COMMUNICATION

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is

channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver
then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. All forms of
communication require a sender, a message, and an intended recipient; however
the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at
the time of communication in order for the act of communication to occur.
Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative
commonality. There are verbal means using language and there are nonverbal
means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, haptic
communication, chromatics, and eye contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics
and sound, and writing.

Information communication revolutions

Over time, technology has progressed and has created new forms of and ideas
about communication. The newer advances include media and communications
psychology. Media psychology is an emerging field of study. These technological
advances revolutionized the processes of communication. Researchers have
divided how communication was transformed into three revolutionary stages:

In the 1st Information Communication Revolution, the first written communication

began, with pictographs. These writings were made on stone, which were too
heavy to transfer. During this era, written communication was not mobile, but
nonetheless existed.

In the 2nd Information Communication Revolution, writing began to appear on

paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. Common alphabets were introduced, allowing the
uniformity of language across large distances. Much later the Gutenberg printing-
press was invented. Gutenberg created this printing-press after a long period of
time in the 15th century.

In the 3rd Information Communication Revolution, information can now be

transferred via controlled waves and electronic signals.

Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in

an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of

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skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning,
analyzing, gestures and evaluating. It is through communication that collaboration
and cooperation occur.[1]

There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which
are message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same
time), and message complexity. Communication is a continuous process. The
psychology of media communications is an emerging area of increasing attention
and study

Human communication
Human spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols
(sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are
manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of
languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human
languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable
communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages,
and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties
have exceptions.

There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max
Weinreich is credited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a
navy". Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and
various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties
shared by human languages.

Bernard Lusk in, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began
to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology.
In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46
Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and
communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern
communication.

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Nonhuman communication
Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates.
Every information exchange between living organisms i.e. transmission of signals
involving a living sender and receiver can be considered a form of communication.
Thus, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most
of the issues in ethnology. Also very primitive animals such as corals are
competent to communicate. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular
communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like
bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication
processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct
coordination

Animal communication is any behavior on the part of one animal that has an effect
on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human
communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of animal
communication. The study of animal communication, called zoo semiotics'
(distinguishable from anthrop semiotics, the study of human communication) has
played an important part in the development of ethnology, sociobiology, and the
study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate
with animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses. However,
these animals have to learn a special means of communication. Animal
communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a
rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior
understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use,
animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long
thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is exchanging information in the form of messages, symbols,
thoughts, signs and opinions. There are many different types of communication,
depending on the medium used for communication or the way in which
information is exchanged. Let us discuss the basic four types of communication.
Communication of information, messages, opinions, speech and thoughts can be
done via different forms of modern communication media, like, e-mail, telephone
and mobile.
Some of the basic ways of communication are by speaking, singing, sign language,
body language, touch and eye contact. These basic ways of communication are
used to transfer information from one entity to other. There are many different

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types of communication but they can be classified into four basic types of
communication. These four types of communication are as follows:

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language
is said to have originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages
spoken in the world. The bases of language formation are: gender, class,
profession, geographical area, age group and other social elements. Speaking is an
effective way of communicating and is again classified into two types viz.

Good verbal communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a

business, you come across people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent
verbal communication is essential to deal with people in business meetings. Also,
in business communication self-confidence plays a vital role which when clubbed.

Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a

group of people. Preparing for an effective speech before you start is important. In
public speaking, the speech must be prepared according to the type of audience
you are going to face. The content of your your speech should be authentic and you
must have enough information on the topic you have chosen for public speaking.
All the main points in your speech must be highlighted and these points should be
delivered.

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and

receiving wordless messages. On-verbal communication is a non-word human
process(such as gestures, facial expression) and the perceived characteristics of the
environment through which human verbal and non-verbal messages are
transmitted. It is called as silent language. Such messages can be communicated
through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact,
object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols
and info graphics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral
communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's day
to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.

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Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including
voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as
rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements
such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. A
portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emotion is a
symbol or combination of symbols, such as :), used to convey emotional content in
written or message form. And verbal communication be seen as being rude and
illiterate.

Categories and Features

G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:

 Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial

expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.

 Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through

creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and
sculpturing.

 Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the

use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.

 Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious,

status, or ego-building symbols.

Static Features
 Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-
verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it
may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.

 Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face,

side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are
likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.

 Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are
not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or
erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a

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 degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication
exchange.

 Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or

patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy
or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

Dynamic Features
 Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all
convey information. Facial expressions continually change during
interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence
that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.

 Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is
a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking.
While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of
the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.

 Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can

convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of
contact may suggest either interest or boredom.

It is essential that the basic elements of communication be identified. These

elements are:

• Sender/encoder/speaker

• Receiver/decoder/listener

• Message

• Medium

• Feedback/reply

1. Sender/encoder/Speaker:

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The person who initiates the communication process is normally referred to as the
sender. From his personal data bank he selects ideas, encodes and finally transmits
them to the receiver.

2. Receiver/decoder/listener:

The listener receives an encoded message which he attempts to decode. This

process is carried on in relation to the work environment and the value perceived in
terms of the work situation.

3. Message:

Message is the encoded idea transmitted by the sender. The formulation of the
message is very important for an incorrect patterning can turn the receiver hostile
or make him lose interest.

4. Medium:

Another important element of communication is the medium or channel. It could

be oral, written, or non-verbal, prior to the composition of the message, the
medium/ channel should be decided.

5. Feedback:

This is the most important component of communication. Effective communication

takes place only when there is feedback. The errors and faults that abound in
business situations are a result of lack of feedback. Basic Model of
Communication:
Written Communication
Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate.
Good written communication is essential for business purposes. Written
communication is practiced in many different languages. E-mails, reports, articles
and memos are some of the ways of using written communication in business. The
written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is
communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended. This is
one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication
in business activity. Written communication is used not only in business but also
for informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS is an example of informal
written communication

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Visual communication

Visual communication is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance

of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily
associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing,
graphic design, illustration, color and electronic resources. It solely relies on
vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a
visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a
person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.

The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by

the audience, not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally
agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to
present information visually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV. Here,
focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated
on a computer display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the actual
presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused on web design
and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual
communication in their professional practice.

Oral communication

Oral communication is a process whereby information is transferred from a sender

to receiver; in general communication is usually transferred by both verbal means
and visual aid throughout the process.. The receiver could be an individual person,
a group of persons or even an audience. There are a few of oral communication
types: discussion, speeches, presentations, etc. However, often when you
communicate face to face the body language and your voice tonality has a bigger
impact than the actual words that you are saying.

A widely cited and widely mis-interpreted figure, used to emphasize the

importance of delivery, is that "communication is 55% body language, 38% tone of
voice, 7% content of words", the so-called "7%-38%-55% rule". This is not
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however what the cited research shows – rather, when conveying emotion, if body
language, tone of voice, and words disagree, then body language and tone of voice
will be believed more than words. For example, a person saying "I'm delighted to
meet you" while mumbling, hunched over, and looking away will be interpreted as
insincere. (Further discussion at Albert Mehrabian: Three elements of
communication.)

You can notice that the content or the word that you are using is not the
determining part of a good communication. The "how you say it" has a major
impact on the receiver. You have to capture the attention of the audience and
connect with them. For example, two persons saying the same joke, one of them
could make the audience die laughing related to his good body language and tone
of voice. However, the second person that has the exact same words could make
the audience stare at one another.

In an oral communication, it is possible to have visual aid helping you to provide

more precise information. Often enough, we use a presentation program in
presentations related to our speech to facilitate or enhance the communication
process.

Purpose of effective communication:

• Saves time of communication

• Helps in coordinating, controlling and issuing instructions

• Brings improvement in speaking abilities, listening, interacting, writing,

convincing and persuading.

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

• Sender-oriented

• Receiver-oriented

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Sender oriented barriers:

It can be either voluntary or involuntary. At any cost, efforts should be made on the
part of the sender to identify and remove them. Some of the barriers that are sender
oriented are:

Badly expressed message: concrete ideas and well structures message

Loss in transmission: correct choice of medium or channel

Semantic problem: simple words and accurate understanding of intension

Over/under communication: quantum of information should be right

‘I’ Attitude: avoid I attitude

Prejudices: mind free of bias

Rules to overcome the sender oriented barriers:

Plan and clarify ideas

Create a climate of trust and confidence

Time your mind carefully

Reinforce words with action

Communicate efficiently

Receiver-oriented barriers

Poor retention: jot down points

Inattentive listening: improve concentration

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Tendency to evaluate: delay evaluation

Interest and attitudes: develop interest

Conflicting information: confirm with feedback, clarify

Differing status and position: encourage juniors to come up with ideas and listen

Resistance to change: be flexible

Refutations and arguments: enter into healthy discussions

Understanding the Field of Communication

The field of communication is typically broken into three distinct camps: human
communication, mass communications, and communication disorders

Human Communication or Communication Studies is the study of how individuals

communicate. Some examples of the distinct areas that human communication
scholars study are:

 Interpersonal Communication
 Organizational Communication
 Oral Communication
 Small Group Communication
 Intercultural Communication
 Nonviolent Communication
 Conflict
 Rhetoric
 Public Speaking
 Media and Communications Psychology

Examples of Mass Communications include:

 Mass communication
 Graphic communication
 Science communication
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  Strategic Communication
 Superluminal communication
 Technical communication
 Public relations
 Broadcast Media
 Journalism
 Media and Communications Psychology

Examples of Communication Disorders include:

 Facilitated Communication
 Impairment of Language Modality
 Speech Disorders

Communication modeling

The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Shannon and
Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories The original model was designed to mirror
the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted
of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a
telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the
receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon
and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one
listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of

communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent
in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a
destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply
views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The
strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social
scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the
following elements:

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 1. An information source, which produces a message.
2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
4. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
5. A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for
communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect
behavior?

Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1960, David Berol expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of
communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. [8] The Sender-
Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into
clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message

(what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by
whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination /
receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also
indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired
and undesired) on the target of the message. [9] Between parties, communication
includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands,
and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners
of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating.
Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a

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destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such
as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by

three levels of semiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their
users) and
3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they
represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting

agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This
commonly held rules in some sense ignores autocommunication, including
intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena
that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social
interactions.

In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of

communication.[10] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication
is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of
messages.

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally.
This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or
constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the
determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is
viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to
another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A
particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal
filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different
regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of
message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission
channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and
thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this

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encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and
decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions
as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not
identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are
nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.

Theories of co regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic

continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian
media scholar Harold Innes had the theory that people use different types of media
to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities
for the shape and durability of society (Work, McKenzie 1997). His famous
example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built
themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus
is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written
orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns
and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the
construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to
generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their
society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).

Communication noise

In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages

sent over a channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:

Environmental Noise: Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as

standing next to loud speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction site next
to a classroom making it difficult to hear the professor.

Physiological-Impairment Noise: Physical maladies that prevent effective

communication, such as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages from
being received as they were intended.

Semantic Noise: Different interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For

example, the word "weed" can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in your yard,
or as a euphemism for marijuana.

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Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as
abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence.

Organizational Noise: Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver

from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can
make the receiver even more lost.

Cultural Noise: Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as

unintentionally offending a non-Christian person by wishing them a "Merry
Christmas."

Psychological Noise: Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For
instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present
moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper effective
communication.[11]
Communication as academic discipline
Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology,"
relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and
knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal
messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and
explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the
journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-
expanding understanding of how we all communicate.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many
different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all,
fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking
about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of
communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely,
some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human
beings, and some are narrower, only including human beings within the different
parameters of human symbolic interaction.

Telecommunication

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Telecommunication is the transmission of messages, over significant distances, for
the purpose of communication. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the
use of visual signals, such as beacons, smoke, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags,
and optical heliographs, or audio messages via coded drumbeats, lung-blown
horns, or sent by loud whistles, for example. In the modern age of electricity and
electronics, telecommunications now also includes the use of electrical devices
such as telegraphs, telephones, and teletypes, the use of radio and microwave
communications, as well as fiber optics and their associated electronics, plus the
use of the orbiting satellites and the Internet.

The first breakthrough into modern electrical telecommunications came with the
push to fully develop the telegraph starting in the 1830s. The use of these electrical
means of communications exploded into use on all of the continents of the world
during the 19th century, and these also connected the continents via cables on the
floors of the ocean. The use of the first three popular systems of electrical
telecommunications, the telegraph, telephone and teletype, all required the use of
conducting metal wires.

A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th

century, with Guglielmo Marconi winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for
his pioneering developments in wireless radio communications. Other highly
notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic
telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (telegraph),
Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), Nikola Tesla, Edwin Armstrong, and Lee de
Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television).

Telecommunications play an important role in the world economy and the

worldwide telecommunication industry's revenue was estimated to be $3.85 trillion
in 2008.[1] The service revenue of the global telecommunications industry was
estimated to be $1.7 trillion in 2008, and is expected to touch $2.7 trillion by 2013.

Early telecommunications
A replica of one of Chappe's semaphore towers in Nalbach

During the middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a
means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could

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only pass a single bit of information, so the meaning of the message such as "the
enemy has been sighted" had to be agreed upon in advance. One notable instance
of their use was during the Spanish Armada, when a beacon chain relayed a signal
from Plymouth to London that signaled the arrival of the Spanish warships.[2]

In 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy
system (or semaphore line) between Lille and Paris.[3] However semaphore systems
suffered from the need for skilled operators and the expensive towers at intervals
of ten to thirty kilometers (six to twenty miles). As a result of competition from the
electrical telegraph, the last commercial semaphore line was abandoned in 1880.

The telegraph and the telephone

The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir Charles

Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke, and its use began on April 9, 1839.
Both Wheatstone and Cooke viewed their device as "an improvement to the
[already-existing, so-called] electromagnetic telegraph" not as a new device.[5]

The businessman Samuel F.B. Morse and the physicist Joseph Henry of the United
States developed their own, simpler version of the electrical telegraph,
independently. Morse successfully demonstrated this system on September 2,
1837. Morse's most important technical contribution to this telegraph was the
rather simple and highly efficient Morse code, which was an important advance
over complicated Whetstone’s telegraph system. The communications efficiency of
the Morse Code anticipated that of the Huffman code in digital communications by
over 100 years, but Morse had developed his code purely empirically, unlike
Huffman, who gave a detailed theoretical explanation of how his method worked.

The first permanent transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully completed on 27

July 1866, allowing transatlantic electrical communication for the first time. [6] An
earlier transatlantic cable had operated for a few months in 1859, and among other
things, it carried messages of greeting back and forth between President James
Buchanan of the United States and Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.

However, that transatlantic cable failed soon, and the project to lay a replacement
line was delayed for five years by the American Civil War. Also, these

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transatlantic cables would have been completely incapable of carrying telephone
calls even had the telephone already been invented. The first transatlantic
telephone cable (which incorporated hundreds of electronic amplifiers) was not
operational until 1956.

The conventional telephone now in use worldwide was first patented by Alexander
Graham Bell in March 1876.[8] That first patent by Bell was the master patent of
the telephone, from which all other patents for electric telephone devices and
features flowed. Credit for the invention of the electric telephone has been
frequently disputed, and new controversies over the issue have arisen from time-to-
time. As with other great inventions such as radio, television, the light bulb, and
the digital computer, there were several inventors who did pioneering experimental
work on voice transmission over a wire, and then they improved on each other's
ideas. However, the key innovators were Alexander Graham Bell and Gardiner
Greene Hubbard, who created the first telephone company, the Bell Telephone
Company of the United States, which later evolved into American Telephone &
Telegraph (AT&T).

The first commercial telephone services were set up in 1878 and 1879 on both
sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven, Connecticut, and London,
England.[9][10]

Radio and television

In 1832, James Lindsay gave a classroom demonstration of wireless telegraphy via

conductive water to his students. By 1854, he was able to demonstrate a
transmission across the Firth of Tay from Dundee, Scotland, to Woodhaven, a
distance of about two miles (3 km), again using water as the transmission medium.
[11]
In December 1901, Guglielmo Marconi established wireless communication
between St. John's, Newfoundland and Poldhu, Cornwall (England), earning him
the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1909, one which he shared with Karl Braun.[12]
However small-scale radio communication had already been demonstrated in 1893
by Nikola Tesla in a presentation before the National Electric Light Association.[13]

On March 25, 1925, John Logie Baird of England was able to demonstrate the
transmission of moving pictures at the Selfridge's department store in London,

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England. Baird's system relied upon the fast-rotating Nipkow disk, and thus it
became known as the mechanical television. It formed the basis of experimental
broadcasts done by the British Broadcasting Corporation beginning September 30,
1929.[14] However, for most of the 20th century, television systems were designed
around the cathode ray tube, invented by Karl Braun. The first version of such an
electronic television to show promise was produced by Philo Farnsworth of the
United States, and it was demonstrated to his family in Idaho on September 7,
1927

Computer networks and the Internet

On 11 September 1940, George Stibitz was able to transmit problems using

teletype to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and receive the
computed results back at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.[16] This
configuration of a centralized computer or mainframe computer with remote
"dumb terminals" remained popular throughout the 1950s and into the 60's.
However, it was not until the 1960s that researchers started to investigate packet
switching — a technology that allows chunks of data to be sent between different
computers without first passing through a centralized mainframe. A four-node
network emerged on December 5, 1969. This network soon became the
ARPANET, which by 1981 would consist of 213 nodes.[17]

ARPANET's development centered around the Request for Comment process and
on 7 April 1969, RFC 1 was published. This process is important because
ARPANET would eventually merge with other networks to form the Internet, and
many of the communication protocols that the Internet relies upon today were
specified through the Request for Comment process. In September 1981, RFC 791
introduced the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and RFC 793 introduced the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) — thus creating the TCP/IP protocol that
much of the Internet relies upon today.

However, not all important developments were made through the Request for
Comment process. Two popular link protocols for local area networks (LANs) also
appeared in the 1970s. A patent for the token ring protocol was filed by Olaf
Soderblom on October 29, 1974, and a paper on the Ethernet protocol was
published by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs in the July 1976 issue of
20
Communications of the ACM.[18][19] The Ethernet protocol had been inspired by the
ALOHAnet protocol which had been developed by electrical engineering
researchers at the University of Hawaii

Basic elements

A basic telecommunication system consists of three primary units that are always
present in some form:

 A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

 A transmission medium, also called the "physical channel" that carries the
signal. An example of this is the "free space channel".
 A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into
usable information.

For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is
the transmitter; and the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power
amplifier and the "free space channel". The free space channel is the transmission
medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface between the free space channel
and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the radio signal, and
this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to.

Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a

single box of electronics working as both a transmitter and a receiver, or a
transceiver. For example, a cellular telephone is a transceiver.[22] The transmission
electronics and the receiver electronics in a transceiver are actually quite
independent of each other. This can be readily explained by the fact that radio
transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured
in the watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are
measured in the microwatts or nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully
designed and built to isolate their high-power circuitry and their low-power
circuitry from each other.

Telecommunication over telephone lines is called point-to-point communication

because it is between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication

21
through radio broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it is between
one powerful transmitter and numerous low-power but sensitive radio receivers.[22]

Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have

been designed to cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called
multiplex systems.

Analog or digital communications?

Communications signals can be either by analog signals or digital signals. There

are analog communication systems and digital communication systems. For an
analog signal, the signal is varied continuously with respect to the information. In a
digital signal, the information is encoded as a set of discrete values (for example, a
set of ones and zeros). During the propagation and reception, the information
contained in analog signals will inevitably be degraded by undesirable physical
noise. (The output of a transmitter is noise-free for all practical purposes.)
Commonly, the noise in a communication system can be expressed as adding or
subtracting from the desirable signal in a completely random way. This form of
noise is called "additive noise", with the understanding that the noise can be
negative or positive at different instants of time. Noise that is not additive noise is
a much more difficult situation to describe or analyze, and these other kinds of
noise will be omitted here.

On the other hand, unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain
threshold, the information contained in digital signals will remain intact. Their
resistance to noise represents a key advantage of digital signals over analog
signals.]

Communications networks

A communications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and

communications channels that send messages to one another. Some digital
communications networks contain one or more routers that work together to
transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications network

22
consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or more
users.

Communication channels

The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the
physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver.
Examples of this include the atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical
fibers for some kinds of optical communications, coaxial cables for
communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free
space for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light, and
radio waves. This last channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of
radio waves from one place to another has nothing to do with the presence or
absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves travel through a perfect
vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind of
gas besides air.

The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the

phrase communications channel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium
so that it can be used to send multiple streams of information simultaneously. For
example, one radio station can broadcast radio waves into free space at frequencies
in the neighborhood of 94.5 MHz (megahertz) while another radio station can
simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the neighborhood of
96.1 MHz Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a frequency
bandwidth of about 180 kHz (kilohertz), centered at frequencies such as the above,
which are called the "carrier frequencies". Each station in this example is separated
from its adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the difference between 200 kHz and
180 kHz (20 kHz) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the
communication system.

In the example above, the "free space channel" has been divided into
communications channels according to frequencies, and each channel is assigned a
separate frequency bandwidth in which to broadcast radio waves.

23
Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate
each sender a recurring segment of time (a "time slot", for example, 20
milliseconds out of each second), and to allow each sender to send messages only
within its own time slot. This method of dividing the medium into communication
channels is called "time-division multiplexing" (TDM), and is used in optical fiber
communication. Some radio communication systems use TDM within an allocated
FDM channel. Hence, these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM.

Modulation

The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation. Modulation

can be used to represent a digital message as an analog waveform. This is
commonly called "keying" - a term derived from the older use of Morse Code in
telecommunications - and several keying techniques exist (these include phase-
shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and amplitude-shift keying). The "Bluetooth"
system, for example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between
various devices.[26][27] In addition, there are combinations of phase-shift keying and
amplitude-shift keying which is called (in the jargon of the field) "quadrature
amplitude modulation" (QAM) that are used in high-capacity digital radio
communication systems.

Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analog

signals at higher frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog signals
cannot be effectively transmitted over free space. Hence the information from a
low-frequency analog signal must be impressed into a higher-frequency signal
(known as the "carrier wave") before transmission. There are several different
modulation schemes available to achieve this [two of the most basic being
amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM)]. An example of this
process is a disc jockey's voice being impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using
frequency modulation (the voice would then be received on a radio as the channel
"96 FM").[28] In addition, modulation has the advantage of being about to use
frequency division multiplexing (FDM).

24
Society and telecommunication

Telecommunication has a significant social, cultural. and economic impact on

modern society. In 2008, estimates placed the telecommunication industry's
revenue at $3.85 trillion (USD) or just under 3.0 percent of the gross world product
(official exchange rate).[1] The following sections discuss the impact of
telecommunication on society.

Economic impact

Microeconomics

On the microeconomic scale, companies have used telecommunications to help

build global business empires. This is self-evident in the case of online retailer
Amazon.com but, according to academic Edward Lenert, even the conventional
retailer Wal-Mart has benefited from better telecommunication infrastructure
compared to its competitors.[29] In cities throughout the world, home owners use
their telephones to organize many home services ranging from pizza deliveries to
electricians. Even relatively-poor communities have been noted to use
telecommunication to their advantage. In Bangladesh's Narshingdi district, isolated
villagers use cellular phones to speak directly to wholesalers and arrange a better
price for their goods. In Côte d'Ivoire, coffee growers share mobile phones to
follow hourly variations in coffee prices and sell at the best price.

Macroeconomics

On the macroeconomic scale, Lars-Hedrick Röller and Leonard Waver man

suggested a causal link between good telecommunication infrastructure and
economic growth.[31] Few dispute the existence of a correlation although some
argue it is wrong to view the relationship as causal.

Because of the economic benefits of good telecommunication infrastructure, there

is increasing worry about the inequitable access to telecommunication services
amongst various countries of the world—this is known as the digital divide. A
2003 survey by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) revealed that
25
roughly one-third of countries have fewer than one mobile subscription for every
20 people and one-third of countries have fewer than one land-line telephone
subscription for every 20 people. In terms of Internet access, roughly half of all
countries have fewer than one out of 20 people with Internet access. From this
information, as well as educational data, the ITU was able to compile an index that
measures the overall ability of citizens to access and use information and
communication technologies.[33] Using this measure, Sweden, Denmark and
Iceland received the highest ranking while the African countries Nigeria, Burkina
Faso and Mali received the lowest.

Social impact

Telecommunication has played a significant role in social relationships.

Nevertheless' devices like the telephone system were originally advertised with an
emphasis on the practical dimensions of the device (such as the ability to conduct
business or order home services) as opposed to the social dimensions. It was not
until the late 1920s and 1930s that the social dimensions of the device became a
prominent theme in telephone advertisements. New promotions started appealing
to consumers' emotions, stressing the importance of social conversations and
staying connected to family and friends.

Since then the role that telecommunications has played in social relations has
become increasingly important. In recent years, the popularity of social networking
sites has increased dramatically. These sites allow users to communicate with each
other as well as post photographs, events and profiles for others to see. The profiles
can list a person's age, interests, sexuality and relationship status. In this way, these
sites can play important role in everything from organizing social engagements to
courtship.[36]

Prior to social networking sites, technologies like SMS and the telephone also had
a significant impact on social interactions. In 2000, market research group IPOs
MORI reported that 81% of 15 to 24 year-old SMS users in the United Kingdom
had used the service to coordinate social arrangements and 42% to flirt.

26
Other impacts

In cultural terms, telecommunication has increased the public's ability to access to

music and film. With television, people can watch films they have not seen before
in their own home without having to travel to the video store or cinema. With radio
and the Internet, people can listen to music they have not heard before without
having to travel to the music store.

Telecommunication has also transformed the way people receive their news. A
survey by the non-profit Pew Internet and American Life Project found that when
just over 3,000 people living in the United States were asked where they got their
news "yesterday", more people said television or radio than newspapers. The
results are summarized in the following table (the percentages add up to more than
100% because people were able to specify more than one source).[38]

Telecommunication has had an equally significant impact on advertising. TNS

Media Intelligence reported that in 2007, 58% of advertising expenditure in the
United States was spent on mediums that depend upon telecommunication. The
results are summarized in the following table.

Telecommunication and government

Many countries have enacted legislation which conform to the International

Telecommunication Regulations establish by the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU), which is the "leading United Nations agency for information and
communication technology issues."[40] In 1947, at the Atlantic City Conference, the
ITU decided to "afford international protection to all frequencies registered in a
new international frequency list and used in conformity with the Radio
Regulation." According to the ITU's Radio Regulations adopted in Atlantic City,
all frequencies referenced in the International Frequency Registration Board,
examined by the board and registered on the International Frequency List "shall
have the right to international protection from harmful interference."

27
From a global perspective, there have been political debates and legislation
regarding the management of telecommunication and broadcasting. The history of
broadcasting discusses some of debates in relation to balancing conventional
communication such as printing and telecommunication such as radio
broadcasting.[42] The onset of World War II brought on the first explosion of
international broadcasting propaganda.[42] Countries, their governments, insurgents,
terrorists, and militiamen have all used telecommunication and broadcasting
techniques to promote propaganda.[42][43] Patriotic propaganda for political
movements and colonization started the mid 1930s. In 1936, the BBC did
broadcast propaganda to the Arab World to partly counter similar broadcasts from
Italy, which also had colonial interests in North Africa.

Modern insurgents, such as those in the latest Iraq war, often use intimidating
telephone calls, SMSs and the distribution of sophisticated videos of an attack on
coalition troops within hours of the operation. "The Sunni insurgents even have
their own television station, Al-Zawraa, which while banned by the Iraqi
government, still broadcasts from Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan, even as coalition pressure
has forced it to switch satellite hosts several times."

Modern operation

Telephone
Optical fiber provides cheaper bandwidth for long distance communication

In an analog telephone network, the caller is connected to the person he wants to

talk to by switches at various telephone exchanges. The switches form an electrical
connection between the two users and the setting of these switches is determined
electronically when the caller dials the number. Once the connection is made, the
caller's voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small microphone in the
caller's handset. This electrical signal is then sent through the network to the user at
the other end where it is transformed back into sound by a small speaker in that
person's handset. There is a separate electrical connection that works in reverse,
allowing the users to converse.

The fixed-line telephones in most residential homes are analog — that is, the
speaker's voice directly determines the signal's voltage. Although short-distance

28
calls may be handled from end-to-end as analog signals, increasingly telephone
service providers are transparently converting the signals to digital for transmission
before converting them back to analog for reception. The advantage of this is that
digitized voice data can travel side-by-side with data from the Internet and can be
perfectly reproduced in long distance communication (as opposed to analog signals
that are inevitably impacted by noise).

Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks. Mobile phone
subscriptions now outnumber fixed-line subscriptions in many markets. Sales of
mobile phones in 2005 totaled 816.6 million with that figure being almost equally
shared amongst the markets of Asia/Pacific (204 m), Western Europe (164 m),
CEMEA (Central Europe, the Middle East and Africa) (153.5 m), North America
(148 m) and Latin America (102 m). [46] In terms of new subscriptions over the five
years from 1999, Africa has outpaced other markets with 58.2% growth. [47]
Increasingly these phones are being serviced by systems where the voice content is
transmitted digitally such as GSM or W-CDMA with many markets choosing to
depreciate analog systems such as AMPS.[48]

There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the
scenes. Starting with the operation of TAT-8 in 1988, the 1990s saw the
widespread adoption of systems based on optic fibers. The benefit of
communicating with optic fibers is that they offer a drastic increase in data
capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many telephone calls as the
last copper cable laid at that time and today's optic fiber cables are able to carry 25
times as many telephone calls as TAT-8. [49] This increase in data capacity is due to
several factors: First, optic fibers are physically much smaller than competing
technologies. Second, they do not suffer from crosstalk which means several
hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable.[50] Lastly,
improvements in multiplexing have led to an exponential growth in the data
capacity of a single fiber.

Assisting communication across many modern optic fiber networks is a protocol

known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The ATM protocol allows for the
side-by-side data transmission mentioned in the second paragraph. It is suitable for
public telephone networks because it establishes a pathway for data through the

29
network and associates a traffic contract with that pathway. The traffic contract is
essentially an agreement between the client and the network about how the
network is to handle the data; if the network cannot meet the conditions of the
traffic contract it does not accept the connection. This is important because
telephone calls can negotiate a contract so as to guarantee themselves a constant bit
rate, something that will ensure a caller's voice is not delayed in parts or cut-off
completely.[53] There are competitors to ATM, such as Multiprotocol Label
Switching (MPLS), that perform a similar task and are expected to supplant ATM
in the future.[54]

Radio and television

Digital television standards and their adoption worldwide.

In a broadcast system, the central high-powered broadcast tower transmits a high-

frequency electromagnetic wave to numerous low-powered receivers. The high-
frequency wave sent by the tower is modulated with a signal containing visual or
audio information. The receiver is then tuned so as to pick up the high-frequency
wave and a demodulator is used to retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio
information. The broadcast signal can be either analog (signal is varied
continuously with respect to the information) or digital (information is encoded as
a set of discrete values).[22][55]

The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning point in its development, with
many countries moving from analog to digital broadcasts. This move is made
possible by the production of cheaper, faster and more capable integrated circuits.
The chief advantage of digital broadcasts is that they prevent a number of
complaints with traditional analog broadcasts. For television, this includes the
elimination of problems such as snowy pictures, ghosting and other distortion.
These occur because of the nature of analog transmission, which means that
perturbations due to noise will be evident in the final output. Digital transmission
overcomes this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values upon
reception and hence small perturbations do not affect the final output. In a
simplified example, if a binary message 1011 was transmitted with signal
amplitudes [1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0] and received with signal amplitudes [0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9] it
30
would still decode to the binary message 1011 — a perfect reproduction of what
was sent. From this example, a problem with digital transmissions can also be seen
in that if the noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message.

Using forward error correction a receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the
resulting message but too much noise will lead to incomprehensible output and
hence a breakdown of the transmission.[56][57]

In digital television broadcasting, there are three competing standards that are
likely to be adopted worldwide. These are the ATSC, DVB and ISDB standards;
the adoption of these standards thus far is presented in the captioned map. All three
standards use MPEG-2 for video compression.

The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and computer networks that can
communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol. Any computer on the
Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route
information to it. Hence, any computer on the Internet can send a message to any
other computer using its IP address. These messages carry with them the
originating computer's IP address allowing for two-way communication. The
Internet is thus an exchange of messages between computers.

Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks

Despite the growth of the Internet, the characteristics of local area networks
("LANs" - computer networks that do not extend beyond a few kilometers in size)
remain distinct. This is because networks on this scale do not require all the
features associated with larger networks and are often more cost-effective and
efficient without them. When they are not connected with the Internet, they also
have the advantages of privacy and security. However, purposefully lacking a
direct connection to the Internet will not provide 100% protection of the LAN from

31
hackers, military forces, or economic powers. These threats exist if there are any
methods for connecting remotely to the LAN.

There are also independent wide area networks ("WANs" - private computer
networks that can and do extend for thousands of kilometers.) Once again, some of
their advantages include their privacy, security, and complete ignoring of any
potential hackers - who cannot "touch" them. Of course, prime users of private
LANs and WANs include armed forces and intelligence agencies that must keep
their information completely secure and secret.

32
 COVERING LETTER
From:
REUBAN RAJ. A
No. 9 AZIZ NAGAR,
Thiyagaduragam,
Villupuram 606206

TO:

SARANYA Company
87 Delaware Road
Hatfield, CA 08065
(909) 555-5555
george.leon@email.com

Date: 16-12-2010

SUB: Inoder to apply for a job in your organization for the post Financialist.

Respected Madam,

I am writing to apply for the Financialist position advertised in INFOSYS on 08-12-

2010. As requested, I am enclosing a completed job application and my resume.

The opportunity presented in this listing is very interesting, and I believe that my
strong Management experience and education will make me a very competitive
candidate for this position.

33
With a Master of Business Administration, I have a full understanding of the full
life cycle of a Organization and its project. I also have experience in learning and
excelling at new technologies as needed.

Please see my resume for additional information about my details.

I can be reached anytime via email at lijokuriakosemba@gmail.com or my cell

phone, +91-9566840881

Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to speaking with you
about this employment opportunity.

Sincerely,

A. Aslam Baigh

34
 RESUME

A. ASLAM BAIGH
Email Id: shagulhmd6@gmail.com
Contact 9087654321

CARRIER OBJECTIVE

To work in a competitive environment and to give excellent performance in

whatever jobs assigned

ACADEMIC PROFILE

YEAR OF UNIVERSITY /
COURSE INSTITUTION PERCENTAGE
PASSING BOARD
Sengunthar
Engineering Anna
MBA Pursing ............
college, university
tiruchengode
BHARATHIDAS
Jamal Mohamed
B.Com., 2009 AN 58
College, Trichy
UNIVERSITY
Govt. Hr. Sec.
XII 2006 State board 74
school, Panruti
Govt. Hr. Sec.
X 2004 State board 56
school, Panruti

TECHNICAL SKILL SET

35
 Programming Languages : DCA, Tally
Software Packages : Ms-Office

AREA OF INTEREST

 Accountancy

EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

 Member of school ROTARACT club

 Participated in many essay competitions
 Member of school guides.

STRENGTH

 Adaptive to the environment

 Amiability

PERSONAL DETAILS

Date of Birth 18th july 1988

Father’s Name A. ABBAS ALI BAIGH
Marital Status Single
Languages Known English, Tamil, French, Hindi
Residential Address 9, AJIS NAGAR
THIYAGADURAM

36
 VILLUPURAM
Tamil Nadu.
Hobbies Listening Music, Playing Indoor Games

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the information provided by me here are true to my

belief and to best of my knowledge.

Place: TRICHY Yours truly,

(A.ASLAM BAIGH)

37
 Public domain

Works are in the public domain if they are not covered by intellectual property
rights at all, if the intellectual property rights have expired, and/or if the intellectual
property rights are forfeited. Examples include the English language, the formulae
of Newtonian physics, as well as the works of Shakespeare and Beethoven, and the
patents over powered flight.

In a general context public domain may refer to ideas, information and works that
are "publicly available", but in the context of intellectual property law, which
includes copyright, patents and trademarks, public domain refers to works, ideas,
and information which are intangible to private ownership and/or which are
available for use by members of the public.

Defining the public domain

The term public domain did not appear in early copyright law, which was first
established in Britain with the Statute of Anne 1709. Though the concept did exist
and 18th Century British and French jurists used terms such as publici juris or
propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The
phrase "fall in the public domain" can be traced to mid 19th Century France to
describe the end of copyright term. The French poet Alfred de Vigny equated the
expiration of copyright with a work falling "into the sink hole of the public
domain" and if the public domain receives any attention from intellectual property
lawyers it is still treated as little more than that which is left when intellectual
property rights, such as copyright, patents and trademarks, expire or are
abandoned. Copyright law was created by statute and all works created and
published before copyright law was first established are in the public domain. In
this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a "little coral reef of
private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain." Because copyright

38
law is different from country to country Pamela Samuelson has described the
public domain as being "different sizes at different times in different countries".

Definitions of the boundaries of the public domain in relation to copyright, or

intellectual property more generally, regard the public domain as a negative space,
that is, it consist of works that are no longer in copyright term or were never
protected by copyright law. More subtle definitions of the public domain move
beyond those works that no longer receive legal protection under intellectual
property law and incorporates all aspects of works which are not covered by the
intellectual property doctrine, such as insubstantial parts of a copyrighted work or
the statutory defined permitted acts and exceptions to copyright. A less legalistic
definition of the public domain comes from Lange, who focused on what the
public domain should be: "it should be a place of sanctuary for individual creative
expression, a sanctuary conferring affirmative protection against the forces of
private appropriation that threatened such expression". Patterson and Lindberg
described the public domain not as a "territory", but rather as a concept: "There are
certain materials - the air we breathe, sunlight, rain, space, life, creations, thoughts,
feelings, ideas, words, numbers - not subject to private ownership. The materials
that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all to use no less than matter
necessary for biological survival." The term public domain may also be
interchangeably used with other imprecise and/or undefined terms such as the
"public sphere" or "commons", including concepts such as "commons of the
mind", the "intellectual commons" and the "information commons".

Value of the public domain

In attempting to map the public domain Pamela Samuelson has identified eight
“values” that can arise from information and works in the public domain, though
not every idea or work that is in the public domain necessarily has a value.
Possible values include:

 Building blocks for the creation of new knowledge, examples include data,
facts, ideas, theories and scientific principle.

39
  Access to cultural heritage through information resources such as ancient
Greek texts and Mozart’s symphonies.
 Promoting education, through the spread of information, ideas and
scientific principles.
 Enabling follow-on innovation, through for example expired patents and
copyright.
 Enabling low cost access to information without the need to locate the
owner or negotiate rights clearance and pay royalties, through for example
expired copyrighted works or patents, and non-original data compilation.
 Promoting public health and safety, through information and scientific
principles.
 Promoting the democratic process and values, through news, laws,
regulation and judicial opinion.
 Enabling competitive imitation, through for example expired patents and
copyright, or publicly disclosed technologies that do not qualify for patient
protection.
The public domain and derivative works

Derivative works include translations, musical arrangements and dramatizations of

a work, as well as other forms of transformation or adaptation. Copyrighted works
may not be used for derivative works without permission from the copyright
owner, while public domain works can be freely used for derivative works without
permission. Artworks that are public domain may also be reproduced
photographically or artistically or used as the basis of new, interpretive works.
Once works enter into the public domain, derivative works such as adaptations in
book and film may increase noticeably, as happened with Frances Hodgson
Burnett's novel The Secret Garden, which became public domain in 1987. As of
1999, the plays of Shakespeare, all public domain, had been used in more than 420
feature-length films.[18] In addition to straightforward adaptation, they have been
used as the launching point for transformative retellings such as Tom Stoppard's
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead and Troma Entertainment's Tromeo and
Juliet.[19][20][21] Marcel Duchamp's L.H.O.O.Q. is a derivative of Leonardo Da
Vinci's Mona Lisa, one of thousands of derivative works based on the public
domain painting.
40
The public domain, traditional knowledge and folklore

Traditional knowledge includes pre-existing, underlying traditional culture, or

folklore, and literary and artistic works created by current generations of society
which are based on or derived from pre-existing traditional culture or folklore.
Traditional culture and folklore tends to be trans-generational, old and collectively
known and communicated by groups or communities. Often traditional culture and
folklore is of anonymous origin and expressions of this pre-existing traditional
culture is generally not protected by current intellectual property laws and is
treated as being in the public domain. Copyright law, first established for books by
the Statute of Anne 1709, is based on the concept of the individual author. In 18th
century Europe, written culture was regarded as European, while oral culture was
regarded as uncivilised and pre-modern. The concept of "folk-lore" was coined by
William Thomas in 1846, describing "knowledge of the people", and in the late
19th century the fairy tales told by people living in the countryside were collected
and published. While orally transmitted fairy tales were not covered by copyright
law, and hence in the public domain, 18th century copyright law did apply to
written folklore, hence the Brothers Grimm and others who recorded oral folklore
owned the copyright on their publications. In the 20th century, the concept of
authorship was extended to recorded musical works as the phonograph allowed for
the fixation of oral transmissions.

The view that folklore and traditional knowledge were in the public domain and
free for anybody to use was challenged by the newly independent African and
Asian nations of the 1960s, who came under pressure to comply with the 1886
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. African
countries regarded folklore to be part of the "cultural heritage of the African
nations" and the Tunisian 1966 Copyright Act awarded copyright protection to
folklore with the stated aim "to prevent folklore from falling into the hands of third
parties who might wish to exploit them for commercial purposes". At the 1967
Stockholm Conference to amend the Berne Convention, India raised broader
questions of individual authorship, arguing that "...works of folklore might
41
represent the creative efforts of a number of unidentified indigenous authors. They
were therefore not only anonymous works in the sense of the... Berne Convention,
but also joint works, since in nearly all cases they were unfixed and represented a
constantly changing apptern produced by successive performers and authors." As
African nations opposed the inclusion of folklore under the "anonymous works"
category of the Berne Convention, the Australian delegates conceded that "The
whole structure of the Convention was designed to protect the rights of
identifyable authors. With a work of folklore there was no such author".
Eventually, folklore was not integrated into the Berne Convention and therefore its
status is not regulated under international copyright law, though countries may
cover it in national copyright law. The Tulalip Tribes of Washington, United
States, have argued that "...open sharing does not automatically confer a right to
use the knowledge (of indigenous people)... traditional cultural expressions are not
in the public domain because indigenous peoples have failed to take the steps
necessary to protect the knowledge in the Western intellectual property system, but
form a failure of governments and citizens to recognise and respect the customary
laws regulating their use".[28] [dubious – discuss]

Contemporary literary and artistic works based upon, derived from or inspired by
traditional culture or folklore may incorporate new elements or expressions. These
works are generally protected under copyright law as they are regarded as
sufficiently original to be "new" upon publication, and they have a living and
identifiable creator, or creators. Such contemporary works may include a new
interpretation, arrangement, adaptation or collection of pre-existing cultural
heritage that is in the public domain. Traditional culture or folklore may also be
released in digital formats, or restoration and colorization.

The public domain in the Information Society

According to Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault the public domain is under
pressure from the "commodification of information" as items of information that
previously had little or no economic value have acquired independent economic
value in the information age, such as factual data, personal data, genetic
information and pure ideas. The commodification of information is taking place
through intellectual property law, contract law, as well as broadcasting and

42
telecommunications law.[29] The undermining of the public domain, and in
particular limitations and exceptions to copyright by contract law is also an issue
frequently raised by libraries, and library groups such as International Federation
of Library Associations and Institutions.

Public domain in copyrightable works

Works not covered by copyright law

The underlying idea that is expressed or manifested in the creation of a work

generally cannot be the subject of copyright law (see idea-expression divide).
Mathematical formulæ will therefore generally form part of the public domain, to
the extent that their expression in the form of software is not covered by copyright;
however, algorithms can be the subject of a software patent in some jurisdictions.

Works created before the existence of copyright and patent laws also form part of
the public domain. For example, the Bible and the inventions of Archimedes are in
the public domain, but copyright may exist in translations or new formulations of
these works.

Expiration of copyright

The expiration of a copyright is more complex than that of a patent. Historically

the United States has specified terms of a number of years following creation or
publication; this number has been increased several times. Most other countries
specify terms of a number of years following the death of the last surviving
creator; this number varies from one country to another (50 years and 70 years are
the most common), and has also been increased in many of them. See List of
countries' copyright length. Legal traditions differ on whether a work in the public
domain can have its copyright restored. Term extensions by the U.S. and Australia
generally have not removed works from the public domain, but merely delayed the

43
History of economic thought
Wealth of Nations is widely considered to be the first work in modern economics.

The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the
subject that became political economy and economics from the ancient world to
the present day. It encompasses many disparate schools of economic thought.
Greek writers such as the philosopher Aristotle examined ideas about the "art" of
wealth acquisition and questioned whether property is best left in private or public
hands. In medieval times, scholars such as Thomas Aquinas argued that it was a
moral obligation of businesses to sell goods at a just price.

British philosopher Adam Smith is often cited as the father of modern economics
for his treatise The Wealth of Nations (1776).[1] [2] His ideas built upon a
considerable body of work from predecessors in the eighteenth century particularly
the Physiocrats. His book appeared on the eve of the Industrial Revolution with
associated major changes in the economy.[3] Smith's successors included such
classical economists as the Rev. Thomas Malthus, Jean-Baptiste Say, David
Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill. They examined ways the landed, capitalist and
labouring classes produced and distributed national output and modeled the effects
of population and international trade. In London, Karl Marx castigated the
capitalist system, which he described as exploitative and alienating. From about
1870, neoclassical economics attempted to erect a positive, mathematical and
scientifically grounded field above normative politics.

After the wars of the early twentieth century, John Maynard Keynes led a reaction
against what has been described as governmental abstention from economic affairs,
advocating interventionist fiscal policy to stimulate economic demand and growth.
With a world divided between the capitalist first world, the communist second
world, and the poor of the third world, the post-war consensus broke down. Others
like Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek warned of The Road to Serfdom
and socialism, focusing their theories on what could be achieved through better
monetary policy and deregulation. As Keynesian policies seemed to falter in the
1970s there emerged the so called New Classical school, with prominent theorists
such as Robert Lucas and Edward Prescott. Governmental economic policies from
44
the 1980s were challenged, and development economists like Amartya Sen and
information economists like Joseph Stiglitz introduced new ideas to economic
thought in the twenty-first century.

Early economic thought

The earliest discussions of economics date back to ancient times (e.g. Chanakya's
Arthashastra or Xenophon's Oeconomicus). Back then, and until the industrial
revolution, economics was not a separate discipline but part of philosophy. In
Ancient Athens, a slave based society but also one developing an embryonic model
of democracy, Plato's book The Republic contained references to specialization of
labour and production. But it was his pupil Aristotle that made some of the most
familiar arguments, still in economic discourse today.

Aristotle

Aristotle's Politics (c.a. 350 BC) was mainly concerned to analyse different forms
of a state (monarchy, aristocracy, constitutional government, tyranny, oligarchy,
democracy) as a critique of Plato's advocacy of a ruling class of "philosopher-
kings". In particular for economists, Plato had drawn a blueprint of society on the
basis of common ownership of resources. Aristotle viewed this model as an
oligarchical anathema. In Politics, Book II, Part V, he argued that,

"Property should be in a certain sense common, but, as a general rule, private; for,
when everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and
they will make more progress, because every one will be attending to his own
business... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service
to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has
private property. These advantages are lost by excessive unification of the state."

Though Aristotle certainly advocated there be many things held in common, he

argued that not everything could be, simply because of the "wickedness of human
nature". "It is clearly better that property should be private," wrote Aristotle, "but
the use of it common; and the special business of the legislator is to create in men
this benevolent disposition." In Politics Book I, Aristotle discusses the general
nature of households and market exchanges. For him there is a certain "art of

45
acquisition" or "wealth-getting". Money itself has the sole purpose of being a
medium of exchange, which means on its own "it is worthless... not useful as a
means to any of the necessities of life". Nevertheless, points out Aristotle, because
the "instrument" of money is the same many people are obsessed with the simple
accumulation of money. "Wealth-getting" for one's household is "necessary and
honourable", while exchange on the retail trade for simple accumulation is "justly
censured, for it is dishonourable" Aristotle disapproved highly of usury and also
cast scorn on making money through monopoly.

Middle Ages

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) was an Italian theologian and writer on economic

issues. He taught in both Cologne and Paris, and was part of a group of Catholic
scholars known as the Schoolmen, who moved their enquiries beyond theology to
philosophical and scientific debates. In the treatise Summa Theologica Aquinas
dealt with the concept of a just price, which he considered necessary for the
reproduction of the social order. Bearing many similarities with the modern
concept of long run equilibrium a just price was supposed to be one just sufficient
to cover the costs of production, including the maintenance of a worker and his
family. He argued it was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply because
buyers were in pressing need for a product.

Aquinas discusses a number of topics in the format of questions and replies,

substantial tracts dealing with Aristotle's theory. Questions 77 and 78 concern
economic issues, mainly relate to what a just price is, and to the fairness of a seller
dispensing faulty goods. Aquinas argued against any form of cheating and
recommended compensation always be paid in lieu of good service. Whilst human
laws might not impose sanctions for unfair dealing, divine law did, in his opinion.
One of Aquinas' main critics was Duns Scotus (1265–1308) in his work Sententiae
(1295). Originally from Duns Scotland, he taught in Oxford, Cologne and Paris.
Scotus thought it possible to be more precise than Aquinas in calculating a just
price, emphasising the costs of labour and expenses - though he recognised that the
latter might be inflated by exaggeration, because buyer and seller usually have
different ideas of what a just price comprises. If people did not benefit from a
transaction, in Scotus' view, they would not trade. Scotus defended merchants as

46
performing a necessary and useful social role, transporting goods and making them
available to the public.

Thomas Mun

English businessman Thomas Mun (1571–1641) represents early mercantile policy

in his book England's Treasure by Foraign Trade . Although it was not published
until 1663 it was widely circulated as a manuscript before then. He was a member
of the East India Company and also wrote about his experiences there in A
Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies (1621). According to Mun,
trade was the only way to increase England's treasure (i.e., national wealth) and in
pursuit of this end he suggested several courses of action. Important were frugal
consumption to increase the amount of goods available for export, increased
utilisation of land and other domestic natural resources to reduce import
requirements, lowering of export duties on goods produced domestically from
foreign materials, and the export of goods with inelastic demand because more
money could be made from higher prices.

Philipp von Hörnigk

Philipp von Hörnigk (1640–1712, sometimes spelt Hornick or Horneck) was born
in Frankfurt am Main and became an Austrian civil servant writing in a time when
his country was constantly threatened by Ottoman invasion. In Österreich Über
Alles, Wenn Sie Nur Will (1684, Austria Over All, If She Only Will) he laid out one
of the clearest statements of mercantile policy. He listed nine principal rules of
national economy.

"To inspect the country's soil with the greatest care, and not to leave the
agricultural possibilities of a single corner or clod of earth unconsidered... All
commodities found in a country, which cannot be used in their natural state, should
be worked up within the country... Attention should be given to the population, that
it may be as large as the country can support... gold and silver once in the country
are under no circumstances to be taken out for any purpose... The inhabitants
should make every effort to get along with their domestic products... [Foreign
commodities] should be obtained not for gold or silver, but in exchange for other
domestic wares... and should be imported in unfinished form, and worked up

47
within the country... Opportunities should be sought night and day for selling the
country's superfluous goods to these foreigners in manufactured form... No
importation should be allowed under any circumstances of which there is a
sufficient supply of suitable quality at home."

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683) was Minister of Finance under King Louis XIV
of France. He set up national guilds to regulate major industries. Silk, linen,
tapestry, furniture manufacture and wine were examples of the crafts in which
France specialised, all of which came to require membership of a guild to operate
in. These remained until the French revolution. According to Colbert, "It is simply,
and solely, the abundance of money within a state [which] makes the difference in
its grandeur and power."

British enlightenment

Britain had gone through some of its most troubling times through the 17th
century, enduring not only political and religious division in the English Civil War,
King Charles I's execution and the Cromwellian dictatorship, but also the plagues
and fires. The monarchy was restored under Charles II, who had catholic
sympathies, but his successor King James II was swiftly ousted. Invited in his
place were Protestant William of Orange and Mary, who assented to the Bill of
Rights 1689 ensuring that the Parliament was dominant in what became known as
the Glorious revolution. The upheaval had seen a number of huge scientific
advances, including Robert Boyle's discovery of the gas pressure constant (1660)
and Sir Isaac Newton's publication of Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (1687), which described the three laws of motion and his law of
universal gravitation. All these factors spurred the advancement of economic
thought. For instance, Richard Cantillon (1680–1734) consciously imitated
Newton's forces of inertia and gravity in the natural world with human reason and
market competition in the economic world.[11] In his Essay on the Nature of
Commerce in General, he argued rational self interest in a system of freely
adjusting markets would lead to order and mutually compatible prices. Unlike the
mercantilist thinkers however, wealth was found not in trade but in human labour.
The first person to tie these ideas into a political framework was John Locke.

48
 Drunk driving in the United States

Drunk driving is the act of operating and/or driving a motor vehicle while under
the influence of alcohol and/or drugs to the degree that mental and motor skills are
impaired. It is illegal in all jurisdictions within the U.S. The specific criminal
offense is usually called driving under the influence [of alcohol and/or other
drugs] (DUI), and in some states driving while intoxicated (DWI), operating
while impaired (OWI), or operating a vehicle under the influence (OVI). Such
laws may also apply to boating or piloting aircraft. Vehicles can include farm
machinery and horse-drawn carriages.

In the United States the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
estimates that 17,941 people died in 2006 in "alcohol-related" collisions,
representing 40% of total traffic deaths in the US. NHTSA states 275,000 were
injured in alcohol-related accidents in 2003 according to DOT HS 809775, a.k.a.
Traffic Safety Facts 2003. NHTSA defines fatal collisions as "alcohol-related" if
they believe the driver, a passenger, or non-motorist (such as a pedestrian or pedal
cyclist) had a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.01 or greater. NHTSA defines
nonfatal collisions as "alcohol-related" if the accident report indicates evidence of
alcohol present. NHTSA specifically notes that "alcohol-related" does not
necessarily mean a driver or non occupant was tested for alcohol and that the term
does not indicate a collision or fatality was caused by the presence of alcohol. On
average, about 60% of the BAC values are missing or unknown. To analyze what
they believe is the complete data, statisticians simulate BAC information. Drivers
with a BAC of 0.10 are 6 to 12 times more likely to get into a fatal crash or injury
than drivers with no alcohol.

Laws

DUI or DWI are synonymous terms that represent the criminal offense of operating
(or in some jurisdictions merely being in physical control of) a motor vehicle while

49
being under the influence of alcohol or drugs or a combination of both. All states
in the U.S. designate a per se blood or breath alcohol level as the threshold point
for an independent criminal offense. A second criminal offense of driving "under
the influence" or "while impaired" is also usually charged in most states, with a
permissive presumption of guilt where the person's blood alcohol concentration
(BAC) is .08% or greater (units of milligrams per deciliter, representing 8 g of
alcohol in 10 liters of blood). Some states (e.g., Colorado) include a lesser charge,
sometimes referred to as driving while ability impaired (this may apply to
individuals with a .05% or above, but less than the .08 per se limit for the more
serious charge. Wisconsin, however, is the only state that continues to regard first
offense drunk driving arrests as a forfeiture.

The amount of alcohol intake to reach 0.08% may vary with the individual's body
composition and state of health

Prior to increased emphasis on drinking and driving in the 1980s, standards of .

10-.15% were in place. The legal limit for commercial drivers in New York is set
at 0.04%.

Driving under the influence of drugs

The key inquiry focuses on whether the driver's faculties were impaired by the
substance that was consumed. The detection and successful prosecution of drivers
impaired by prescription medication or illegal drugs can therefore be difficult.
Breathalyzers have been developed for the purpose of administering roadside or
laboratory tests that can detect the actual level of a controlled substance in an
individual's body.

Physician reporting

Six states require physicians to report patients who drive while impaired. Another
25 states permit physicians to violate doctor-patient confidentiality to report
impaired drivers, if they so choose. The American Medical Association endorsed
physician reporting in 1999, but deferred to the states on whether such notification
should be mandatory or permissive. An authority on professional confidentiality,

50
Jacob Appel of New York University, has written that physician reporting is a
double-eged sword, because it may deter some patients from seeking care.

Penalties

Many jurisdictions require more serious penalties (such as jail time, larger fines,
longer DUI programs, the installation of ignition interlock devices) in cases where
the driver's BAC is over 0.20, or 0.15 in some places. These additional sanctions
are an attempt to deter and punish the operation of a vehicle at extremely high
BAC levels and the concomitant danger posed to the safety of persons and property
by heavily impaired drivers. As of July 1, 2010, California will implement a pilot
project for DUI sentencing. In two counties, Los Angeles and Alameda, first
offenders convicted of drunk driving will be required to install an ignition interlock
device in their car for a period of five months. Previously, this requirement was
only mandated for second offenders and then for a three year period. California
DMV is now writing guidelines to clear up any ambiguites in the law.

Compared to many other countries, penalties for drunk driving in the United States
are light, unless drink is involved in an incident causing injury or death of others,
in which case they are very heavy compared to other nations. See Driving under
the influence. Some states, such as Wisconsin, do not revoke driving permits even
if the offender is convicted multiple times.

DUI plates

Sample version of Ohio's DUI plate mandated on DUI offenders with limited
driving rights.

In 1967, Ohio began to issue special license plates to DUI offenders who are
granted limited driving privileges such as work-related driving until a court can
rule that they can have full privileges back. However, judges rarely enforced the
plates, so in 2004, the plates became mandated by state law to all DUI offenders.
Unlike Ohio's standard-issue plates (which as of 2008 have a picture of the Ohio
country side), the DUI plates are yellow with red writing with no registration
stickers or graphics. They are sometimes known as "party plates." Minnesota has a

51
similar program, where the plates are white with either blue or black text. The plate
number is a "W", followed by a letter and four numbers.

These plates may be issued to drivers with at least 2 DUIs in a ten-year period. In
Minnesota, DUI plates are referred to as "whiskey plates."

Flying while drunk and related laws

Federal Aviation Regulation 91.17 (14 CFR 91.17) prohibits pilots from flying
aircraft with an alcohol level of 0.04% or more, and/or within eight hours of
consuming alcohol, or while under the impairing influence of any drug. The same
prohibition applies to any other crew members on duty aboard the aircraft (flight
attendants, etc.). Some airlines impose additional restrictions, and many pilots also
impose stricter standards upon themselves. Commercial pilots found to be in
violation of regulations are typically fired or resign voluntarily, and they may lose
their pilot certificates and/or be subject to criminal prosecution under Federal or
State laws, effectively ending their careers.

Similar laws apply to other activities involving transportation; Michigan prohibits

intoxicated bicycling, horseback riding, buggy driving, use of motorized farm
implements, or boating, the latter whether a pilot or passenger, with much the same
threshold of intoxication.

52