Developmental Biology

Developmental Biology
The Development of Embryos are mainly divided into:

1. Fertilization – Formation of a large single celled Zygote
2. Cleavage/Cellulation – Rapid cell division resulting to the formation of blastomeres
a. Morulation – Division of cell up to the 32-cell stage also known as a Morula
b. Blastulation – Outward migration of cells to form a hollow ball called as a Blastocyst with the space inside
termed as Blastocoel
3. Gastrulation - is the process of cell movements that give rise to the primary germ layers (Ectoderm, Mesoderm,
Endoderm) of the embryo.
Fig. 1.
Fig.1. shows the cell movements

that constitute the process of
Gastrulation
Fig. 2. shows the similarity topological similarity of the germ layers among different vertebrates
4. Organogenesis - the process by which specific organs and structures are formed and involves both cell
movements and cell differentiation.
4a. Neurulation (found in vertebrates) - formation of the neural tube, which gives rise to both the spinal cord and
the brain. Neural crest cells are also created during neurulation. Neural crest cells migrate away from the neural
tube and give rise to a variety of cell types, including pigment cells and neurons.
Fig. 3. A summarized diagram of animal development
The distribution of yolk in animal eggs/zygotes results in the phenomenon known as Polarity, in which the two ends,
or poles, of the egg become distinctive from each other. At one pole, known as the animal pole, the cytoplasm
appears to be more active and contains the nucleus (meiotic divisions occur in this region); at the other, called the
vegetal pole, the cytoplasm is less active and contains most of the yolk. The general organization of the future animal
is closely related to the polarity of the egg.
Eggs may be classified according to the amount or distribution of yolk.
According to the amount of yolk
1. Alecithal : Without yolk. (eg. Mammal)
2. Microlecithal/Oligolecithal : Small amount. (eg. Amphioxus)
3. Mesolecithal: Moderate amount. (eg. Toad)
4. Macrolecithal/Polylecithal : Large amount . (eg. Bird)
According to distribution of yolk
1. Isolecithal: The yolk is equally distributed throughout the cytoplasm. (e.g. Amphioxus.)
2. Centrolecithal: The yolk is concentrated in a net like structure around the nucleus. (e.g. Insects.)
3. Telolecithal: The yolk deposited in vegetal pole.
a. Slightly telolecithal - this type of egg contains only a small quantity of yolk which is distributed unevenly.
The vegetal pole has the highest concentration and the animal pole the lower (e.g. eggs of fishes).
b. Moderately Telolecithal - this type of egg contains a moderate quanilty of yolk which is distributed
unevenly. Due to high concentration of yolk in the vegetal hemisphere, the nucleus is shifted more towards
the animal hemisphere (eg. amphibian egg).
c. Extremely Telolecithal – this type of egg contains a large amount of yolk, occupying the entire vegetal pole
and a large portion of the animal pole. Due to this extremely uneven distribution of yolk, the ooplasm and
nucleus are displaced towards the animal pole (eg. reptilian and avian eggs).
The amount and distribution of greatly influences the cleavage symmetry of a developing egg the diagram below
shows the different cleavage symmetries exhibited by eggs of varying amounts and distribution of yolk
Types of Cleavage:
1. Holoblastic – cleaves all the way
through the entire egg
2. Meroblastic – cleaves only to the
accumulated yolk
Evolution of the Skeletal system
How did animals get their skeletons?

In an article published in Geology in 2017, researchers linked the emergence of the skeleton to two factors,
first to the rise of atmospheric oxygen levels, and second is the accumulation of calcium in the oceans. The
researchers argued that the rise in atmospheric oxygen levels coupled with the accumulation of eroded minerals in
the sea particularly, calcium, augmented the chemistry of the sea and allowed vast amounts of calcium carbonate to
form. Calcium carbonate is one of the major building blocks of animal skeleton, be it endo or exoskeleton. With
the availability of such a building block, organisms went on to harness them and form a multitude of calcium
carbonate-based structures and the rest, as they say is natural history.
Types of Skeletal systems

1. Hydrostatic - is one formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body: the coelom. The organs of the coelom
are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression. This compartment is under hydrostatic
pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of the organism. This type of skeletal system is found
in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates.
Defining attributes of a Hydrostatic skeleton
a. presence of a cavity housing an incompressible fluid that transmits pressure changes uniformly in all
directions.
b. this cavity must be surrounded by a flexible outer body membrane, to allow deformation of the outer body
wall
c. the volume of the fluid inside the cavity must remain constant
d. the animal must be capable of making temporary attachments to a substrate if the animal moves through a
substrate
e. the presence of a deformable elastic covering consisting with at least 2 sets of muscles that antagonizes each
other.
2. Exoskeleton - is an external, hard, encasement on the surface of an organism. This skeleton type provides defense
against predators, supports the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles. As with
vertebrates, muscles must cross a joint inside the exoskeleton. Shortening of the muscle changes the relationship of
the two segments of the exoskeleton. Arthropods, such as crabs and lobsters, have exoskeletons that consist of 30–
50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a strong-but-flexible material. Chitin is secreted by
the epidermal cells. The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium carbonate in organisms such
as the lobster.
3. Endoskeleton – may consist of hard, mineralized or flexible cartilage structures located within the soft tissue of
organisms. An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicule of sponges. The bones of vertebrates are
composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues. Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect
internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton.
The evolution of the endoskeleton and the animal conquest of land may be summarized with the
following evolutionary adaptations:
a. Development of the Pectoral and Pelvic girdles along with the skeleton of the fins
b. Modification of cartilaginous endoskeleton into an osseous endoskeleton
c. Modification of fins into limbs
d. Derivation of limbs suited for land (Quadruped locomotion)
e. Further modification of axial and appendicular skeletons for flight and bipedal locomotion.
f. Modification of opposable thumbs
Fig. 5. shows the homology of limbs among different vertebrates
The general limb structure consist of a Propodium (Humerus or Femur), an Epipodium (Radius & Ulna/ Tibia &
Fibula), and an Autopodium (Manus/ Pes)
Mammalian stances
1. Plantigrade – a primitive tetrapod stance in which the wrists, ankles and digits all touch the ground. Typically
exhibited by Monotremes, Marsupials and Primates
2. Digitigrade – a stance in which only the first digit has been reduced or lost; most of the animal’s weight is on the
digital arches with the wrist and ankle elevated from the ground. Exhibited by swift-footed animals such as rabbits,
rodents and most carnivorous mammals.
3. Unguligrade – a stance in which the wrist and ankles are elevated well above ground with only two to three digits
(in extreme cases, one digit) touching the ground; some of the digits are reduced to vestigial structures or
completely lost. Claws of the digits are modified into hooves to support the animal’s weight and provide
protection form abrasion. This stance is exhibited by horses, deer and camels.
a. Atriodactyls – also known as even footed ungulates, these animals equally distribute their weight onto
their 3rd and 4th digits
b. Perissodactyls – animals that rest most of their weight on their 3rd digit. Exhibited by Horses, Rhinos and
Tapirs
Fig. 6. Shows different animal footprints exhibiting the main animal stances

Developmental Biology

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Developmental Biology

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Developmental Biology

The Development of Embryos are mainly divided into:

Fig.1. shows the cell movements

How did animals get their skeletons?

Types of Skeletal systems

Fig. 5. shows the homology of limbs among different vertebrates

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