Overview Welding

Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Issues in Welding
Sindo Kou

Solidification cracking can occur in Figure 2a and b shows examples of between grains.8 When localized tensile
the fusion zone during the solidification solidification cracking and liquation stresses/strains in the material exceed
of the weld metal. Liquation cracking, on cracking in circular-patch welds of its resistance to cracking, solidification
the other hand, can occur in the partially aluminum alloys. As shown, solidifica- cracking occurs.
melted zone during the solidification tion cracking occurs more or less
ASSESSING SOLIDIFICATION-
of the liquated material. These two along the centerline of the weld, while
CRACKING SUSCEPTIBILITY
types of cracking are reviewed in this liquation cracking takes place along
article, including the factors that affect the outer edge of the weld. These two Several tests have been used to
cracking and the remedies. types of cracking will be discussed in evaluate susceptibility to solidification
this article. cracking,9,10 including the Houldcroft
INTRODUCTION
SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
Solidification cracking can occur in
the fusion zone and liquation cracking Solidification cracking, as shown in
can occur in the partially melted zone Figure 3a, is intergranular. The fracture
during welding. During the welding of surface often reveals the dendritic
an alloy, the weld pool is surrounded morphology of the solidifying weld
by semisolid materials (Figure 1).1 For metal.1 These two characteristics suggest
convenience, circular-patch welding is that solidification cracking occurs during
used as an example here. The workpiece the terminal stage of solidification,
shown in Figure 1 consists of an inner where dendrites have grown nearly fully
piece in the form of a circular patch into grains that are separated from one
and an outer piece, which is held tightly another by a small amount of liquid in
to the fixture with bolts (not shown) the form of grain-boundary films. At
that go through the holes. The pool this time, the weld metal can be rather
boundary is the liquidus temperature of weak and thus susceptible to cracking in
the weld metal during welding. Behind the presence of tensile stresses/strains.
the weld pool is the solidifying material Tensile stresses/strains can be induced
called the mushy zone, which is a in the weld metal if it cannot contract
semisolid consisting of dendrites (S) and freely during cooling, for instance, in
the interdendritic liquid (L). Behind the a highly restrained workpiece such
mushy zone is the completely solidified as in circular-patch welding (Figure 1).
material called the fusion zone or the The weld metal tends to contract during
weld metal. cooling because of solidification shrink-
In front of and on the sides of the age and thermal contraction.
weld pool is a semisolid consisting of Various theories of solidification
partially melted base-metal grains (S) cracking have been proposed.2–7 Accord-
and the intergranular liquid (L). Here, ing to Borland,8 there are essentially three
the temperature is above the eutectic solidification cracking theories—the
temperature of the base metal (or the shrinkage-brittleness theory, the strain
solidus temperature if the workpiece theory, and the generalized theory that
is solutionized to dissolve eutectic includes the relevant ideas from the
completely before welding). Behind first two theories. According to the Figure 1. Semisolid materials, namely,
the partially melted grains on the generalized theory, cracking can take partially melted base-metal grains and
the mushy zone, around the weld pool
pool sides is the completely solidified place in a material in which continu- of an alloy during welding (for instance,
material called the partially melted ous liquid films separate grains or in circular-patch welding).
zone (PMZ). which some solid-solid bridges exist

2003 June • JOM 37

 solidification The crack length serves as the index of Dupont et al.23 observed in some
cracking cracking sensitivity. niobium-bearing superalloys that the
amount of the terminal liquid undergo-
FACTORS AFFECTING
ing the L→γ + Laves reaction is small
SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
and remains isolated, thus not really
Several factors can affect the solidi- contributing to solidification cracking.
fication cracking susceptibility of weld This type of morphology, unlike the
metals, including1 the solidification continuous terminal liquid undergoing
temperature range, the amount and the same reaction in the more crack-
distribution of liquid at the terminal susceptible alloys, should be more
stage of solidification, the primary resistant to crack propagation throughout
a solidification phase, the surface tension the mushy zone.
of the grain-boundary liquid, the grain For austenitic stainless steels, the
structure, the ductility of the solidifying susceptibility to solidification cracking
weld metal, and the tendency of weld- is much lower when the primary
metal contraction and the degree of solidification phase is δ-ferrite rather
restraint. All these factors are directly than austenite. 34–36 As the ratio of
or indirectly affected by the weld-metal the chromium equivalent to nickel
composition. The first two factors are equivalent increases, the primary
affected by microsegregation during solidification phase changes from
solidification. Microsegregation in turn austenite to δ-ferrite and cracking is
can be affected by the cooling rate reduced. As shown by Takalo et al.,35
during solidification. In some cases, the this change occurs at about Creq/Nieq =
b
5 mm primary solidification phase can also be 1.5, where Creq = Cr + 1.37Mo + 1.5Si
Figure 2. Macrographs showing cracking affected by the cooling rate (for instance, + 2Nb + 3Ti and Nieq = Ni + 0.3Mn
in aluminum circular-patch welds: (a) austenitic stainless steels). + 22C + 14.2N + Cu. However, this
solidification cracking; (b) liquation Generally speaking, the wider the value can increase with increasing
cracking.71
solidification temperature range, the cooling rate during welding because of
larger the area that is weak and suscep- undercooling, for instance, to Creq/Nieq =
tible to weld-solidification cracking. 1.6–1.7 in pulsed-laser welding.36
test,11–14 Varestraint test,15–18 circular- DuPont et al.23 showed that in niobium- The effect of the surface tension of
patch test,19–21 and Sigamajig test.22 The bearing superalloys, the maximum the grain-boundary liquid is such that
Varestraint test and the circular-patch crack length in Varestraint testing the smaller the dihedral angle, the more
test are used often and described briefly increases with increasing solidification the grain-boundary liquid tends to form
here. In the Varestraint test, developed temperature range. S and P can widen continuous films on grains.37 Nakata and
by Savage and Lundin,15 an augmented the solidification temperature range of Matsuda16 showed that solidification
tensile strain is applied to the test steels, stainless steels, and nickel-base cracking in several aluminum alloys
specimen by bending it to a controlled superalloys significantly, thus increasing increases with deceasing dihedral angle
radius at an appropriate moment during their cracking susceptibility.24–27 of the grain-boundary liquid.
welding. Both the amount of the applied In pure aluminum there is no solute- For aluminum alloys, welds with finer
strain and the crack length (either the rich liquid of a low freezing point at equiaxed grains were found less sus-
total length of all cracks or the maximum grain boundaries to cause solidification ceptible to solidification cracking.16,38–40
crack length) serve as the index of cracking. In highly alloyed aluminum, Fine equiaxed grains can deform to
cracking sensitivity. The specimen can on the other hand, there is abundant accommodate contraction strains more
also be bent transverse to the welding solute-rich liquid of a low freezing easily; that is, they are more ductile.
direction. This transverse Varestraint point between grains to backfill and Liquid feeding and the healing of
test16 may promote cracking inside “heal” any incipient cracks that form.3 incipient cracks can also be more
the weld metal more than outside the Somewhere in between these two cases effective in fine-grained material. In
weld metal. there exists a composition where just addition, the grain-boundary area is
In the circular-patch test19–21 (shown enough solute-rich liquid can form much greater in fine-grained material
in Figure 1), where the outer piece is thin continuous grain-boundary films to and, therefore, segregates of low melting
restrained by bolts, the weld tends to cause the maximum sensitivity to crack- points are less concentrated at the grain
contract upon cooling, inducing tension ing. Figure 4a through d shows the effect boundary.
at its outer edge and compression at of composition on the solidification- Nakata and Matsuda16 proposed that
its inner edge. The tensile stresses and cracking sensitivity of several binary the ductility of the solidifying weld
strains at the outer edge are in the aluminum alloys.28–32 Figure 4e shows metal has a strong effect on solidification
direction transverse to the weld. This the crack sensitivity in pulsed-laser cracking. They used the transverse
is why liquation cracking occurs along welding of Al-Cu alloys.33 Each curve Varestraint test to determine ductility of
the outer edge of the weld (Figure 2b). shows a maximum crack sensitivity. the solidifying weld metal as a function

38 JOM • June 2003

 with titanium and aluminum nitride,51,52
REMEDIES FOR
and in aluminum alloys with titanium
SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
and zirconium.53–56 Dudas and Collins32
Solidification cracking can be reduced produced grain refining and eliminated
by adjusting the weld-metal composi- solidification cracking in an Al-Zn-Mg
tion, the grain structure, and the welding filler weld by adding small amounts of
condition.1 zirconium to the filler metal.
a
When welding aluminum alloys, Solidification cracking has been
it is desirable to have a weld-metal reduced by the following means: Gar-
composition that is away from the peak land57 grain refined welds of aluminum-
of the crack sensitivity curve (shown magnesium alloys by mechanically
in Figure 4). To reach the desired weld- vibrating the arc during welding; Kou
metal composition, a filler metal of a and Le58 grain refined welds of 5052
proper composition can be used and the aluminum by magnetic-arc oscillation
welding parameters can be selected to (20 Hz); David and Liu59 refined iridium
achieve the desired dilution ratio (the welds by magnetic-arc oscillation;
b fraction of the base metal in the weld and Tseng and Savage60 refined the
0.5 µm
metal). The maps of crack sensitivity solidification structure within the grains
Figure 3. Micrographs showing cracking vs. composition for ternary aluminum of HY-80 steel, though not the grains
in aluminum welds: (a) solidification
cracking; (b) liquation cracking. alloys are also useful.31,41 themselves.
When welding austenitic stainless Kou and Le58,61,62 used low-frequency
steels, as mentioned previously, it (1 Hz) magnetic-arc oscillation during
is desirable to have a weld-metal gas-tungsten-arc welding of aluminum
composition such that the weld-ferrite alloys and forced the weld-metal
of temperature. The resultant ductility vs. content is at a level of 5–10% in columnar grains to change their growth
temperature curve is called the ductility order to avoid solidification cracking. direction periodically. Solidification
curve, with the liquidus temperature TL Quantitative relationships between the cracking was reduced effectively because
as the upper bound and the temperature weld-ferrite content and the weld-metal a crack had to change its direction
at the tip of the longest crack as the composition in austenitic stainless steels periodically in order to propagate down
lower bound. The slope of a line passing have been determined by Schaeffler,42
through TL and tangent to the ductility DeLong,43 Kotecki,44,45 Balmforth et
curve is called the critical strain rate al.,46 and Vitek et al.47,48 With the help of
for temperature drop (CST), that is, the such quantitative information, proper Relative Crack Sensitivity
critical rate at which the strain varies filler metals and dilution ratios can be
with temperature drop. According to selected to insure enough weld-ferrite
Nakata and Matsuda,16 CST correlates content.
well with the cracking susceptibility of When welding carbon and low-alloy
the weld metal. steels, it is desirable to have a weld-
Both the tendency of weld-metal metal composition such that the weld-
contraction and the degree of restraint metal Mn/S ratio is sufficiently high to
are factors that can affect solidification avoid solidification cracking. Increasing
cracking.1 As already mentioned, the the Mn/S ratio promotes the formation
weld metal tends to contract due to of MnS rather than FeS. This is because
Composition of Weld, % Alloying Element
solidification shrinkage and thermal the high melting point and the globular
contraction. Austenitic stainless steels morphology of MnS tend to make
Total Crack Length (mm)

have relatively high thermal expansion sulfur less detrimental. At relatively low
coefficients (as compared to mild steels) carbon levels the solidification-cracking
and, therefore, are often prone to tendency can be reduced by increasing
solidification cracking. The solidifica- the Mn/S ratio.49 However, at higher
tion shrinkage of aluminum is as high carbon levels (i.e., 0.2–0.3% C),
as 6.6%.5 The thermal expansion coef- increasing the Mn/S ratio is no longer
Copper Content (wt%)
ficient of aluminum is roughly twice effective. 50 In such cases lowering
Figure 4. Effect of composition on crack
that of iron-based alloys. As a result, the weld-metal carbon content, if sensitivity of some aluminum alloys. (a–d)
many aluminum alloys are susceptible permissible, is more effective. from Reference 32; (e) from Reference
to solidification cracking. As mentioned The grains of the weld metal can be 33. (Reprinted from Kou.1)
previously, tensile stress/strains are refined by inoculation and arc oscilla-
induced in the weld metal when the tion to reduce solidification cracking.
weld metal cannot contract freely during Grain refining by inoculation has been
welding. achieved in steels and stainless steels

2003 June • JOM 39

 likely to increase primarily with the
solid fraction, they proposed that if
the weld-metal fS exceeds the PMZ fS
during PMZ terminal solidification, the
solidifying and contracting weld metal
can become stronger than the PMZ it
pulls, and liquation cracking is likely
to occur if tensile stresses/strains and
liquation are both significant in the
PMZ.
For example, Huang and Kou72 made
full-penetration, circular-patch welds
in 6061 aluminum with filler metals
5356 (Al-5Mg) and 4043 (Al-5Si). At
the dilution ratio of about 65%, severe
liquation cracking occurred in the weld
made with 5356 but no cracking was
observed in the weld made with 4043.
Figure 6 shows the T-fS curves for
both the weld metal and the PMZ at
the fusion boundary, calculated using
Pandat73 based on the multicomponent
Scheil equation. The curves show that,
at about 65% dilution, 5356 made the
Figure 5. Mechanism of liquation cracking in the partially melted weld metal fS greater than the PMZ
zone of a full-penetration aluminum weld.71 fS during PMZ terminal solidification
while 4043 made the weld metal fS
less than the PMZ fS throughout PMZ
solidification.
The susceptibility of the PMZ to
the weld along grain boundaries. surface is sometimes evident,64 but not hot cracking can be evaluated using
In addition, favorable welding condi- always.65,66 several different methods, such as
tions can be used to reduce solidification Liquation cracking occurs in the the Varestraint test,74–76 circular-patch
cracking. For instance, reducing restraint PMZ of a weld, which is immediately test,65,71,72 and hot-ductility test.66
helps reduce solidification cracking. outside the fusion zone, because of
FACTORS AFFECTING
Making the weld surface slightly convex heating above the eutectic temperature
LIQUATION CRACKING
can help prevent surface shrinkage (or the solidus temperature if the
cracks that tend to occur in welds with workpiece is completely solutionized The liquation cracking susceptibility
a concave surface.63 This is because before welding) in the PMZ.1 Liquation of the PMZ can be affected by the extent
the surface is less in tension when it can occur along the grain boundary of liquation, the grain structure, the hot
is slightly convex. Reducing the weld as well as in the grain interior. Grain- ductility, and weld-metal contraction
depth-to-width ratio can help prevent boundary liquation makes the PMZ and the degree of restraint.1
centerline cracking that tends to occur susceptible to liquation cracking. The greater the extent of liquation,
in welds with a steep angle of abutment Liquation cracking1,70 has also been the more likely that liquation cracking
between columnar grains growing from called edge-of-weld cracking,32 base- can occur. The extent of liquation in the
opposite sides of the weld pool.63 This metal cracking,67 hot cracking,68 and PMZ depends on the tendency of the
type of cracking is often observed heat-affected zone cracking.69 The name material to liquate and the level of heat
in deep and narrow welds produced liquation cracking is used here. input. The tendency of an aluminum
by electron beam or submerged arc Huang and Kou71 showed in Figure 5 alloy to liquate increases with increasing
welding. the development of liquation cracking in freezing temperature range and fraction
the PMZ of a full-penetration aluminum of liquid during freezing. For instance,
LIQUATION CRACKING
weld. Since the PMZ is weakened by alloy 7075 liquates much more severely
Liquation cracking, as shown in grain-boundary liquation, it can crack than alloy 6061 because the former
Figure 3b, is intergranular just like if the solidifying and contracting weld has a wider freezing temperature range
solidification cracking. However, unlike metal is stronger than it. and a greater fraction of liquid during
solidification cracking, the fracture Huang and Kou72 used curves of freezing.77 The tendency to liquate can
surface does not reveal any dendritic temperature (T) vs. solid fraction (fS) also increase with increasing grain-
morphology. The presence of a liquid to help understand liquation cracking. boundary segregation in the workpiece
phase at the intergranular fracture Since the strength of a semisolid is material. As-cast materials, for instance,

40 JOM • June 2003

tend to have more grain-boundary Katoh et al.,74 Kerr et al.,75 and Miyazaki of liquation-inducing segregates. As-cast
segregation. et al.76 studied liquation cracking in materials are particularly susceptible
The higher the heat input, the greater 6000-series alloys including 6061. to liquation cracking because of the
the liquation and the more likely liqua- Longitudinal liquation cracking occurred presence of low-melting segregates
tion cracking can occur. The heat input when alloy 6061 was welded with a along grain boundaries. Upon heating
depends on the welding process and 5356 filler but not with a 4043 filler. during welding, severe grain-boundary
parameters and the workpiece thickness. As shown previously, Huang and Kou72 liquation can occur in the PMZ, making it
Miyazaki et al.76 observed in 6061 showed that T-fS curves can be used to highly susceptible to liquation cracking.
aluminum welds made with filler 5356 help select the weld-metal composition Examples include as-cast 304 stainless
that liquation cracking increased with to avoid liquation cracking. steel82 and as-cast corrosion-resistant
increasing heat input per unit length The sensitivity of the PMZ to liquation austenitic stainless steel.83 By heat
of weld. cracking can be reduced by decreasing treating to homogenize the castings
A base metal with coarser grains is the degree of restraint and, hence, the before welding, liquation cracking can
more susceptible to liquation cracking. level of tensile stresses. The size of the be reduced.
The coarser the grain, the less ductile PMZ and, hence, the extent of PMZ
CONCLUSION
the PMZ becomes. Furthermore, the liquation can be reduced by reducing
coarser the grains, the smaller the the heat input. In order to minimize Experimental data of crack sensitivity
grain-boundary area and hence, the liquation cracking, the heat input can be vs. composition are useful for selecting
more concentrated the impurities or kept low by using multi-pass welding or the proper weld-metal composition to
low-melting segregates are at the grain low-heat-input welding processes (such avoid solidification cracking. To avoid
boundary. Increasing liquation cracking as electron beam and gas-tungsten-arc liquation cracking at the same time,
with increasing grain size has been welding) when possible. however, the weld-metal composition
observed in aluminum alloys76,78 and Liquation cracking can be reduced should be such that the weld metal
Inconel 718.79,80 by selecting the proper base metal solidifies after the partially melted zone
Hot ductility can also play a role in for welding if it is feasible. The base- does. Curves of temperature vs. solid
liquation cracking. Several different metal composition, grain structure, fraction of the weld metal and the base
criteria have been used for interpreting and microsegregation can affect the metal (same as the partially melted zone)
hot-ductility curves. 81 It has been susceptibility of the PMZ to liquation can help select the proper weld-metal
suggested that an alloy that recovers its cracking significantly. Using base metals composition.
ductility easily during cooling tends to that have low sulfur and phosphorus can
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
be more crack resistant.66 help reduce the freezing temperature
Both the tendency of weld-metal range and, hence, liquation cracking. This work was supported by the
contraction and the degree of restraint Using fine-grained materials helps National Science Foundation under
can affect the susceptibility to liquation reduce liquation cracking because of Grant No. DMR-0098776. The authors
cracking.1 The more the weld metal better ductility and lower concentrations are grateful to Bruce Albrecht and
contracts, the more likely the PMZ will
crack. The more severely the workpiece
is restrained, the more likely liquation
cracking will occur.
REMEDIES FOR LIQUATION
CRACKING
Liquation cracking can be reduced by
)

controlling the weld-metal composition,

(

the welding condition, and the base

metal.
The weld-metal composition can be
adjusted by selecting a proper filler
metal and dilution ratio. Metzger67
observed liquation cracking in 6061
aluminum welds made with Al-Mg Figure 6. Temperature vs.
fillers at high dilution ratios but not in solid fraction for 6061 base
welds made with Al-Si fillers at any metal (PMZ) and weld metal
of 6061 welds made with filler
dilution ratios. Gittos et al.65 observed metals 5356 and 4043 at
liquation cracking in alloy 6082 welded about 65% dilution. Curves
with NG61 (equivalent to 5356) filler at ( )
calculated using Pandat 73 of
CompuTherm LLC.72
high dilution ratios (about 80%) but not
in welds made with NG21 (equivalent
to 4043) filler at any dilution ratios.

2003 June • JOM 41

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