members, and SSP staff members. Students were interviewed informally during site
visits. Classroom and school observations, internal reflection instruments, student academic achievement data and
educator and student surveys served to triangulate the interview data.

The evaluation team collected both qualitative and quantitative data about the integration of literacy and sustainability
at Champlain Elementary. Qualitative interview data were gathered as part of semi-structured interviews that also
sought data about other aspects of SSP. Quantitative data was gathered using a series of four locally designed and
implemented assessments:

1)      A compilation of two lists: one that showed all the major activities within Champlain elementary that integrated
sustainability and literacy during the 2002-03 school year; and a second list that showed similar activities that occurred
during the 2003-04 school year
2)      A simple, one page questionnaire about the use of non-fiction resources administered to the entire teaching staff.
3)      A two page questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions about literacy teaching practices.
4)      A quasi-experimental assessment of student literacy skills was designed, piloted, and administered to a
representative random sample of students.
Findings
This year’s evaluation of SSP focused on both process and outcome elements. In particular, we monitored the impacts of
the program on teachers and students at Champlain Elementary School, now in its second year with SSP.

Teacher Outcomes
One of SSP’s primary strategies is to help teachers plan and implement sustainability-related curricula through the
summer institute and ongoing coaching and support during the school year. There has been ample evidence this year
that such practices are flourishing and becoming more embedded in the school’s operations. In addition to an overall
sense that teachers were thinking differently about the curriculum planning process as a whole, there were three specific
areas in which teachers described changes in their teaching practice. Teachers are increasingly:

Using essential questions to plan and teach their students throughout the year
Creating interdisciplinary units of study that weave together various disciplines, often using concepts of
sustainability as an integrating theme
Connecting their curricula with that of other classrooms, including special subjects such as art, physical
education, and music, and across the grade levels.

Student Outcomes
Through SSP work, students were exposed to diverse new places in the community, and--equally importantly--they
began to develop a deeper understanding of places they already knew. This exposure came on various levels: a greater
awareness of schoolyard flora and fauna, increased knowledge of the different groups that make up a neighborhood,
and heightened insight into the ways that a business fits into the local economy. Three key areas are highlighted in the
report to demonstrate the impact of SSP on student awareness of and engagement in their community:

The grades 4/5 team immersed itself in comprehensive citizenship projects that had beneficial effects on the
community and for the young learners.
Younger grades also explored the community, including forming relationships with elders and developing a
more fine-tuned sense of local geography.
Teachers reported that students’ sensitivity was growing as they engaged more deeply with the community
and developed a sense of involvement and feelings of responsibility.

Furthermore, three other areas emerged as outcomes related to student involvement in SSP:

Through their school work, students demonstrated that they were linking issues of personal and community
health to the topic of sustainability.
Teachers reported that because of the level of student engagement in sustainability-related work, students are
increasingly making connections across units of study, and are increasingly directing their own learning processes.
Students are making an increased personal commitment to sustainable practices at school, and they are taking
sustainability messages, such as composting food waste, into their homes.

Process Strengths
An overwhelming portion of the interview data and document review comprising this evaluation pointed toward
program strengths. The most salient of these are:

SSP reaches a schoolwide audience

Composting takes hold
Skilled and effective SSP staff promote change
Providing resources and teaching classes
Second summer workshop embeds changes in practice
Individualization and flexibility of the SSP model
SSP has staying power

A crucial measure of the success of a program such as SSP is the likelihood that the program will be continued over
time, or have “staying power,” within the site. Three key areas emerged as clear evidence of the staying power of SSP,
defined more specifically as its potential to continue at Champlain School beyond the first two program implementation
years:

A wide network of support among the school administration, parents, members of the community, and the
teachers.
A commitment to continuing relationships that were established through SSP, such as those fostered between
community members and teachers.
An effort to document SSP-related projects, such as the living machine, on site.

Process Challenges
Unequivocal praise for the SSP experience at Champlain Elementary School and clear evidence of positive outcomes
strongly indicate that the model is a success. Nonetheless, as can be expected with any program, a pattern of challenges
emerged in the data. The challenges are broken down into the following three areas:

Time and scheduling can be barriers

The language of sustainability can be a deterrent
Some subjects seen as outliers to sustainability work

Integrating Literacy and Sustainability

This section of the report explores data collected from four different assessments of various aspects of SSP’s efforts to
integrate literacy and sustainability, and then synthesizes that data with relevant evaluation interview data.

A comparison between the past two school years reveals a marked increase in the amount of effort put into literacy at
Champlain as a result of SSP. Not only did the amount of activity increase from 2002-03 to 2003-04 (especially in terms
of more work with specific grade levels), but the type of activities seems to have taken on a new dimension as well.
Clearly, sustainability concepts are being successfully integrated with literacy. This presents SSP with an opportunity to
articulate just how much integration needs to happen in order to call their efforts a success, and how that might be
accurately measured.

Champlain Literacy Assessment Questionnaire

One way that SSP’s strategic focus on the use of informational (non-fiction) texts showed up was through a simple, one-
page, pre-post questionnaire given to all teachers at Champlain elementary school. The most prominent pattern in the
findings is a seeming increase for every one of the (loosely) scaled items. This provides one tangible level of affirmation
that SSP’s efforts to integrate sustainability and literacy are having positive results.

Literacy/Sustainability Study Group Reflections

The literacy/sustainability study group was an intentional component of the SSP at Champlain School. Five teachers
participated in this study group that met 11 times for a total of 30 hours from September through December 2003. The
purpose of the group was to build skills in integrating literacy into classroom work and to develop units to support such
integration.

In order to capture more detailed evaluation data from this study group, SSP staff designed a brief assessment, and had
them write out their responses at the beginning of the school year and then discuss the questions as a group at the end
of the school year. Participants echoed the clear intention and focus of the SSP staff and district literacy specialist in their
various presentations of the importance and utility of non-fiction, informational texts. Participants also expressed the
poignant tension between the additional demands and commitment required by SSP-type efforts and the benefits that
can accrue as a result.

Quasi-experiment
SSP piloted a direct assessment of student literacy skills during the 2003-04 school year. The most striking element of the
data is that all students demonstrated improvement from pre- to post-, except those who had achieved at or near the
highest possible score on the pre-assessment. Assuming the integrity of the scoring process, it can be confidently
asserted that the integrated sustainability/literacy lessons that took place between the pre- and post-assessments led to
improved student skills in the first two out of the three questions/skill areas covered by the assessment rubric. This
pilot quasi-experimental investigation could well become a replicable model for similar investigations of other PEEC or
place-based programs if some of the research design and administration procedures were to be slightly more refined
and systematized.

Presentation of Educator and Student Survey Data: Barnes and Champlain Schools
The main thrust of the survey-related sections of this report is to present the findings of the effort to pilot a dose-
response measurement strategy. Thus, this report takes an educative approach to presenting statistical findings. We
omit some of the more descriptive statistical representations (e.g. simple bar graphs) in favor of putting more focused
effort into helping the reader understand the meaning and power of the inferential statistics that undergird this dose-
response measurement strategy.
Several potentially useful findings have emerged. A very strong correlation was found between amount of exposure to
SSP (i.e. “dose”) and responses to survey items about teacher practice. Other positive, substantial, and statistically
significant results were found for student time spent outdoors and student attachment to place. Several other outcomes
showed little relationship to SSP exposure or were not statistically significant. Since the primary focus of the
quantitative part of this evaluation was to pilot test the dose-response measurement strategy itself, there is still more to
be learned from analyzing the data more exhaustively.
Conclusions
The SSP does not require that a specific topic, method, or activity be taught in a school. Rather, SSP encourages people to
think about connections and to see the web that weaves together topics (e.g. art and writing), places (e.g. classrooms and
neighborhoods), and people (e.g. students and local workers).

There is a parallel conceptual and structural evolution of the program taking place. As SSP’s sustainability-related
content takes hold and begins to create a curricular web, so too the students, teachers, staff, and others involved in the
process find themselves in an evolving framework of interconnectivity that has many benefits for the school and
community alike.

A specific example of this is the impact of SSP’s literacy efforts. By focusing on integrating sustainability broadly into as
many aspects of the literacy curriculum as possible, SSP itself is becoming more broadly integrated into the school and
district.

In the broadest sense, what is happening with SSP is an expansion of perspective as

participants begin to see the interconnectivity of all things. More specifically, at Champlain Elementary School, the SSP
model’s “testing grounds,” teachers are learning how all elements of their curriculum are or can be related, and are
gaining awareness of how the curriculum is linked between grades and between special subjects, like art and music, and
classrooms. They are refining their skills in curriculum planning built upon a new foundation of essential questions and
sustainability. Moreover, students are seeing that their learning process extends well beyond the classroom, to their
neighborhoods, and to other students, the schoolyard, their parents, and other community adults.

Implications for Practice

Evaluation provides the opportunity for program growth, reflection and refinement. Interpretation of the data used in
this year’s evaluation points to a number of recommendations for program development, also called implications for
practice. The following list offers a snapshot of the more detailed and extensive implications for practice provided in the
report.

Acknowledge from the start that the process of change itself does indeed require an investment of time, but
that there is ample evidence that it is worth it    in the longer term.

Allow participants to explore and define the language pertinent to the project—particularly “sustainability”
and “sustainable,”--and to select the best         way to represent the concept for their school and community.

Funding should be sought to allow for expansion of the summer institutes to include a greater number of days
and greater variety of participants.

Include all teachers equally from the beginning of program implementation.

It would be valuable to have a school liaison who can assist a school in its third year as the site transitions
away from heavy involvement of SSP staff.

Assure that the social equity element of education for sustainability is addressed in as much depth as the
environmental integrity and economic                 prosperity elements.

Assure that all program staff feel adequately prepared to implement the area of focus, such as coaching
teachers on literacy work or diversity issues.

Consider building upon the quasi-experimental assessment exercise as a way to eventually provide a solid
body of evidence about SSP’s direct influence  on student achievement.

  The first round of analysis of the survey data collected in 2003-04 reveals some compelling confirming
evidence of program success. Further exploration        of the data is warranted.

Continue to explore the benefits of a deeper collaboration and sharing of responsibility between program staff
and evaluators.

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Last Updated: Monday, May 05, 2008

RIC Identifier: ED290542 
Publication Date: 1987-00-00 
Author: Hollifield, John 
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education Urbana
IL. 

Ability Grouping in Elementary Schools.

Ability grouping of students is one of the oldest and most controversial issues in
elementary and secondary schools. Hundreds of research studies have examined the
effects of the two most common variants: between-class and within-class ability
grouping. Between-class grouping refers to a school's practice of forming classrooms
that contain students of similar ability. Within-class grouping refers to a teacher's
practice of forming groups of students of similar ability within an individual class.

This digest summarizes the conclusions of Robert E. Slavin's 1986 comprehensive

review of research on the different types of ability grouping in elementary schools.
The purpose of his review was to identify grouping practices that promote student
achievement.

WHY USE ABILITY GROUPING?

In theory, ability grouping increases student achievement by reducing the disparity in

student ability levels, and this increases the likelihood that teachers can provide
instruction that is neither too easy nor too hard for most students. The assumption is
that ability grouping allows the teacher (1) to increase the pace and raise the level of
instruction for high achievers, and (2) to provide more individual attention, repetition,
and review for low achievers. The high achievers benefit from having to compete with
one another, and the low achievers benefit from not having to compete with their
more able peers.

One of the main arguments against ability grouping is that the practice creates classes
or groups of low achievers who are deprived of the example and stimulation provided
by high achievers. Labeling students according to ability and assigning them to low-
achievement groups may also communicate self-fulfilling low expectations. Further,
groups with low performance often receive a lower quality of instruction than other
groups. Slavin sees as the most compelling argument against ability grouping its
creation of academic elites, a practice which goes against democratic ideals.

HOW DOES GROUPING AFFECT STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT?

In his review, Slavin examines evidence on the achievement effects of five

comprehensive ability grouping plans in elementary schools. His review draws
conclusions about the effectiveness of the following grouping plans: ability grouped
class assignment, regrouping for reading or mathematics, the Joplin Plan, nongraded
plans, and within-class ability grouping.

Ability Grouped Class Assignment. This grouping plan places students in one self-
contained class on the basis of ability or achievement. In some departmentalized
upper elementary grades, the class may move as a whole from teacher to teacher.
Evidence suggests that ability grouped class assignment does not enhance student
achievement in the elementary school.

Regrouping for Reading and Mathematics. Under this plan, students are assigned to
heterogeneous homeroom classes for most of the day, but are regrouped according to
achievement level for one or more subjects. For example, all students from various
homeroom classes of one grade level might be re-sorted into ability grouped classes
for a period of reading instruction. Results indicate that regrouping for reading or
mathematics can improve student achievement. However, the level and pace of
instruction must be adapted to achievement level. Furthermore, students must not be
regrouped for more than one or two subjects.

The Joplin Plan. This grouping plan assigns students to heterogeneous classes for
most of the day but regroups them across grade levels for reading instruction. For
example, a reading class at the fifth grade, first semester level might include high
achieving fourth graders, average achieving fifth graders, and low achieving sixth
graders. There is strong evidence that the Joplin Plan increases reading achievement.
Nongraded Plan. This plan includes a variety of related grouping plans that place
students in flexible groups according to performance rather than age. Thus, grade-
level designations are eliminated. The curriculum for each subject is divided into
levels through which students progress at their own rates. Well- controlled studies
conducted in regular schools generally support the use of comprehensive nongraded
plans.

Within-class Ability Grouping. This plan is generally used for reading or

mathematics. Teachers assign students within their classroom to one of a small
number of groups based on ability level. These groups work on different materials at
rates unique to their needs and abilities. Too few studies have been conducted on the
use of within-class ability grouping in reading to support or challenge its
effectiveness. Part of the problem is that within-class grouping is so widespread in
reading instruction that it is difficult to conduct research that includes a control group
not using the practice. Research on within-class ability grouping in mathematics
clearly supports the practice, especially when only two or three groups are formed.
The positive effects are slightly greater for low-achieving students than for average or
high achievers.

WHAT SHOULD SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS DO ABOUT ABILITY

GROUPING?

Slavin concludes that schools and teachers should use the methods proved most
effective, such as within-class ability grouping in mathematics, nongraded plans in
reading, and the Joplin Plan. The review recommends that schools find alternatives to
the use of ability grouped class assignment, such as assigning students to self-
contained classes according to general ability or performance level.

Based on his examination of the features of successful and unsuccessful practices,

Slavin recommends that the following elements be included in successful ability
grouping plans:

--Students should identify primarily with a heterogeneous class. They should be

regrouped by ability only when reducing heterogeneity is particularly important for
learning, as is the case with math or reading instruction.

--Grouping plans should reduce student heterogeneity in the specific skill being
taught, not in IQ or overall achievement level.

--Grouping plans should allow for frequent reassessment of student placement and for
easy reassignment based on student progress.
--Teachers must vary the level and pace of instruction according to student levels of
readiness and learning rates in regrouped classes.

--Only a small number of groups should be formed in within-class ability grouping.

This will allow the teacher to provide adequate direct instruction for each group.

FOR MORE INFORMATION

Slavin, Robert E. ABILITY GROUPING AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS: A BEST-EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS. Baltimore, MD:
Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools, 1986.