Group

Definition: A Group is basically an assemblage of people. It can be understood as a collection of

individuals (two or more), who come together and interact with each other, so as to achieve the
objectives of the organization. These are the foundation of an organization.

Characteristics of Groups

 Size: To form a group, it must be having at least two members. Practically, the number of
group members ranges from 15 to 20. The more the members in the group, the more complex
it is to manage.
 Goals: Every group has certain goals, that are the reasons for its existence.
 Norms: A group has certain rules, for interacting with the group members.
 Structure: It has a structure, based on the roles and positions held by the members.
 Roles: Every member of a group has certain roles and responsibilities, which are
assigned, by the group leader.
 Interaction: The interaction between the group members can occur in several ways, i.e.
face to face, telephonic, in writing or in any other manner.
 Collective Identity: A group is an aggregation of individuals, which are separately called
as members, and collectively called as a group.
Furthermore, a group climate is an emotional setting of the group, that relies on participative
spirit, coordination, trust and bonding among the members, open communication and other
similar factors.
Types of Groups

 Formal Groups: Groups that are formed consciously by the management, with an aim of
serving an organizational objective. These are further classified as:
 Self-directed teams: The group of employees which are so authorised to make
decisions, on their own, as it is independent and self-governing in nature.
 Quality Circles: A number of employees classed together belonging to the same
field, who meet every week for an hour, to talk about their problems, identify the causes
and find out solutions, to take necessary steps in this regard.
 Committees: An association of people created by the management for different
matters to identify and discuss the issues of the company and arrive at a conclusion. It can
be:
 Standing Committee
 Advisory Committee
 Audit Committee
 Grievance Committee
 Adhoc Committee
 Task force: It is a temporary committee, wherein people belonging to different
fields are grouped together for the performance of the task.
 Informal Groups: The social and psychological variables operating at the workplace,
results in the formation of informal groups. The creation of these groups is spontaneous due to
the common interest, social needs, physical proximity and mutual attraction.
Apart from the two broad classifications of the group, they are also divided into the primary
groups, secondary groups, membership groups, reference groups and interest groups.

Reasons for Group Formation

 Personal Characteristics: Individuals with similar beliefs, attitudes and values are more
likely to form groups.
 Opportunity for interaction: If the employees of an organization, are given an
opportunity to interact with one another, they find that they have many things similar, which
also creates a group.
 Interest and goals: When individuals share common interest and goals, it requires
cooperation and coordination for its achievement, which also results in the formation of
groups.
 Influence and power: Last but not the least, a group has more influence and power, as
compared to an individual, which also promotes its formation.
In general, groups are created out of individual need satisfaction, which can be personal, social
or economical. Meaning that the members need to associate with the group in order to fulfil their
basic needs.
Theories & Principles of Motivation
10'000 Hours/DigitalVision/GettyImages

By: Devra Gartenstein

Reviewed by: Michelle Seidel, B.Sc., LL.B., MBA

Updated April 19, 2019

You can't fake real motivation. It comes from the heart and from an authentic desire to do well.
You may be able to motivate your employees in the short term with tangible incentives such as
bonuses and pay raises, but your results will be difficult to sustain if you stop offering these
perks. The principles of motivation in the workplace use theories and ideas that apply to
everything from education to civic engagement.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

The five theories of motivation cover both tangible incentives, such as monetary compensation,
and internal incentives, such as satisfaction with a job well done.

Attribution Theory of Motivation

The attribution theory of motivation, also known as the three-dimensional theory of
attribution, addresses the ways that people view and address their own motivation, which can
either come from internal emotional incentives or from external tangible rewards. According to
this theory, if you have some idea of what your employees think they need for enhanced
motivation, you'll be able to create conditions and incentives that keep them engaged.

Stability is an important aspect of attribution because it contributes to determining whether an

obstacle or a motivating factor is long or short term. If your employee attributes a lack of
success at sales to a personality trait such as shyness, it may be challenging to give that
employee the tools to succeed. However, if that lack of success is perceived to come from
something temporary, such as a rash that makes potential customers uncomfortable, the
employee may simply need to wait until the condition clears.

VIDEO OF THE DAY

00:1100:59

Locus of control and controllability similarly affect motivation by pinpointing whether an

obstacle comes from internal personality traits or external environmental factors and whether it
is within the power of the individual to change these variables. Tying motivation to locus of
control and controllability can swing in either direction. Either the employee may lose
motivation due to factors that seemingly cannot be changed, or this lack of direct responsibility
for difficulties can motivate workers by clearing them from blame.

The Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory ties motivation in the workplace (and in other areas) to expectations
about what increased motivation will achieve. This theory focuses mainly on external
rewards and motivations, but it also addresses the likelihood of actually receiving these
dividends if work is done well. An employee is more likely to work hard in pursuit of a
promotion if you have shown that you actually do reward hard work with this type of
recognition.

The expectancy theory naturally relies on an element of expectancy, or the ways that
expectations influence behavior, such as the perception that a particular goal is possible or
unachievable. Valence also figures into the equation in the assessment of whether that goal is
worth the effort it would take to achieve it. Similarly, expectations around instrumentality can
either motivate or frustrate employees who are more likely to work toward an outcome if
they're certain the reward is forthcoming.

The Hawthorne Effect

Researchers studying performance and motivation at a Western Electric facility in the
Hawthorne area of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s discovered that changes in working
conditions often led to increased levels of motivation and productivity. These improvements
occurred even if the changes themselves had no tangible effect on work flow other than
showing that the company was invested in the quality of working conditions. Motivational
researchers have dubbed this phenomenon "the Hawthorne effect."

These observations reinforce the intuitive and common-sense idea that motivation increases if
employees feel that management cares about their needs. Work is rarely just work – it is also
an endeavor tied to self-esteem and quality of life for many workers. Recognizing and building
on this insight is beneficial for both management and employees.

Not surprisingly, motivation declines when employees know that their performance is being
observed and evaluated relative to the changes that management is implementing. If you give
your workers longer breaks and then tell them they're expected to be more productive as a
result, they're less likely to step up than if they perceive that you're making these changes out
of goodwill and for the sake of their well-being.
 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
The American psychiatrist Abraham Maslow developed a theory of human motivation that he
outlined in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation." Rather than attributing
motivating factors to bare physical or complex emotional and spiritual incentives, Maslow
looked at these different types of motivators in tandem and spoke to their relationship with one
another. He defined a hierarchy of needs with five distinct levels:

 Physiological, most obviously food, water and shelter

 Safety, both physical and emotional
 Love and belonging among friends, lovers, families and communities
 Esteem, or being respected and valued
 Self-actualization, or creativity and spiritual growth

The principles of motivation in an organization can appeal to employees at any of these levels,
but the first levels must first be achieved and satisfied before employees are motivated at
subsequent levels. If your employees aren't paid enough to make rent and feed their families,
they won't be able to innovate and develop creative solutions to complex problems. If they fear
losing their jobs and don't feel like they belong or are valued, they won't bring their full
potential to daily and long-term tasks. It's unreasonable to ask for results specific to higher
levels of the hierarchy when the lower levels have not been satisfied.

To motivate workers using Maslow's paradigm, it's important to first understand where your
employees are on the spectrum and what they currently need. It's also valuable to be clear
about what your company wants from them and where these expectations fall in this
framework. You may not need your entry-level technicians to perform work that furthers their
self-actualization process. However, if you can find ways to keep them engaged at this level
once you have motivated them at the other levels, they'll likely stay loyal to your company and
perform fine work over time.

The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

The psychologist Frederick Herzberg wrote about motivation during the 1950s, breaking down
motivating factors into motivator factors, which spur employees toward increased
achievement and productivity, and hygiene factors, the absence of which leads to a decline in
motivation and engagement. Motivator factors largely correspond to the higher levels of
Maslow's hierarchy and include satisfaction with work and recognition of achievements.
Hygiene factors correspond to Maslow's lower levels and include fair pay, comfortable
working conditions and a friendly workplace environment.

Although employees respond differently to the presence or absence of these two types of
factors, they are unlikely to work well unless both are present. When you apply principles of
motivation in management, be sure to include both attention to hygienic practical needs and
due diligence for your employees' personal development.
 Of course, no two employees are the same, and members of your staff will inevitably be
engaged or alienated by different situations. A holistic and forward-thinking approach to
motivating employees treats them as individuals and tailors strategies and incentives toward
individual strengths and idiosyncrasies.

Principles of Motivational Leadership

As leaders, managers are responsible for the vitally important job of keeping employees
motivated and engaged. It's useful to study motivational theories and reflect on how they apply
in your workplace, but many aspects of motivational leadership come down to basic human
decency. If you see an employee struggling, reach out and see if you can help. If all of your
employees show a lack of motivation, be willing to delve into company culture and make
changes as needed.

These strategies for leadership and motivation reflect ongoing research as well as plain
common sense:

 Reward achievements. Make sure your staff knows what is expected of them and celebrate
individual and collective achievements. Create specific, quantifiable goals and communicate these
objectives widely and clearly. Setting these expectations will give you clear reference points for
motivational rewards. They will also give you something to refer back to as opportunities for further
training and education if your staff falls short.

 Sync individual and organizational needs. If you and your staff are working toward objectives
that are in your mutual best interests, it's relatively simple to work in tandem and motivate staff to
stay engaged and bring their best to the workplace each day. Develop a company culture based on
shared values. Develop strategies for sharing bounty when your combined efforts are successful.

 Set an example. As a leader, your actions speak louder than your words. If your employees
see you putting your heart and soul into your job, they'll see first hand that you truly believe in your
work, and they're more likely to value it as well. On the other hand, if you take long, liquid lunches
and spend all day at your desk playing computer games, they're unlikely to take their work seriously in
turn.

 Be compassionate. Employees have complex lives and individual troubles outside of the

workplace, and sometimes these considerations interfere with their ability to do their best no matter
how effectively you work to motivate them. Use discretion and allow yourself to cut them some slack
from time to time, especially if it's clear that someone is experiencing a personal crisis. It's quite likely
that this kindness will eventually be rewarded with increased motivation and a heartfelt work ethic.

Cross-Cultural Workplace Motivation

Hiring a diverse workforce helps you to create a stronger business with a range of perspectives
and talents. However, working with a cross-cultural team can create a new set of issues as you
work to motivate your staff. Keep in mind that employees from a different culture are quite
likely motivated by many of the same factors and strategies as workers who share your
background. However, they may be rooted in cultural conventions that approach these issues in
ways that are unfamiliar to you.

Although many American workers don't hesitate to complain when they're dissatisfied with a
workplace situation, many other cultures have stricter codes and conventions regarding when it
is acceptable to express dissatisfaction. Keep a close eye out for signs that an employee from
another culture is struggling either with the work or the workplace culture and communicate
clearly that you're tuned in to the situation and open to hearing feedback.

Understanding Language Barriers

Language barriers can also create obstacles for motivating employees. If an employee isn't
fluent in English, it's your job as a manager to put extra care into explaining yourself and then
following up to make sure you are understood. The extra effort you put into this will be well
worth your time because you not only increase the odds that you'll be fully understood, but you
also show your staff that you care enough to explain, satisfying Maslow's levels of belonging
and esteem.

When you're unsure how your words and your directions are being interpreted, don't be afraid
to ask. In fact, this humility and show of concern will serve you well not only with employees
from different cultures but also with workers who share your background.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION

Source Unknown

Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation.

1. The environment can be used to focus the student's attention on what needs to
be learned.

Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like atmospheres will
promote persistent effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This strategy will
be successful in children and in adults. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets,
posters, or practice equipment, motivate learners by capturing their attention and
curiosity.

2. Incentives motivate learning.

Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the instructor. The
instructor determines an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a
particular time. In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards
 will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning based on the
understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based on the
pure enjoyment of exploring new things.

3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external

motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete
rewards.

Some individuals -- particularly children of certain ages and some adults -- have
little capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced
constantly. The use of incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs
more effectively when the student experiences feelings of satisfaction. Caution
should be exercised in using external rewards when they are not absolutely
necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in internal motivation.

4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when
one wants to know something.

Sometimes the student's readiness to learn comes with time, and the instructor's
role is to encourage its development. If a desired change in behavior is urgent, the
instructor may need to supervised directly to ensure that the desired behavior
occurs. If a student is not ready to learn, he or she may not be reliable in following
instructions and therefore must be supervised and have the instructions repeated
again and again.

5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is

organized.

In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to the
individual. One method of organization includes relating new tasks to those
already known. Other ways to relay meaning are to determine whether the persons
being taught understand the final outcome desired and instruct them to compare
and contrast ideas.

None of the techniques will produce sustained motivation unless the goals are realistic for
the learner. The basic learning principle involved is that success is more predictably
motivating than is failure. Ordinarily, people will choose activities of intermediate
uncertainty rather than those that are difficult (little likelihood of success) or easy (high
probability of success). For goals of high value there is less tendency to choose more
difficult conditions. Having learners assist in defining goals increases the probability that
they will understand them and want to reach them. However, students sometimes have
unrealistic notions about what they can accomplish. Possibly they do not understand the
precision with which a skill must be carried out or have the depth of knowledge to master
some material. To identify realistic goals, instructors must be skilled in assessing a
student's readiness or a student's progress toward goals.

1. Because learning requires changed in beliefs and behavior, it normally

produces a mild level of anxiety.

This is useful in motivating the individual. However, severe anxiety is

incapacitating. A high degree of stress is inherent in some educational situations. If
anxiety is severe, the individual's perception of what is going on around him or her
is limited. Instructors must be able to identify anxiety and understand its effect on
learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid causing severe anxiety in
learners by setting ambiguous of unrealistically high goals for them.

2. It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative

feedback regarding progress toward the goals.

Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates learning from one
day to the next. It also directs the student's activities toward the goal and offers an
opportunity to experience success.

3. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators.

People seek others with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and emotions.
Affiliation can also result in direct anxiety reduction by the social acceptance and
the mere presence of others. However, these motivators can also lead to
conformity, competition, and other behaviors that may seem as negative.

4. Many behaviors result from a combination of motives.

It is recognized that no grand theory of motivation exists. However, motivation is

so necessary for learning that strategies should be planned to organize a continuous
and interactive motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness. The general
principles of motivation are interrelated. A single teaching action can use many of
them simultaneously.

Finally, it should be said that an enormous gap exists between knowing that learning must
be motivated and identifying the specific motivational components of any particular act.
Instructors must focus on learning patterns of motivation for an individual or group, with
the realization that errors will be common.
 LEADERSHIP AND LEARNING

BASIC CONCEPTS:

Good leaders are made, not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can
become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of
self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982).

To inspire your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things you
must be, know, and, do. These do not often come naturally, but are acquired through
continual work and study. Good leaders are continually working and studying to
improve their leadership skills; they are NOT resting on their past laurels.

Definitions

Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an

objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and
coherent.

Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as the capacity to
influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future
visions, and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.

According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined
objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it
towards goals.”

Leadership is inspiring others to pursue your vision within the parameters you set, to
the extent that it becomes a shared effort, a shared vision, and a shared success
(Zeitchik, 2012).

Leadership is a process of social influence, which maximizes the efforts of others,

towards the achievement of a goal (Kruse, 2013).

Principles of Leadership

To help you be, know, and do,  follow these eleven principles of leadership (U.S. Army,
1983).

1. Know yourself and seek self-improvement - In order to know yourself, you have to
understand your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking self-improvement means
continually strengthening your attributes. This can be accomplished through self-study,
formal classes, reflection, and interacting with others.
 2. Be technically proficient - As a leader, you must know your job and have a solid
familiarity with your employees' tasks.
3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions - Search for ways to
guide your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, as they often tend to
do sooner or later — do not blame others. Analyze the situation, take corrective action,
and move on to the next challenge.
4. Make sound and timely decisions - Use good problem solving, decision making, and
planning tools.
5. Set the example - Be a good role model for your employees. They must not only hear
what they are expected to do, but also see. “We must become the change we want to
see.” - Mahatma Gandhi
6. Know your people and look out for their well-being - Know human nature and the
importance of sincerely caring for your workers.
7. Keep your workers informed - Know how to communicate with not only them, but also
seniors and other key people.
8. Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers - Help to develop good character
traits that will help them carry out their professional responsibilities.
9. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished - Communication
is the key to this responsibility.
10. Train as a team - Although many so called leaders call their organization, department,
section, etc. a team; they are not really teams... they are just a group of people doing
their jobs.
11. Use the full capabilities of your organization - By developing a team spirit, you will be
able to employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its fullest capabilities.

Attributes of Leadership:  BE,  KNOW,  and DO

Respected leaders concentrate on Be, Know, and Do (U.S. Army, 1983):

o who they are [be] (such as beliefs and character)

o what they know (such as job, tasks, and human nature)
o what they do (such as implementing, motivating, and providing direction)

BE a professional. Examples: Be loyal to the organization, perform selfless service,

take personal responsibility.

BE a professional who possess good character  traits. Examples: honesty,

competence, candor, commitment, integrity, courage, straightforwardness,
imagination.

KNOW the four factors of leadership — follower, leader, communication, situation.

KNOW yourself. Examples: strengths and weakness of your character, knowledge,
and skills.

KNOW human nature. Examples: human needs, emotions, and how people respond to
stress.

KNOW your job. Examples: be proficient and be able to train others in their tasks.

KNOW your organization. Examples: where to go for help, its climate and culture, who
the unofficial leaders are.

DO provide direction . Examples: goal setting, problem solving, decision making,

planning.

DO implement. Examples: communicating , coordinating, supervising, evaluating.

DO motivate. Examples: develop morale and esprit de corps in the organization, train,

coach, counsel.

The Process of Great Leadership

The road to great leadership that is common to successful leaders include (Kouzes,
Posner, 1987):

o Challenge the process - First, find a process that you believe needs to be improved the
most.
o Inspire a shared vision - Share your vision in words that can be understood by your
followers.
o Enable others to act - Give them the tools and methods to solve the problem.
o Model the way - When the process gets tough, get your hands dirty. A boss tells others
what to do; a leader shows that it can be done.
o Encourage the heart - Share the glory with your followers' hearts, while keeping the
pains within your own.

Factors: 3 factors

1.Environment

Every organization has a particular work environment, which dictates to a

considerable degree how its leaders respond to problems and opportunities. This is
brought about by its heritage of past leaders and its present leaders.
 Goals, Values, and Concepts

Leaders exert influence on the environment  via three types of actions:

1. The goals and performance standards they establish.

2. The values they establish for the organization.
3. The business and people concepts they establish.

Successful organizations have leaders who set high standards and  goals  across the
entire spectrum, such as strategies, market leadership, plans, meetings and
presentations, productivity, quality, and reliability.

Values reflect the concern the organization has for its employees, customers,
investors, vendors, and surrounding community. These values define the manner in
how business will be conducted.

Concepts  define what products or services the organization will offer and the methods
and processes for conducting business.

These goals, values, and concepts make up the organization's  personality or how the
organization is observed by both outsiders and insiders. This personality defines the
roles, relationships, rewards, and rites that take place.

2.Roles and Relationships

Roles are the positions that are defined by a set of expectations about behavior of any
job incumbent. Each role has a set of tasks and responsibilities that may or may not
be spelled out. Roles have a powerful effect on behavior for several reasons, to
include money being paid for the performance of the role, there is prestige attached to
a role, and a sense of accomplishment or challenge.

Relationships are determined by a role's tasks. While some tasks are performed
alone, most are carried out in relationship with others. The tasks will determine who
the role-holder is required to interact with, how often, and towards what end. Normally
the greater the interaction, the greater the liking. This in turn leads to more frequent
interactions. In human behavior — its hard to like someone whom we have no contact
with, and we tend to seek out those we like. People tend to do what they are rewarded
for, and friendship is a powerful reward. Many tasks and behaviors that are associated
with a role are brought about by these relationships. That is, new tasks and behaviors
are expected of the present role-holder because a strong relationship was developed
in the past, by either that role-holder or by a prior role-holder.

3.Culture and Climate

Culture and climate  are two distinct forces that dictate how to act within an
organization: .

Each organization has its own distinctive culture. It is a combination of the founders,
past leadership, current leadership, crises, events, history, and size (Newstrom,
Davis, 1993). This results in rites: the routines, rituals, and the “way we do things.”
These rites impact individual behavior on what it takes to be in good standing (the
norm) and directs the appropriate behavior for each circumstance.

The climate is the feel of the organization, the individual and shared perceptions and
attitudes of the organization's members (Ivancevich, Konopaske, Matteson, 2007). On
the other hand, culture is the deeply rooted nature of the organization that is a result
of long-held formal and informal systems, rules, traditions, and customs. This differs
from climate, which is a short-term phenomenon created by the current leadership.
Climate represents the beliefs about the “feel of the organization” by its members.
This individual perception of the “feel of the organization” comes from what the people
believe about the activities that occur in the organization. These activities influence
both individual and team motivation and satisfaction, such as:

o How well does the leader clarify the priorities and goals of the organization? What is
expected of us?
o What is the system of recognition, rewards, and punishments in the organization?
o How competent are the leaders?
o Are leaders free to make decisions?
o What will happen if I make a mistake?

Organizational climate is directly related to the leadership and management style of

the leader, based on the values, attributes, skills, and actions, as well as the priorities
of the leader. Compare this to “ethical climate” — the feel of the organization about
the activities that have ethical content or those aspects of the work environment that
constitute ethical behavior. The ethical climate is the feel about whether we do things
right; or the feel of whether we behave the way we ought to behave. The behavior
(character) of the leader is the most important factor that influences the climate.

On the other hand, culture is a long-term, complex phenomenon. Culture represents

the shared expectations and self-image of the organization. The mature values that
create tradition or the “way we do things here.” Things are done differently in every
organization. The collective vision and common folklore that define the institution are
a reflection of culture. Individual leaders cannot easily create or change culture
because culture is a part of the organization. Culture influences the characteristics of
the climate by its effect on the actions and thought processes of the leader. But,
everything you do as a leader will affect the climate of the organization.
LEADERSHIP THEORIES refer BHMCT 3 rd year notes