3 Vibration Welding

3.1 Process Description

Vibration welding uses heat generated by friction
at the interface of two materials to produce melting in
the interfacial area. The molten materials flow together

Displacement
under pressure, forming a weld upon cooling. Vibration
welding can be accomplished in a short time (1–10
seconds cycle time) and is applicable to a variety of ther-
moplastic parts with planar or slightly curved surfaces.
The two main types of vibration welding are: lin-
ear, in which friction is generated by a linear, recipro-
cating motion (Fig. 3.1), and orbital, in which the upper
part to be joined is vibrated in a circular motion. Linear I II III IV Time
vibration welding is most commonly used, but orbital
vibration welding makes the welding of irregularly
shaped plastic parts possible. Figure 3.2. Displacement versus time curve showing the
Process parameters are the amplitude and frequency four phases of vibration welding (Source: TWI Ltd).
of vibration, weld pressure, and weld time, all of which
affect the strength of the resulting weld.
The welding process consists of four phases (Fig. 3.2). of melt displacement, which therefore increases lin-
In Phase I, the heat generated through friction raises early with time. At the end of Phase III, the vibratory
the temperature of the interfacial area to the glass tran- motion is stopped, and during Phase IV, the weld pen-
sition temperature of amorphous thermoplastics or the etration increases slightly as the molten film solidifies
melting point of semicrystalline plastics. Since the under pressure.
material is still in the solid state, there is no displacement
(penetration)—the distance through which the parts
approach each other during welding due to lateral flow
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of molten material—in this phase. In Phase II, material
at the interface begins to melt and flow in a lateral Advantages of vibration welding include relatively
direction, causing an increase in weld displacement. short cycle times, energy efficiency, capability of weld-
In Phase III, the rate of melt generation equals the rate ing large parts, and insensitivity to surface preparation.
Because of the smearing action due to friction, welds
can be obtained on surfaces that have been vacuum
metalized, painted, or contaminated. No additional
materials are introduced as in the implant welding
techniques or adhesive bonding, so the weld interface is
composed of the same material as the welded parts.
Heating is localized to a large extent, in contrast to hot
tool welding, and material degradation resulting from
overheating at the interface is much less likely to occur.
The transmission properties of the materials have no
effect on vibration welding, as they do in ultrasonic
welding [1].
Parts can be welded regardless of how they were
processed (injection molded, extruded, vacuum formed,
Figure 3.1. Linear vibration welding (Source: Branson etc.). Vibration welds produce high-strength, pressure-
Ultrasonics Corp.). tight hermetic seals. In transparent materials, the weld

37
38 JOINING PROCESSES

is optically clear. Vibration welding should be used sheared away. This can be reduced by preheating the
only on assemblies that do not have tight tolerances; surfaces prior to welding (see Section 3.8.1).
although the melting points of plastics are predictable, Another disadvantage of vibration welding is sound
the location at which the melt solidifies may vary generation, which is typically 90–95 dB. Sound enclo-
slightly. sures are therefore required to reduce the noise to an
Due to the relatively high pressures used during acceptable level.
vibration welding, the process has lower sensitivity to
warped moldings compared to a process like hot plate
welding. Any warpage at the joint line is flattened out 3.3 Applications
by the pressure to ensure intimate contact of the weld
faces. Vibration welding is commonly used on large parts,
A drawback of vibration welding is the initial high although smaller parts can be welded economically in
capital cost of the equipment and tooling compared to multiple cavity tooling. Typical part sizes range from
other processes such as hot plate or ultrasonic welding. 3 × 3 inches (76.2 × 76.2 mm) to 24 × 60 inches (61.0 ×
However, this must be judged against the ability to weld 152.4 cm). The technique is used when strong, leak-
larger parts at one go, with a faster processing cycle. proof pressure or vacuum joints are necessary.
A problem that sometimes arises in vibration weld- Vibration welding is used extensively in the appli-
ing involves conversion of all the energy originating ance industry for assembling such items as washer and
from the vibratory movement into heat energy in the dishwasher pumps, particulate-filled soap dispensers,
joining zone. Kinetic energy is converted into heat and dishwasher spray arms. One large electrical appli-
energy both by internal friction and interfacial friction. ance company converted a production line of glass-
The solid material friction in Phase I can cause high filled PP dishwasher pump housings from hot plate
bending forces, so proper clamping must be used, and welding to vibration welding. The operation was faster,
the thermoplastic must be rigid enough to avoid defor- easier, more energy efficient, easier to maintain, and
mation. This is particularly important in cross-thickness better control of strength and appearance was achieved
welding, in which the direction of vibration is at right [1, 3].
angles to the component wall. In practice, this is Automotive applications include headlight, tail-
encountered in virtually every part, since all parts to be light, and instrument panel assemblies (Fig. 3.3), where
welded possess walls both in the direction of vibration PC is welded to itself and to acrylic; acetal gasoline
and at right angles to it. If wall flexing occurs, then reservoirs, 30% glass-filled nylon brake fluid reser-
limited or zero frictional movement takes place between voirs, PP compartment access doors welded in two
the parts to be joined, preventing weld formation around planes, dash-and-trim components, air-conditioning and
the entire component. This can be overcome by adding heater ducts, vacuum reservoirs, fuel filler doors, and
stiffening ribs to thin wall sections. In extreme cases, air flow sensors.
where there is excessive deflection in the parts, the
plastic can start to melt directly at the clamping point,
the point of maximum deflection; when this happens, a
weld cannot be made [2].
When welding large parts that are difficult to lock
into supporting fixtures either due to dimensional vari-
ations or due to lack of prominent features, relative
motion can occur between the part and fixture, result-
ing in part slippage and energy loss. A satisfactory
weld cannot always be obtained at high frequencies; in
this case, use of lower frequencies is necessary to attain
a high weld strength.
A feature of the process, which is a drawback for
some end-use applications, is the generation of fine
particulates or fluff at the joint line. The phenomenon
is more pronounced with hard plastics and occurs dur- Figure 3.3. Automotive instrument clusters (Source:
ing Phase I of the cycle as surface asperities become Branson Ultrasonics Corp.).
3: VIBRATION WELDING 39

One of the first uses of vibration welding, in the

late 1970s, was for assembling the first all-plastic auto-
motive bumper that could withstand a five-mile per
hour impact. Thermoplastic bumpers consist of a long
curved U-section, commonly referred to as a front beam
or facia, and a rear reinforcement, referred to as a back
beam. Other techniques were evaluated for joining the
two sections. Hot plate welding caused a time-aggravated
embrittlement problem at the joint interface, while
induction bonding was not cost-effective. Adhesive
bonding was not used due to thermal cycling, low tem-
perature impact limitations, and added weight. Holes
required for mechanical fasteners would also raise
local stress levels. Initial problems with vibration weld-
ing included the large part area (three times as large as
any other previously welded part, with a four times Figure 3.4. Vibration welded automotive air intake manifold
larger joining area) and the necessity of applying (Source: TWI Ltd).
clamping force in the horizontal rather than the tradi-
tional vertical direction, due to the attachment of the
back beam on the inside of the U-channel legs. A large
part vibration welder using an electromagnetic drive, been proven for making high quality joints in polyeth-
with low (120 Hz) frequencies, and new fixturing for ylene (PE) gas distribution pipes [1, 3, 4].
horizontal clamping forces was developed for this spe-
cific application.
Vibration welding is also often used in welding 3.4 Materials
nylons in under-hood applications, which must with-
stand high temperatures. Lower costs and up to 50% Almost any thermoplastic can be vibration welded:
savings in weight can be achieved. For example, nylon crystalline, amorphous, filled, foamed, and reinforced.
air intake manifolds were originally manufactured in The only polymers that can be difficult to weld are
one piece using the lost-core molding process, which, the fluoropolymers, due to their low coefficient of
although useful for very complex manifold designs, friction.
was prohibitively expensive for the majority of appli- Properties of the materials to be welded affect the
cations. Linear vibration welding in this application strength of the weld. Water absorption during storage
revolutionized the manufacture of the intake manifold, increases the moisture content of some thermoplastics,
by significantly reducing the overall capital cost. The which can sometimes lead to bubble formation in the
manifold is made in two or three injection molded parts joining area and decreased weld strength, although
and linear vibration welding is used to assemble the nylon and other hygroscopic resins can be welded
final manifold (Fig. 3.4) [1]. without predrying [5].
In the aircraft industry, the method of joining PC In general, materials with high melting points will
air diffuser ducts was switched from adhesive bonding require higher energy input, and therefore longer weld-
to vibration welding. Epoxy bonding required sandblast ing times.
preparation, prebonding of parts, expensive fixturing The welding behavior of materials that contain par-
devices, and a 24-hour cure time. With vibration weld- ticulate or glass fillers (10%–30%) is similar to that of
ing, the labor cost was cut by 70%. neat resins, but attainment of threshold penetration
Other applications of vibration welding include generally requires slightly increased welding cycle
joining two halves of pressure vessels, reservoirs, valves, times; the time required is lower for glass than for par-
electronic modules, and sealed containers in the medical, ticulate fillers. Increasing filler content reduces the weld
computer, recreation, and toy industries. It has also been strength relative to that of the neat resin by various
used for welding chain-saw motor housings made of amounts, depending on the amount and type of filler.
30% glass-filled nylon, butane gas lighter tanks, batteries, For plastics reinforced with glass fibers and for liquid
and pneumatic logic boards. Vibration welding has also crystal polymers, a pronounced weak point develops in
40 JOINING PROCESSES

the welds compared to the neat material due to fiber 3.5 Equipment
reorientation along the direction of the weld [2, 6].
The thickness of parts to be welded affects welding By necessity, vibration welding machines are large
behavior. Although the time required to reach the melting to ensure that there is sufficient mass to prevent the
temperature (time elapsed during Phase I) is not depen- equipment from moving during the vibration cycle.
dent on part thickness, the lateral flow of the molten Because of the noise generated by the welding process,
material during Phases II and III is affected, resulting sound insulation panels are built into the machine walls
in longer times to reach a steady-state flow (Phase III); to protect the operator and those present nearby. These
in addition, the thickness of the weld is greater, result- generally reduce the sound to values less than 85 dB. A
ing in increased solidification times. As a result, longer typical linear vibration welding machine is shown in
welding cycle times are required for parts with greater Fig. 3.5.
thickness. Welding times can be decreased by an increase Equipment is classified as low frequency (120–135
in pressure. A pressure increase decreases the steady- Hz) or high frequency (180–260 Hz) and can be vari-
state weld thickness and increases weld strength by able frequency or fixed frequency. Variable-frequency
decreasing the penetration necessary to attain the steady- equipment is electrically driven, and adjustments can
state. At low pressures (0.52 MPa; 75 psi), high weld be made to tune the frequency to match the part and
strengths of thick parts (12.3 mm; 0.48 inches) cannot tooling mass. Fixed-frequency equipment is hydrauli-
always be achieved due to high required threshold cally driven, and a specific predetermined part/tooling
penetrations. If penetration-based controls are used to mass is needed. Machines operating at high frequencies
terminate the weld cycle, threshold penetration must be need less motion and less clearance between parts.
adjusted to account for pressure and part thickness [7]. The three major components of a linear vibration
When welding dissimilar materials, properties of welder are: a vibrator assembly suspended on springs,
the two materials to be welded influence welding behav- a lifting table, and tooling fixtures. A schematic of the
ior and affect weld strength. Vibration welding can components is shown in Fig. 3.6.
generally be used to join two materials differing in melt The vibrator assembly is a moving element with no
temperatures by up to 38°C (68°F). The extent of inter- bearing surfaces and is driven by either hydraulic pistons
diffusion of the two materials that occurs in the molten or electromagnets. Most commercial systems use the
state differs significantly for different materials, electromagnetic vibration system, which consists of two
depending on diffusion coefficients, molecular weights, electromagnets, one at either end of the spring system,
and cohesive energy densities, and affects the morphol- that are energized alternately. The springs resonate at
ogy of the weld. Shear mixing of the two molten poly-
mers produces mechanical interlocking at the weld
interface. Penetration versus time curves are similar to
those of welding the same material, but different melt-
ing temperatures of the two polymers can result in a
steady increase in weld strength with penetration, even
after the threshold penetration has been reached. This
results from an apparent steady state due to melting
and flow of the lower melting polymer dominating the
penetration in the early stages. As the temperature
increases, the higher melting polymer melts at a faster
rate, later reaching a steady state. Increasing penetra-
tion leads to greater strength; at high penetrations, weld
strength equal to that of the weaker neat material can
be obtained. Due to this behavior, penetration versus
time curves alone cannot be used to determine opti-
mum parameter conditions for welding dissimilar
materials. Thermoplastics that are compatible include
ABS to PC, ABS to acrylic, SAN (styrene acrylonitrile)
to acrylic, SAN to polystyrene (PS), and PC to acrylic.
There are no combinations where an amorphous mate- Figure 3.5. A typical linear vibration welding machine
rial is compatible with a semicrystalline material [8]. (Source: Branson Ultrasonics Corp.).
3: VIBRATION WELDING 41

Soft iron
lamination
Electromagnet Springs Electromagnet

Fixtures
Table

Figure 3.6. Schematic of the main

parts of a vibration welding machine.

the frequency of the electromagnetic energy, support support to ensure that an even pressure is applied to the
the vibrator assembly against the vertical welding pres- weld interfaces during the welding cycle. It is essential
sure, and provide precise alignment between parts to that there is no relative movement between the parts
be welded by returning the vibrator assembly to its and tooling fixtures during welding, otherwise the
home position at the end of the welding cycle. One of amplitude between the weld interfaces will be reduced.
the parts to be welded is attached to the vibrator assem- Simple clamping hooks and latches are used. Pneu-
bly in the upper tooling and the other part is clamped matic clamps can be used with the lower tooling, whilst
into the tooling fixed to the lifting table, the stationary the upper tooling may incorporate vacuum cups to hold
element. For some applications, both parts to be welded components in position prior to welding. Both upper
are placed in the lower tooling. In this case, the parts and lower tooling will feature alignment ports into
should incorporate a molded pin or a similar feature, to which dowel pins can be placed to assist with location
aid alignment. The pin simply shears away when the accuracy during set up.
weld cycle starts. Since the vibrating head is a resonance system,
The lifting table brings the parts to be welded into the mass of the upper tooling is critical to achieving the
contact, by raising the lower tooling and part to meet correct amplitude and operating efficiency, that is, the
those attached to the vibration head. Guide rails ensure frequency at which maximum amplitude occurs is
that horizontal positional accuracy is maintained. The governed by the tooling mass. Manufacturers provide
table may be hydraulically, pneumatically, or electrically guidance in terms of tool mass versus maximum ampli-
driven. The design of the lifting table provides suffi- tude, so that the tool design can be optimized. Modern
cient mass and stability to counterbalance the vibration microprocessor-controlled welding machines are able
head. Recesses may be incorporated into the table to to “self-tune” to determine the resonance frequency
allow larger parts to be handled. After completion of after tool changes.
the welding cycle, the table is lowered and the loading Tooling for larger parts may be split, often for man-
door opens to allow removal of the welded part. ufacturing reasons, which allows easier handling for
Tooling used in vibration welding equipment is rel- tool changes and adds an element of adjustment to
atively simple, consisting of aluminum plates machined compensate for tolerance variations in the parts to be
to conform to the contour of the parts at the joint. For welded. Figure 3.7 illustrates a set of upper and lower
complex part geometry, polyurethane nests can be tooling.
used; these have the added benefit of reducing surface A broad range of vibration welding equipment is
marking on the parts. The tooling must provide good available, with costs ranging from US $40,000 to
42 JOINING PROCESSES

(a) (b)

Figure 3.7. Upper and lower tooling for linear vibration

welding (Source: Branson Ultrasonics Corp.).

$250,000, depending on size and options. Options Figure 3.8. Simple butt joint for linear vibration welding:
available include closed-meltdown distance control, (a) motion parallel to wall, (b) motion transverse to wall
(Source: TWI Ltd).
statistical process control, and robotic loading. Accu-
rate table position monitoring and meltdown control
during welding is accomplished using a linear displace-
ment transducer (LDT), which eliminates the need for It is common practice to increase the wall thickness
discrete table position limit switches and proximity at the joint to two or three times the overall component
sensors. Hydraulic, variable-speed lift and clamp sys- wall, to provide rigidity that limits flexure, and to
tems ensure smooth and accurate positioning of the ensure that the weld is stronger than the parent material
platen and make the use of multiple weld and hold (Fig. 3.9). This design also facilitates gripping of the
pressures possible [3, 9–11]. parts and the application of a uniform pressure close to
the weld.
A U-flange (Fig. 3.10) may be necessary for thin or
3.6 Joint Design long unsupported walls, especially those where the
vibration is transverse to the wall. It is designed to lock
In designing parts for vibration welding, there are the component wall to the tooling fixture, thus prevent-
two important considerations: ing wall flexure. Walls as thin as 0.8 mm (0.03 inches)
• Sufficient clearance must be provided in the joint have been successfully welded with U-flanges.
to allow for vibratory motion between the parts. If weld flash is unacceptable for aesthetic reasons,
a flash trap can be designed into the joint. Functional
• Parts must be sufficiently rigid to support the
and cosmetic designs are shown in Fig. 3.11. The trap
joint during welding.
should be volumetrically sized to the amount of mate-
In addition to these, strength requirements of the rial displaced during welding.
joint must be considered along with the visual appear- An alternative and more popular design is the
ance of the finished weld, that is, whether the flash on tongue and groove design (Fig. 3.12). This design traps
the outside is acceptable or not. the flash within the groove inside the wall, rather than
The simplest joint design is the butt joint, as illus- at the outside edge of the component. The tongue is
trated in Fig. 3.8. Many applications for vibration typically one to three times the wall thickness of the
welding tend to be enclosures, typically rectangular, so component, depending on the strength requirements,
the vibrations will be both parallel and transverse to the and its height when welded, should approximately equal
wall orientation. To prevent the parts from snagging, its width. Clearance for vibrational motion (±0.8 mm
the joint faces must never be completely out of contact, (±0.03 inches) for high frequency; 1.5 mm (0.06 inches)
so the amplitude is normally restricted to 90% of the for low frequency) must allow for flash volume. An
wall thickness. alternative is to use a basic tongue design with a skirted
3: VIBRATION WELDING 43

T
t

w T
1–1.5T

R
3T

1–2T

R = 0.1T

Figure 3.10. Butt joint with U-flange (Source: TWI Ltd).

Figure 3.9. Increased thickness butt joint (Source: TWI Ltd).

Functional Cosmetic

Before After Before After Figure 3.11. Flash trap designs for
welding welding welding welding vibration welding (Source: TWI Ltd).

cover to hide flash, allowing 1.27 mm (0.05 inches) system, is usually less than 5 mm (0.2 inches); weld
clearance for vibrational motion and tolerances. time ranges from 1 to 10 seconds (typically 1–3 sec-
onds), with solidification times, after vibratory motion
has ceased, of usually 4 –10 seconds. Total cycle times
3.7 Welding Parameters typically range from 6 to 15 seconds resulting in 4 –10
cycles per minute.
Most industrial vibration welding machines operate To melt material at the joint interface, an amount
at weld frequencies of 100–240 Hz, although machines of energy specific to the material must be introduced.
with higher frequencies are also available. The amplitude This is proportional to the frictional speed between the
of vibration, produced by exciting a tuned spring-mass two parts. In practice, determination of the maximum
44 JOINING PROCESSES

T this range are used (0.5–2.0 MPa; 72–290 psi). Higher

pressures decrease the welding time; however, increas-
ing the weld pressure can reduce the strength of the
weld by forcing out all the molten plastic, resulting in
a “cold” weld being formed. For example, in nylon, the
weld strength is reduced by up to 40% when increasing
the weld pressure from 1 to 20 MPa (145 to 2900 psi).
Weld strength is generally not very sensitive to the fre-
a quency and amplitude of vibration, although some
materials (i.e., polyetherimide) require high frequen-
cies to attain high weld strengths [1].
Dual-stage welding pressure can have a positive
1–3T effect on weld quality and can shorten the overall weld
time. When welding with dual stage pressure, a higher
welding pressure is used to start the interface material
melting, and a lower pressure is used to complete the
vibration cycle, resulting in optimum weld strength.
The value of the low pressure in this modified process
R depends on the material [2, 12].
The most important determinant of weld strength is
the weld penetration or displacement. Static strengths
R = 0.1T
equal to that of the parent resin can be achieved when
Figure 3.12. Tongue and groove joint (Source: TWI Ltd). the penetration exceeds a critical threshold value, equal
to the penetration at the beginning of the steady state
Phase III; weld strengths decrease for penetrations
below this value. Penetrations greater than the critical
frictional speed between the mating surfaces, V, has threshold do not affect the weld strength of unrein-
proved useful. It is calculated from the peak-to-peak forced resins, chopped glass-filled resins, or structural
amplitude (a), in mm and the frequency (f) in Hz: foams, but can increase the weld strength of dissimilar
materials. The threshold value increases with increasing
V  2af thickness of the parts to be welded; a threshold of about
0.25 mm (0.01 inches) results in high-strength welds
In general, V for welding should lie between 500 with material thicknesses of 6.3 mm (0.25 inches). As
and 1000 mm/s (20–40 inches/s). long as this threshold is reached, weld strengths are
Lower weld amplitudes, (0.7–1.8 mm; 0.03–0.07 not very sensitive to welding frequency, amplitude, and
inches) are used with higher frequencies (240 Hz), and pressure; however, at a constant threshold value, weld
higher amplitudes (2– 4 mm, 0.08– 0.16 inches) are used strengths can decrease with increasing weld pressure.
with lower frequencies (100 Hz) to produce effective Increasing the welding pressure or vibration amplitude
welds [1]. increases the penetration rate and decreases the welding
Generally, high frequencies are used when clear- time by decreasing the time required to reach Phase III.
ances between parts are restricted to less than 1.5 mm Vibration welding machines tend to have two con-
(0.06 inches) and/or when flash is undesirable, as in trol modes for regulating the welding cycle. These are
welding brake and steering fluid reservoirs. The greater the “weld-by-time” and the “weld-by-displacement”
amplitudes of low frequency welding are advantageous methods. When welding by time, the weld time is the
in welding parts with long, thin, unsupported side walls length of time the plastic parts are rubbed together to
oriented perpendicular to the direction of vibration. create the heat. Ideally, the time should be terminated
These parts are susceptible to flexing, which inhibits when the steady state phase of the weld cycle is reached.
welding; however, the greater displacement of low fre- Higher melting point materials tend to require a longer
quency welding in many cases negates the effects of weld time.
flexing, so that a weld can be obtained. In the weld-by-displacement method, the parts
Weld pressure varies widely (0.5–20 MPa; 72– are vibrated until a fixed material displacement is
2900 psi), although usually pressures at the lower end of achieved, typically 1–2 mm (0.04–0.08 inches). The
3: VIBRATION WELDING 45

displacement value selected must be sufficient to ensure (a)

that steady-state melting occurs, and should also com-
pensate for any possible deviation from flatness of the
surfaces. If there are surfaces that are designed not to
be welded, the displacement method can ensure that
these surfaces do not make contact by the end of the
weld cycle.

3.8 Process Variants

3.8.1 Linear Vibration Welding with IR
Preheating
(b)
A feature associated with vibration welding is the
formation of fine particulates or “fluff ”. Studies have
shown that these are generated during Phase I of the
cycle, as surface asperities at the joint line become
sheared away. In some applications, such as media-
conveying parts and vessels for medical use, this soiling
is unacceptable. Research has been carried out on the
use of preheating methods to suppress the solid friction
phase by ensuring that a melt film forms prior to the
vibration welding cycle. Coil heaters and short-wave
and fast medium-wave infrared (IR) emitters have been
demonstrated to give a clear reduction in fine fluff for-
mation (Fig. 3.13). IR emitters have the advantage that Figure 3.13. PC/ABS blend welded to clear polycarbonate:
the preheat cycle can be kept relatively short (a few (a) without IR preheat, (b) with IR preheat (Source:
seconds), so the overall time-based advantage of vibra- Branson Ultrasonics Corp.).
tion welding over hot plate welding is not significantly
compromised [13].

3.8.2 Orbital Friction Welding

In orbital friction welding, one part is rubbed rela-
tive to another in an orbital motion, under axial pressure,
as shown in Fig. 3.14. Unlike linear vibration welding,
the relative motion of the two parts at the interface is the
same at all points around the perimeter, and constantly
changes from transverse motion to longitudinal motion.
Figure 3.15 illustrates the drive mechanism used to
produce the orbital motion. The upper tooling plate is
mounted on three central springs. At 120° spacing around
the center column, three electromagnets are positioned.
During operation, each electromagnet is energized in
turn, pulling the tooling plate away from the center Figure 3.14. Depiction of orbital vibration welding (Source:
position. This continues throughout the weld cycle, pro- TWI Ltd).
ducing an orbital motion. When the weld time is com-
plete, the electrical energy to the magnets is switched Because of the gentler motion created, and with
off and the tooling returns to its original central posi- amplitudes in the range 0.5–1.5 mm (0.02–0.06
tion, ensuring good part alignment. An axial load is inches), the process is better suited to components
applied throughout the welding and cooling cycles. with relatively thin walls (<2 mm; <0.08 inches) or
46 JOINING PROCESSES

welding process, except the motion is angular and is

used for circular components. The arc of vibration is
typically 2–5° with a frequency of 100 Hz. The process
was developed for circular components where the final
Electromagnets joint configuration is critical, but is not widely used in
industrial applications these days, since the advent of
spin welders with positional control.

References
1. Stokes VK: Toward a weld-strength data base
for vibration welding of thermoplastics. ANTEC
1995, Conference proceedings, Society of Plastics
Parts being welded
Engineers, Boston, May 1995.
2. Potente H, Uebbing M: Vibration welding of high
temperature plastics. ANTEC 1993, Conference
proceedings, Society of Plastics Engineers, New
Orleans, May 1993.
3. Besuyen JA: Bonding and sealing. Modern Plastics
Figure 3.15. Schematic of system used to produce orbital Encyclopedia 1992, Reference book (M603.1.2),
motion (Source: TWI Ltd). McGraw-Hill, 1991.
4. Troughton MJ, Nomura H, Hirabayashi K: Vibra-
unsupported vertical walls. It is also better for compo-
tion welding of polyethylene pipes. 16th Interna-
nents containing sensitive electrical parts. In addition,
tional Plastic Pipe Fuel Gas Symposium, New
cycle times tend to be shorter than for linear vibration
Orleans, November 1999.
welding [14].
5. Potente H, Uebbing M: The effects of moisture on
As with linear vibration welding machines, micro-
the vibration welding of polyamide. ANTEC 1994,
processor-based orbital welders are available that include
Conference proceedings, Society of Plastics Engi-
closed loop amplitude control, adjustable frequencies,
neers, San Francisco, May 1994.
touch-screen user interface, and process verification
6. Stokes VK: The effect of fillers on the vibration
software for validating weld quality. The cost of a typical
welding of poly(butylene terephthalate). ANTEC
orbital vibration welder is about US $80,000 [10, 11].
1993, Conference proceedings, Society of Plastics
Engineers, New Orleans, May 1993.
3.8.3 Angular Friction Welding 7. Stokes VK: Thickness effects in the vibration
welding of polycarbonate. ANTEC 1989, Confer-
Angular friction welding involves the rubbing
ence proceedings, Society of Plastics Engineers,
together of components in an angular, reciprocating
New York, May 1989.
motion under axial force. The motion is indicated in
8. Stokes VK, Hobbs SY: Strength and bonding
Fig. 3.16. It is, in principle, similar to the linear friction
mechanisms in vibration-welded polycarbonate to
polyetherimide joints. ANTEC 1989, Conference
proceedings, Society of Plastics Engineers, New
York, May 1989.
9. Hot Plate Welders, Ultrasonic Welders, Spin Welders,
Vibration Welders, Thermo Stakers, Leak Testers,
Supplier marketing literature (GC1095), Forward
Technology Industries Inc., 1995.
10. Partenio AC: A variety of processes can solve most
assembly problems. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia
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