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Carbon steel

Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content

up to 2.1% by weight. The definition of
carbon steel from the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI) states:
Steel is classified to be carbon steel
when:
no minimum content is specified or
required for chromium, cobalt,
molybdenum, nickel, niobium,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium,
zirconium, or any other element to be
added to obtain a desired alloying
effect;
the specified minimum for copper
does not exceed 0.40 percent;
 or the maximum content specified for
any of the following elements does
not exceed the percentages noted:
manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper
0.60.[1]

The term "carbon steel" may also be used

in reference to steel which is not stainless
steel; in this use carbon steel may include
alloy steels. High carbon steel has many
different uses such as milling machines,
cutting tools, such as chisels and high
strength wires. These applications require
a much finer microstructure, which
improves the toughness.

As the carbon percentage content rises,

steel has the ability to become harder and
stronger through heat treating; however, it
becomes less ductile. Regardless of the
heat treatment, a higher carbon content
reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the
higher carbon content lowers the melting
point.[2]

Type
Mild or low-carbon steel …

Mild steel (iron containing a small

percentage of carbon, strong and tough
but not readily tempered), also known as
plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is
now the most common form of steel
because its price is relatively low while it
provides material properties that are
acceptable for many applications. Mild
steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30%
carbon[1] making it malleable and ductile.
Mild steel has a relatively low tensile
strength, but it is cheap and easy to form;
surface hardness can be increased
through carburizing.[3]

In applications where large cross-sections

are used to minimize deflection, failure by
yield is not a risk so low-carbon steels are
the best choice, for example as structural
steel. The density of mild steel is
approximately 7.85 g/cm3 (7850 kg/m3 or
0.284 lb/in3)[4] and the Young's modulus is
200 GPa (29,000 ksi).[5]
Low-carbon steels display yield-point
runout where the material has two yield
points. The first yield point (or upper yield
point) is higher than the second and the
yield drops dramatically after the upper
yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only
stressed to some point between the upper
and lower yield point then the surface
develops Lüder bands.[6] Low-carbon
steels contain less carbon than other
steels and are easier to cold-form, making
them easier to handle.[7]
High-tensile steel …

High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or

steels at the lower end of the medium-
carbon range, which have additional
alloying ingredients in order to increase
their strength, wear properties or
specifically tensile strength. These alloying
ingredients include chromium,
molybdenum, silicon, manganese, nickel
and vanadium. Impurities such as
phosphorus or sulphur have their
maximum allowable content restricted.
 41xx steel
4140 steel
4145 steel
4340 steel
300M steel
EN25 steel – 2.521% nickel-chromium-
molybdenum steel
EN26 steel

Higher-carbon steels …

Carbon steels which can successfully

undergo heat-treatment have a carbon
content in the range of 0.30–1.70% by
weight. Trace impurities of various other
elements can have a significant effect on
the quality of the resulting steel. Trace
amounts of sulfur in particular make the
steel red-short, that is, brittle and crumbly
at working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon
steel, such as A36 grade, contains about
0.05% sulfur and melts around 1,426–
1,538 °C (2,599–2,800 °F).[8] Manganese is
often added to improve the hardenability
of low-carbon steels. These additions turn
the material into a low-alloy steel by some
definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon
steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by
weight.

AISI classification
Carbon steel is broken down into four
classes based on carbon content:[1]

Low-carbon steel …
0.05 to 0.25% carbon (plain carbon steel)
content.[1]

Medium-carbon steel …

Approximately 0.3–0.6% carbon content.[1]

Balances ductility and strength and has
good wear resistance; used for large parts,
forging and automotive components.[9][10]

High-carbon steel …
Approximately 0.60 to 1.00% carbon
content.[1] Very strong, used for springs,
edged tools, and high-strength wires.[11]

Ultra-high-carbon steel …

Approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon

content.[1] Steels that can be tempered to
great hardness. Used for special purposes
like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles
or punches. Most steels with more than
2.5% carbon content are made using
powder metallurgy.

Heat treatment

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature

and carbon ranges for certain types of heat
treatments.
The purpose of heat treating carbon steel
is to change the mechanical properties of
steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield
strength, or impact resistance. Note that
the electrical and thermal conductivity are
only slightly altered. As with most
strengthening techniques for steel,
Young's modulus (elasticity) is unaffected.
All treatments of steel trade ductility for
increased strength and vice versa. Iron has
a higher solubility for carbon in the
austenite phase; therefore all heat
treatments, except spheroidizing and
process annealing, start by heating the
steel to a temperature at which the
austenitic phase can exist. The steel is
then quenched (heat drawn out) at a
moderate to low rate allowing carbon to
diffuse out of the austenite forming iron-
carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or
at a high rate, trapping the carbon within
the iron thus forming martensite. The rate
at which the steel is cooled through the
eutectoid temperature (about 727 °C)
affects the rate at which carbon diffuses
out of austenite and forms cementite.
Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will
leave iron carbide finely dispersed and
produce a fine grained pearlite and cooling
slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling
a hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt%
C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure
of iron carbide layers with α-ferrite (nearly
pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid
steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the
structure is full pearlite with small grains
(larger than the pearlite lamella) of
cementite formed on the grain boundaries.
A eutectoid steel (0.77% carbon) will have
a pearlite structure throughout the grains
with no cementite at the boundaries. The
relative amounts of constituents are found
using the lever rule. The following is a list
of the types of heat treatments possible:

Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when

carbon steel is heated to approximately
700 °C for over 30 hours. Spheroidite
can form at lower temperatures but the
time needed drastically increases, as
this is a diffusion-controlled process.
The result is a structure of rods or
spheres of cementite within primary
structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending
on which side of the eutectoid you are
on). The purpose is to soften higher
carbon steels and allow more
formability. This is the softest and most
ductile form of steel. The adjacent
image shows where spheroidizing
usually occurs.[12]
Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to
approximately 40 °C above Ac3? or
Acm? for 1 hour; this ensures all the
ferrite transforms into austenite
(although cementite might still exist if
the carbon content is greater than the
eutectoid). The steel must then be
cooled slowly, in the realm of 20 °C
(36 °F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace
cooled, where the furnace is turned off
with the steel still inside. This results in
a coarse pearlitic structure, which
means the "bands" of pearlite are
thick.[13] Fully annealed steel is soft and
ductile, with no internal stresses, which
is often necessary for cost-effective
forming. Only spheroidized steel is
softer and more ductile.[14]
Process annealing: A process used to
relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon
steel with less than 0.3% C. The steel is
usually heated to 550–650 °C for 1 hour,
but sometimes temperatures as high as
700 °C. The image rightward shows the
area where process annealing occurs.
Isothermal annealing: It is a process in
which hypoeutectoid steel is heated
above the upper critical temperature.
This temperature is maintained for a
time and then reduced to below the
lower critical temperature and is again
maintained. It is then cooled to room
temperature. This method eliminates
any temperature gradient.
Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to
approximately 55 °C above Ac3 or Acm
for 1 hour; this ensures the steel
completely transforms to austenite. The
steel is then air-cooled, which is a
cooling rate of approximately 38 °C
(100 °F) per minute. This results in a fine
pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform
structure. Normalized steel has a higher
strength than annealed steel; it has a
relatively high strength and hardness.[15]
Quenching: Carbon steel with at least
0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing
temperatures and then rapidly cooled
(quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the
critical temperature. The critical
temperature is dependent on the carbon
content, but as a general rule is lower as
the carbon content increases. This
results in a martensitic structure; a form
of steel that possesses a super-
saturated carbon content in a deformed
body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline
structure, properly termed body-
centered tetragonal (BCT), with much
internal stress. Thus quenched steel is
extremely hard but brittle, usually too
brittle for practical purposes. These
internal stresses may cause stress
cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is
approximately three times harder (four
with more carbon) than normalized
steel.[16]
Martempering (Marquenching):
Martempering is not actually a
tempering procedure, hence the term
"marquenching". It is a form of
isothermal heat treatment applied after
an initial quench, typically in a molten
salt bath, at a temperature just above
the "martensite start temperature". At
this temperature, residual stresses
within the material are relieved and
some bainite may be formed from the
retained austenite which did not have
time to transform into anything else. In
industry, this is a process used to
control the ductility and hardness of a
material. With longer marquenching, the
ductility increases with a minimal loss in
strength; the steel is held in this solution
until the inner and outer temperatures of
the part equalize. Then the steel is
cooled at a moderate speed to keep the
temperature gradient minimal. Not only
does this process reduce internal
stresses and stress cracks, but it also
increases the impact resistance.[17]
Tempering: This is the most common
heat treatment encountered, because
the final properties can be precisely
determined by the temperature and time
of the tempering. Tempering involves
reheating quenched steel to a
temperature below the eutectoid
temperature then cooling. The elevated
temperature allows very small amounts
of spheroidite to form, which restores
ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual
temperatures and times are carefully
chosen for each composition.[18]
Austempering: The austempering
process is the same as martempering,
except the quench is interrupted and the
steel is held in the molten salt bath at
temperatures between 205 °C and
540 °C, and then cooled at a moderate
rate. The resulting steel, called bainite,
produces an acicular microstructure in
the steel that has great strength (but
less than martensite), greater ductility,
 higher impact resistance, and less
distortion than martensite steel. The
disadvantage of austempering is it can
be used only on a few steels, and it
requires a special salt bath.[19]

Case hardening
Case hardening processes harden only the
exterior of the steel part, creating a hard,
wear resistant skin (the "case") but
preserving a tough and ductile interior.
Carbon steels are not very hardenable
meaning they can not be hardened
throughout thick sections. Alloy steels
have a better hardenability, so they can be
through-hardened and do not require case
hardening. This property of carbon steel
can be beneficial, because it gives the
surface good wear characteristics but
leaves the core tough.

Forging temperature of steel

[20]
 Maximum forging temperature (°F Burning temperature (°F /
Steel Type
/ °C) °C)

1.5% carbon 1920 / 1049 2080 / 1140

1.1% carbon 1980 / 1082 2140 / 1171

0.9% carbon 2050 / 1121 2230 / 1221

0.5% carbon 2280 / 1249 2460 / 1349

0.2% carbon 2410 / 1321 2680 / 1471

3.0% nickel steel 2280 / 1249 2500 / 1371

3.0% nickel–chromium steel 2280 / 1249 2500 / 1371

5.0% nickel (case-hardening)

2320 / 1271 2640 / 1449
steel

Chromium–vanadium steel 2280 / 1249 2460 / 1349

High-speed steel 2370 / 1299 2520 / 1385

Stainless steel 2340 / 1282 2520 / 1385

Austenitic chromium–nickel
2370 / 1299 2590 / 1420
steel

Silico-manganese spring steel 2280 / 1249 2460 / 1350

See also
Cold working
 Hot working
Welding
Forging
Aermet (High strength steels.)
Maraging steel (Precipitation-hardened
high-strength steels.)
Eglin steel (A low-cost precipitation-
hardened high-strength steel.)

References
1. "Classification of Carbon and Low-
Alloy Steels"
2. Knowles, Peter Reginald (1987),
Design of structural steelwork (2nd
ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-
903384-59-9.
3. Engineering fundamentals page on
low-carbon steel
4. Elert, Glenn, Density of Steel , retrieved
23 April 2009.
5. Modulus of Elasticity, Strength
Properties of Metals – Iron and Steel ,
retrieved 23 April 2009.
. Degarmo, p. 377.
7. "Low-carbon steels" . efunda.
Retrieved 25 May 2012.
. Ameristeel article on carbon steel
Archived 18 October 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
 9. Nishimura, Naoya; Murase, Katsuhiko;
Ito, Toshihiro; Watanabe, Takeru;
Nowak, Roman (2012). "Ultrasonic
detection of spall damage induced by
low-velocity repeated impact". Central
European Journal of Engineering. 2
(4): 650–655.
Bibcode:2012CEJE....2..650N .
doi:10.2478/s13531-012-0013-5 .
10. Engineering fundamentals page on
medium-carbon steel
11. Engineering fundamentals page on
high-carbon steel
12. Smith, p. 388
13. Alvarenga HD, Van de Putte T, Van
Steenberge N, Sietsma J, Terryn H
(April 2009). "Influence of Carbide
Morphology and Microstructure on the
Kinetics of Superficial Decarburization
of C-Mn Steels". Metall Mater Trans A.
46: 123–133. doi:10.1007/s11661-
014-2600-y .
14. Smith, p. 386
15. Smith, pp. 386–387
1 . Smith, pp. 373–377
17. Smith, pp. 389–390
1 . Smith, pp. 387–388
19. Smith, p. 391
20. Brady, George S.; Clauser, Henry R.;
Vaccari A., John (1997). Materials
Handbook (14th ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-007084-9.

Bibliography
Wikimedia Commons has media
related to Carbon steel.

Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser,

Ronald A. (2003), Materials and
Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.),
Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Oberg, E.; et al. (1996), Machinery's
Handbook (25th ed.), Industrial Press
Inc, ISBN 0-8311-2599-3.
Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad
(2006), Foundations of Materials Science
 and Engineering (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill,
ISBN 0-07-295358-6.

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