Chapter 1 Purposive Communication

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:
 Understand what communication is, the process, elements, communication
models and considerations in ethical communication;
 Analyze communication in a given situations; and
 Exhibits and employed appropriate registers in expressing thoughts and
ideas though either berbal or non-verbal communication.
INTRODUCTION
“To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way
we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our
communication with others.”- Anthony Robbins
Communication in the 21st century has become much complex than it was
decades past. The continuous development in human society allowed for individuals to
form communities. The first development was the appearance of language. Though
limited with grunts and sounds, and gestures, it is by no means null. This allowed for
homo sapiens to collaborate in hunting. The next development was the invention of the
written language. With materials available, communication traversed through time and
space. Knowledge could now be passed and preserved not only through oral tradition
but also through materials available around (e.g. wood, clay, etc.). The third
development that significantly changed communication from the last two developments
was printing. Printing made it possible to make identical copies of documents and
distribute it far and wide. It was considered as the first technology to communication
then. This technology was further developed when communication had been able to
reach distances without physically moving for it to take place. In the past, postal
services and transportation made it possible for artifacts to be delivered to different
places. However, the critical fourth development made communication easier. The
electronic communication like the telegraph to telephone, fax machines and now the
internet revolutionized communication.
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DISCUSSION
All of us are constantly in a state of giving and receiving communications.
Problems arise when one does not receive, or understand, the message sent in the
communication as it was intended, or when one subconsciously sends a nonverbal
message that contradicts the spoken word. This module attempts to help students
understand the importance of good communications skills at school and at work. It will
focus on (1) the understanding of communication and its components, (2) the process
and elements of communication, (3) the principles behind it, and (4) ethics of
communication.
Alexander (1984) further explains that every communicative act is based on

something that conveys meaning, and that conveyance is the message. The message
may be either verbal (spoken or written) or nonverbal (body language, physical
appearance, or vocal tone). Messages may also come from the context—or place and
time—of the communication. For instance, if you choose to make a critical comment to
someone, the place and the time you choose to make that comment will make a big
impact on how it will be received.
Moreover, every message is sent and received through one of our five senses—it
is seen, heard, touched, tasted, or smelled. The sensory media through which
messages are sent and received are communication channels. In a work setting,
messages may be seen through body movement, letters, memos, newsletters, bulletin
board notices, signs, emails, and so on. Messages that are heard come through
conversations, interviews, presentations, telephones, radios, and other audio media.
Sight and sound are the two most frequent communication channels used in our
society.
When the receiver gets the message (through seeing, hearing, feeling, touching,
or smelling), he or she will usually give feedback (return message) unconsciously or
consciously. Thus, the communications process is on-going.
The worst assumption a sender of a message can make is that the message will
be received as intended. So many things can go wrong during the communications
process that we should always assume that something will go wrong and take steps to
prevent that occurrence. Barriers to good communications are always present. For
instance, the language itself can be a barrier—unclear wording, slang, jargon, the tone.
Another barrier is the failure of the sender to realize that his or her body language might
contradict the spoken message. The channel used to convey the message might be
wrong. For instance, you would not use the telephone to relay a lot of statistical
information; you would need to write that message on paper. Poor listening skills can
constitute a barrier also (Alexander, 1984).
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NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
 We are social beings and such; we feel an intense need to express our thoughts,
feelings and aspirations, doubts, questions, and fears. Equally intense is our
need to be listened to. These needs - to express and to be listened to – are basic
or innate in all of us.
 But as Ben Johnson, the English poet, has said, the ability to speak and the
ability to speak well are two different things.
 Speaking well is comparable to any skill in the sense that it can be developed
and enhanced. All that you have to do is expose yourself to various speaking
situations. Listen well and study how effective speakers express themselves.
 As much as 75% of the average person‘s day is spent communicating.
 Those in technical jobs are estimated to spend between 50% and 90% of their
work day engaged in communication process.
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communication is a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an
attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire
of skills:
a) Intrapersonal and interpersonal processing
b) Listening
c) Observing
d) Speaking
e) Questioning
f) Analyzing
g) Evaluating
2. It can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels

of semiotic rules:
a) Syntactic
b) Pragmatic
c) Semantic
3. It is therefore a social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a

common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules.
4. The Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary defines communication, as the act

of passing news, information…, the act of sharing or exchanging thoughts,
ideas, feelings with others or with a group; the act of participating with or sharing
in common, the ―we-belong-to-same-feeling‖ as in communication with…
or the act of thinking about oneself.
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5. Communication is derived from the Latin word “communis” which means,

“belonging to many” or “equally” and “communico” – to confer with others. It is
the mutual exchange of information, ideas, and understanding by any effective
means (Ballesterros, 2003).
6. Communication refers to the process of human beings responding to the

symbolic behavior of other persons (Adler and Rodman, 1997).
a) Communication is Human.
b) Communication is a Process.
c) Communication is Symbolic.
7. The communication done by animals is relatively different from humans. The

manner by which we communicate or use different gestures, facial expression,
etc. to communicate is different from the dance that is done by bees to instruct
their hive-mates on the location of food or the chimpanzees that have been
taught to express themselves using sign language like deaf humans.
8. We often talk about communication as if it occurred in discrete, individual acts. In

fact communication is a continuous, ongoing process. Consider, for example, a
friend‘s compliment about your appearance. Your interpretation of those words
will depend on a long series of experiences stretching far back in time: how have
others judged your appearance? How do you feel about your looks? How honest
has your friend been in the past? How have you been feeling about one another
recently? All of this history will help shape your response to the other person‘s
remark. In turn, the words you speak and the way you say them will shape the
way your friend behaves toward you and others- both in this situation and in the
future.
9. Symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas, or events in ways that
make communication possible. The most significant feature of symbols is their
arbitrary nature. For example, there‘s no logical reason why the letters in book
should stand for the object you‘re reading in class. Speakers of Spanish call it a
libro, and Germans label it a Buch. Even in English, another term would work just
as well as long as everyone agreed to use it in the same way. We overcome the
arbitrary nature of symbols by linguistic rules and customs. Effective
communication depends on agreement among people about these rules. This is
easiest to see when we observe people who don‘t follow linguistic conventions.
For example, recall how unusual the speech of children and immigrant speakers
of a language sounds.
10. In addition to this, nonverbal communication can have symbolic meaning. As with
words, some nonverbal behaviors, though arbitrary, have clearly agreed- upon
meanings. For example, to most North Americans placement of a thumb and first
finger together while facing the palm of the hand outward stands for the idea of
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something being ―OK.‖ But even more than words, many nonverbal
behaviors are ambiguous. Does a frown signify anger or unhappiness? Does a
hug stand for a friendly greeting or a symbol of the hugger‘s romantic interest in
you? One can‘t always be sure (Adler and Rodman, 1997).
Other Concepts of Communication

1. Allen Louis – Communication is the sum of all things (telling, listening and
understanding). It is a systematic activity under any given circumstances.
2. Henry Kuntz – Communication is the transferring of information from one person
to another whether or not he/she elicits that confidence.
3. George Terry – Communication is the exchange of ideals, feelings, and emotions
between two or more persons.
4. Keith Davis – The purpose of passing information and understanding between
two persons… without the bridge of communication no one can cross the river of
understanding.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO MODE

A message may be impart through these types; verbal-non-verbal and visual.
While communication is often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is equally
essential as it enhances one’s message.
A. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
 (Linguistics) The process of sending and receiving messages with words,
including writing and sign language.
 It refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted
verbally.
 Communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION: ORAL

a) Spoken words are used
b) It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation,
video, radio, television, voice over internet.
c) Communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.
Verbal Communication: Oral- Advantages

 It brings quick feedback.
 In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body
language one can guess whether he/she should trust what‘s being said or
not.
 It saves time in communication.
 It is quick in obtaining feedback once delivered.
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 It provides complete understanding of communication delivered and there

is chance to make it clearer in case of doubts in interpretation of words or
ideas.
 It is more reliable method of communication.
 It is flexible and effective for all.
 It is powerful means of persuasion and control.
 It is cheaper way of communication and hence saves money.
Verbal Communication: Oral- Disadvantages

 It has issues when communicating with distant people.
 It is difficult for certain people to understand speech due to various speech
tones used in verbal communication.
 This form of communication is not suitable for lengthy message.
 There is chance of leak of secret information with the help of modern
devices such as polygraph or lie detector. Often secret information can be
obtained while the person is under the influence of alcohol
VERBAL COMMUNICATION: WRITTEN

a) In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to
communicate.
b) In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter,
report, memo etc.
c) Written communication is most common form of communication being
used in business.
Verbal Communication: Written- Advantages

 Messages can be edited and revised
 Written communication provide record and backup.
 A written communication enables receiver to fully understand it and send
appropriate feedback
 Easy to preserve: The documents of written communication are easy to
preserve. Oral and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved. If it is
needed, important information can be collected from the preserved
documents.
 Easy presentation of complex matter: Written communication is the best
way to represent any complex matter easily and attractively.
 Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a
permanent record. When it is needed, important information can be easily
collected from the preserved documents.
 Prevention of wastage of time and money: Written communication
prevents the waste of money and time. Without meeting with each other
the communicator and communicate can exchange their views.
 Accurate presentation: Through the documents of the written
communication top executive can present the information more accurately
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and clearly. As it is a legal document everybody takes much care does

draft it.
 Use as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used as
future reference.
 Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to
delegate the power and authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossible
to delegate power without a written document.
 Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily. That
is why; all the important issues of an organization should be back and
white.
 Effective communication: Written communication helps to make
communication effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of
other forms of communication.
 Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of
both the person and the organization. It also protects the images of the
company or organization.
 Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system.
There is no opportunity to include any unnecessary information in a written
document.
 Less distortion possibility: In this communication system information is
recorded permanently. So, there is less possibility of distortion and
alteration of the information.
 No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any opportunity to misinterpret the
information or messages of written communication.
 Controlling tool: Written communication can help to control the
organizational activity. The written document may be used as a tool for
controlling.
 Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be
verified easily. If there arises any misunderstanding any party can easily
verify the information.
 Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of
risk, Creating confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or coverage etc.
Verbal Communication: Written- Disadvantages

 Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. For this
communication paper, pen, ink, typewriter, computer and a large number
of employees are needed.
 Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with
others. It is a time consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both the
writer and the reader.
 Red-Taoism: Red-Taoism is one of the most disadvantages of written
communication. It means to take time for approval of a project.
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 Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written

communication is quite impossible. This is major disadvantage written
communication.
 Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business
secrecy. Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written
communication. Because here needs to discuss everything in black and
white.
 Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at
any time. Lack of flexibility is one of the most important limitations of
written communication.
 Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message
receiver; prompt response is not possible in case of written
communication that is possible in oral communication.
 Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to
communicate with all the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot
take decisions quickly.
 Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the
records in written communication.
 Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a
message. It becomes difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the
objectives of the communication may lose.
 Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and
the reader, writer communication cannot help to establish a direct relation
between them.
 Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude,
Understanding problem between boos and subordinates, lack in quick
clarification and correction, formality problem, lack of personal intimacy,
etc.
B. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
1. Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless
messages. Such gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial
expressions is called nonverbal communication.
2. It is all about the body language of speaker.
It has the elements of:
 Appearance (speaker) - Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of
cosmetics; Appearance (surrounding) – room size, lighting,
decorations, furnishings
 Body language - facial expressions, gestures, postures
 Sounds - voice tone, volume, speech rate
C. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
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1. Visual communication, on the other hand, is the type of communication

that uses visuals to convey information and/or messages. Some examples
are signs, symbol, imagery, maps, graphs, charts, diagrams, pictograms,
photos, drawings or illustrations, and even various forms of electronic
communication.
2. Visual communication now occupies an important place in any work
environment. For instance, during presentations, instructors, managers,
doctors, lawyers, legislators and the like use visuals to transfer data into
digestible information. Very likely, they have greater success in catching
the attention of the audience making the latter easily recall the information.
Verbal Communication: Visual- Advantages

 It makes use of technology that provides apps( applications), videos and
images that rely less on the printed word making presentations more
interesting. This leaves a powerful effect on the audience and prospective
clients.
 Speakers/presenters should be mindful of the content of their presentation
since wrong and irrelevant information may lead to miscommunication.
Likewise, they should pay attention to graphic elements, such as position,
color, size, shape and orientation as all these play an important role in the
presentation of slides. Audience size should be considered as well when
preparing slide presentations or other forms of visuals.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO CONTEXT
This sub-section, context in communication is referred to as composite of people

interacting with each other. Communication may also be classified according to context:
(1) intrapersonal; (2) interpersonal.
A. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
a) The Latin prefixes intra-means within or inside. Intrapersonal
communication then means talking to oneself. Some label it as self or
inner talk, inner dialogue. Psychologists call it with other names such as
self-verbalization or self-statement.
b) Intrapersonal communication can be defined also as communication with

one‗s self, and that may include self-talk, acts of imagination and
visualization, and even recall and memory (McLean, 2005).
c) Communications expert Leonard Shedletsky examined intrapersonal

communication through the eight basic components of the communication
process (i.e., source, receiver, message, channel, feedback, environment,
context, and interference) as transactional, but all the interaction occurs
within the individual (Shedletsky, 1989). From planning to problem solving,
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internal conflict resolution, and evaluations and judgments of self and

others, we communicate with ourselves through intrapersonal
communication. All this interaction takes place in the mind without
externalization, and all of it relies on previous interaction with the external
world.
B. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
a) Interpersonal communication can be defined as communication between
two people, but the definition fails to capture the essence of a relationship.
This broad definition is useful when we compare it to intrapersonal
communication, or communication with ourselves, as opposed to mass
communication, or communication with a large audience, but it requires
clarification. The developmental view of interpersonal communication
places emphasis on the relationship rather than the size of the audience,
and draws a distinction between impersonal and personal interactions.
Family for many is the first experience in interpersonal relationships, but
as we develop professionally, our relationships at work may take on many
of the attributes we associate with family communication. We look to each
other with similar sibling rivalries, competition for attention and resources,
and support. The workplace and our peers can become as close, or
closer, than our birth families, with similar challenges and rewards. To
summarize, interpersonal relationships are an important part of the work
environment.
THE PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
In a survey conducted by the Katz Business School at the University of Pittsburg,

organizations rated communication skills as the most important factor used in selecting
their management staff. The study found that oral and written communication skills were
important in predicting job success, as was the ability to communicate well with others
in the workplace (Mtd Training, 2010).
This result makes sense after all since communication is innate to us. Therefore
for us to be able to communicate well is important. If we are not able to communicate
well, the messages we send get lost in translation (Mtd Training, 2010). Similarly,
Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) stated that when the flow of information is blocked
for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then
communication fails.
We must consider a deeper understanding of the process and elements of

communication. Communication process may be simple to complex depending on the
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situation. To understand the process there is a need to know the elements or

components of the process.
A. COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. SPEAKER/ SENDER
 A person who sends the message
 A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphs or visual aids) to
convey the message and produce required response.
 Sender maybe an individual or a group or an organization
 The views, background, approach, skills, competencies and
knowledge of the sender have great impact on the message.
 The communication process begins with the sender, who is also
called the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of
information
 a command, request, or idea – that he or she wants to share with
others. In order for the message to be received, the sender must
first encode the message in a form that can be understood and
then transmit it.
2. MESSAGE
 Is the key idea that the sender wants to communicate
 It is a sign that elicits the response of the recipient.
 Communication process begins with decoding about the message
to be conveyed.
 It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.
 Message is what you communicate verbally or non –verbally
 The message or content is the information that the sender wants to
relay to the receiver. It is relayed between the parties. Put all three
together and you have the communication process at its most
basic.
 It also refers to the thoughts, ideas, or information that you convey
to your listeners.
Verbal delivery of messages includes: Elements of voice (rate,

volume, pitch, and quality), Articulation, and Pronunciation
Verbal message consists of three variables: Content (is

everything you say about something: referential or relational) Ref-
all relevant to your topic; Rel – a suggestion of any relationship to
your listeners, Structure ( the pattern of organization you follow and
Style (how you express your ideas).
3. RECEIVER OR LISTENER
 A person for whom the message is intended, aimed or targeted
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 The degree to which the decoder understands the message is

dependent upon various factors such as: knowledge of recipient,
their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of the
encoder on the decoder.
 The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or
the interpreter. In order to comprehend the information from the
sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender‘s
information and then decode or interpret it.
4. FEEDBACK
 Is the main component of the communication process as it permits
the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message?
 It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of
message by the decoder.
 Feedback maybe verbal or non-verbal.
 The communication process reaches its final point when the
message has been successfully transmitted, received, and
understood.
 The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating
comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as written or verbal
response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response.
 The communication process is not always simple or smooth, of
course. Two other elements may affect how the message is
transmitted, received, and interpreted.
5. NOISE
 This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being
sent, received, or understood. It can be as literal as static over a
phone line or esoteric as misinterpreting a local custom.
6. SITUATION or CONTEXT
 It refers to the time and place in which communication occurs
 This is the setting and situation in which communication takes
place. Like noise, context can have an impact of the successful
exchange of information. It may have a physical, social, or cultural
aspect to it.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The goal of communication is to convey information—and the understanding of

that information—from one person or group to another person or group. This
communication process is divided into three basic components: A sender transmits a
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message through a channel to the receiver. (Figure shows a more elaborate model.)
The sender first develops an idea, which is composed into a message and then
transmitted to the other party, who interprets the message and receives meaning.
Information theorists have added somewhat more complicated language. Developing a
message is known as encoding. Interpreting the message is referred to as decoding.
The other important feature is the feedback cycle. When two people interact,
communication is rarely one‐way only. When a person receives a message, she
responds to it by giving a reply. The feedback cycle is the same as the sender‐receiver
feedback noted in Figure 1. Otherwise, the sender can't know whether the other parties
properly interpreted the message or how they reacted to it. Feedback is especially
significant in management because a supervisor has to know how subordinates
respond to directives and plans. The manager also needs to know how work is
progressing and how employees feel about the general work situation.
The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is common

understanding. Understanding exists when all parties involved have a mutual
agreement as to not only the information, but also the meaning of the information.
Effective communication, therefore, occurs when the intended message of the sender
and the interpreted message of the receiver are one and the same. Although this should
be the goal in any communication, it is not always achieved.
The most efficient communication occurs at a minimum cost in terms of

resources expended. Time, in particular, is an important resource in the communication
process. For example, it would be virtually impossible for an instructor to take the time
to communicate individually with each student in a class about every specific topic
covered. Even if it were possible, it would be costly. This is why managers often leave
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voice mail messages and interact by e‐mail rather than visit their subordinates
personally.
However, efficient time‐saving communications are not always effective. A low‐

cost approach such as an e‐mail note to a distribution list may save time, but it does not
always result in everyone getting the same meaning from the message. Without
opportunities to ask questions and clarify the message, erroneous interpretations are
possible. In addition to a poor choice of communication method, other barriers to
effective communication include noise and other physical distractions, language
problems, and failure to recognize nonverbal signals.
Sometimes communication is effective, but not efficient. A work team leader

visiting each team member individually to explain a new change in procedures may
guarantee that everyone truly understands the change, but this method may be very
costly on the leader's time. A team meeting would be more efficient. In these and other
ways, potential tradeoffs between effectiveness and efficiency occur. (―The
Communication Process, n.d.).
The Communication Process and Models
Figure 2: Aristotle’s Model of Communication (1)
Aristotle proposed the model before 300 B.C. He found the importance of the
audience role in communication chain. This model is more focused on public speaking
than interpersonal communication. Aristotle‘s Model of Communication is formed with
five (5) basic elements, namely: 1. Speaker, 2. Speech, 3. Occasion, 4. Audience, and
5. Effect.
Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time
(occasion) and for different effect.
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Aristotle’s Model of Communication (2)
Aristotle defined communication (called RHETORIC in his time) as ―the

faculty of observing, in any given case, the available means of persuasion.‖ The model
shows the process which the speaker must follow to communicate his idea or message
to his intended listener. This process involves four steps:
a) A Speaker discovers some logical, emotional and ethical proofs;

b) He arranges these materials strategically;
c) He clothes the ideas in clear, compelling words; and
d) He delivers the resulting speech appropriately.
The Aristotelian model is SPEAKER-CENTERED. But, of course, during his time,

the emphasis was the training of speakers – public speakers called orators, skillful in
the art of reasoning and persuasion.
Shannon’s Model
This model argues that communication can be broken down into 6 key concepts:
sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver. A later version of the theory by
Warren Weaver added a 7th concept (‗feedback‘) which changed the model from a
linear to cyclical model (Drew, 2020).
Figure 3: Shannon’s Model of Communication
It is known as the ―mother of all models because of its wide popularity. The
model is also known as information theory or the Shannon theory because Shannon
was the main person who developed the theory.
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The model‘s primary value is in explaining how messages are lost and distorted
in the process of communication (Drew, 2020).
Shannon-Weaver Model
Drew, C. (2020) explains that the Shannon-Weaver model follows the concept of
communication in a linear fashion from sender to receiver with the following steps:
Figure 5:
Shannon- Weaver Model of Communication
1. Sender (Information Source)

The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or object, or thing) who has
the information to begin with (the information source‘). The sender starts the process
by choosing a message to send, someone to send the message to, and a channel
through which to send the message.
A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally (through
spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc.
2. Encoder (Transmitter)
The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can
be sent from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed originally
to explain communication through means such as telephone and computers which
encode our words using codes like binary digits or radio waves.
However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken words,
written words, or sign language to communicate an idea to someone.
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3. Channel
The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the
sender and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call
this the medium.
4. Noise
Noise interrupts a message while it‘s on the way from the sender to the receiver.
It‘s named after the idea that noise could interrupt our understanding of a message.
There are two types of noise: internal and external.
Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a

receiver makes a mistake decoding the message. Here‘s the two points where it
can happen: At the point of encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a
text message); At the point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets
a sentence when reading an email).
External noise happens when something external (not in the control of sender or
receiver) impedes the message. So, external noise happens: at the point of
transmission through the channel (for example, when we‘re having a conversation
by a busy highway and the receiver is having trouble hearing over the sound of
cars)
One of the key goals for people who use this theory is to identify the causes of
noise and try to minimize them to improve the quality of the message.
5. Decoder
Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this
model in reference to communication that happens through devices like
telephones. So, in this model, there usually needs to be a device that decodes a
message from binary digits or waves back into a format that can be understood by
the receiver.
If we‘re talking about direct communication between people without the use of
technology, there may still be a need for decoding. For example, you might need to
decode a secret message, turn written words into something that makes sense in
your mind by reading them out loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the
meaning behind a picture that was sent to you.
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6. Receiver (Destination)
The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and Weaver‘s original linear framework.
This is the step where the person finally gets the message, or what‘s left of it after
accounting for noise.
7. Feedback
The feedback step was not originally proposed by Shannon and Weaver in 1948.
Norbert Weiner came up with the feedback step in response to criticism of the
linear nature of the approach. (Linear means that the messages are only going one
way).
Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in
order to close the communication loop. They might respond to let the sender know
they got the message or to show the sender: whether they got the message clearly
without noise or how well they understand the message
Nonetheless, the feedback elements seems like a post-hoc add-on to the

model, and is the subject of a lot of criticism (see later in this article on
disadvantages of the model‘ for details).
Some times when feedback will occur include:

 During a chat between friends
 When you write a reply email
 Through your facial expressions and body language during a conversation
Etc.
BERLOS’ SMCR MODEL
Berlo‘s model follows the SMCR model. This model is not specific to any
particular communication. Berlo‘s model includes a number of factors under each of the
elements:
Source: The source is situated where the message originates.
a) Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate.

For example, the ability to read, write, speak, listen etc.
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b) Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and

towards oneself. For example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more
and for teachers, it is to help teach.
c) Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be
knowledgeable about the subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to
know about the subject in detail that he or she teaches so that they can
communicate properly such that the students understand here.
d) Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of
society like values, beliefs, culture, religion and a general understanding of
society. It is where the communication takes place.
For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people‘s
behaviours and how they communicate, etc.
e) Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social
system.
Note: according to this model, people can communicate only if the above
requirements are met in the proper or adequate proportion.
f) Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message

originates, is referred to as the encoder. So the source encodes the
message here.
Message
a) Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its
content. For example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from
beginning to end, is the content of the message.
b) Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language,

etc. They constitute all the elements of a particular message. Any content is
accompanied by some elements.
c) Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the
message is conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.
d) Structure – The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way
people structure the message into various parts.
e) Code – The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent
and in what form. It could be, for example, language, body language, gestures,
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music, etc. Even culture is a code. Through this, people give and receive
messages and communication takes place.
Channel - It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses: hearing,
seeing, touching, smelling and tasting. Communication occurs through one or more of
these channels.
Decoder – the person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a
decoder.
Receiver – the receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so
as to communicate/responds to sender effectively.
Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source
and the receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or
take place properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.
For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver
should have equally good listening skills.
It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because
even though he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For
effective communication, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level.
Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:
1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.

2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to
happen. However, that rarely happens in everyday life.
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7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense
as a channel of communication, which is an asset to human beings
(thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.)
Figure 5: Berlo’s Model of Communication
SCHRAMM’S MODEL, 1954
Figure 6: Schramm’s Model of Communication
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Janse (2019) in his article explains that the Schramm Communication Model is a
cyclical communication model containing all basic principles of communication. The
Schramm Communication Model offers a classic approach to and explanation of
communication. It can be used to determine how communication between two people
works when they‘re exchanging information, ideas, or attitudes.
The cyclical communication model is based on the theory and belief that
communication is a two-way street. This means there‘s at least a sender and a
recipient. The model contains at least one other element as well; the message itself.
Usually communication takes places along the traditional path with a wasteful recipient
and sender. The recipient and sender can also be one and the same. This is called
intra-personal communication. The former is called interpersonal communication.
Where several other models and theories about communication are linear in nature, the
Schramm Communication Model is circular. This means at least two parties are
required to send and receive a message. Both the sender and the recipient have to
encode and decode the message to interpret the message correctly.
Wilbur Schramm published the circular communication model in 1954, several

years after Lasswell‘s communication model was published. Schramm wrote and spoke
about the communication model—based on the model by Charles Egerton Osgood— in
his book “The Process and Effects of Mass Communication”. He later made some
changes, including introducing the field of experience, or commonality. This refers to
what is mutually understood between the recipient and the sender. A physics professor
can teach mathematical principles to a class of psychology students, but it won‘t be
easy as the students don‘t share a field of experience that would have made it easier to
understand the message.
According to the Schramm Communication Model, communication is circular and

the sender and recipient of the message can be the same person. A message is
encrypted and passed on to the same person or to a different person. It is up to the
recipient to decrypt the message, interpret it, and then encode it again before sending
the message to a new recipient (circular). There is no fourth element, such as the in
Berlo‘s SMCR communication model. The three elements found in the model of
Schramm are Source, Recipient and Message.
Source (Encoder)
The source of the message is the sender; the party who sent the message. The
source has to be clear when sending the message and has to be able to show why it is
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important that the recipient reads it. This is why the sender of a message has to make
sure that the information he is providing is useful, relevant, and accurate.
In order to ensure that the recipient can properly read the message, it has to be
encoded. This means it is necessary for the recipient to know the sender. The success
of the attempt at communication will depend on the ability to bring across the
information in a simple but clear way. The way in which the message is encoded is
influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and
skills.
Recipient (Decoder)
The recipient of a message is the person or group to whom the message has
been sent. Whether the recipient is able to decode the message depends on a number
of factors. For instance, how much does the individual know about the topic of the
message, but also how open are they for a message and do they trust the source. The
interpretations of the recipient are influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions,
knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills as well.
Decoding a message is a psychological process. After the message has been

received, the stimulus is immediately sent to the brain for interpretation. This is where
the message is given meaning, if at all. This processing phase is also called decoding.
Communication is successful when the recipient correctly interprets the message from
the source.
Message
In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a message is defined as

information. This information is communicated through words or other characters and
symbols. A message, either verbal or non-verbal, is the content of the communication
process and plays an important role in the Schramm Communication Model.
A message may contain verbal content, such as speech, sign language, emails,
WhatsApp messages, or phone calls. A message can also consist of non-verbal
content, such as behavior, gestures, body language, eye contact, physical contact,
timing, and even artifacts.
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Feedback and Organizations
Although it‘s not clearly indicated in the Schramm Communication Model,

recipients play an important role throughout the communication process. They are not
only supposed to absorb the message, but they also receive the message and respond
to it. The reply from the recipient to the sender‘s message is called feedback. Feedback
can be both verbal and non-verbal. Sometimes it‘s a verbal response, sometimes it‘s
just a sigh or a nod. Feedback is often expressed in writing, an email for instance.
Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the audience has received the
message. This enables the sender to improve the effectiveness of the way messages
are composed and sent. If the audience doesn‘t understand the message, the source of
the message can refine it based on the feedback.
It‘s essential for effective communication in an open communication environment

to offer the opportunity to provide feedback. A manager in a business environmen t
should therefore create an atmosphere that stimulates feedback. Questions such as “Do
you get it?” and “What do you think?”, should be asked a lot more regularly.
Moreover, organizations can gather feedback from employees in countless ways;
surveys, open-door policy, newsletters, memos, and meetings.
Universal Law of Communication
One of the first people who came up with a communication theory was Aristotle.
A number of thinkers followed in his footsteps, including Lasswell, Berlo, and Shannon
& Weaver. There is one universal law of communication that applies to all these
theories, and it was written by S.F. Scudder in 1980. Scudder wrote that all living beings
on planet earth have the ability to communicate. Communication takes place through
different means, such as physical changes, language, breathing, movements, sounds,
or by changing color.
In this law of communication, Scudder emphasized that communication was an

essential survival tool for creatures, as well as enabling them to share information about
their presence and conditions. According to the universal law of communication,
communication is used to express biological needs as well as feelings, thoughts, and
other kinds of information that are necessary to bring across the condition of a living
creature.
As in the Schramm Communication Model encoding and decoding also happens

in the universal law of communication. In this law the recipient does the decoding. The
universal law of communication also states that the communication process can be
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interrupted in a number of ways. The reason for this is barriers. Barriers can alter the
meaning of a message and lead to the recipient interpreting it incorrectly.
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Transactional model of communication is the exchange of messages between

sender and receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages.
Figure 7: Transactional Model of Communication
Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role
reverses each time in the communication process as both processes of sending and
receiving occurs at the same time.
The communicators can be humans or machines but humans are taken as

communicators in this article to analyze general communication between humans. The
model is mostly used for interpersonal communication and is also called circular model
of communication.
Transactional model is the process of continuous change and transformation

where every component is changing such as the people, their environments and the
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medium used. Due to this, it assumes the communicators to be independent and act
any way they want.
Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep the communication alive in
transactional model, the communicators are also interdependent to each other. For
example, transactional communication is not possible if the receiver is not listening to
sender.
The transactional model is the most general model of communication. Everyday

talk and interactions are also a form of transactional model communication. It is more
efficient for communicators with similar environment and individual aspects. For
instance, communication between people who know each other is more efficient as they
share same social system.
In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communicated message also

depends on the medium used. For example, the same message might not be perceived
by a person the same way when it is send through a phone and when it is provided face
to face. It is because of possible loss of message on a phone call or absence of
gestures.
Factors Affecting Transactional Model
There are many factors directly or indirectly affecting the communication process
in transaction model. These can be environmental noise or communication barriers.
Environmental Noises can be Physical noise, physiological noise or psychological
noise.
Transactional model relates communication to social reality of an individual or a

group of people in social, cultural and relational contexts. Their responses cannot be
predicted because they all have different backgrounds and mental conditions.
Communication pattern depends on various factors such as physical, cultural,
environmental, social, psychological, emotional, etc.
Cultural systems, social systems and relational situations are the most over-
powering elements of the communication in transactional model, while physical and
psychological context has considerable effect on the communication, enhancing or
undermining it.
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Social Context
Social context in communication refers to the norms, values, laws and

other restrictions of a society to communicate within a specific limit. It also
includes rules that bind people‘s ability to communicate. Society shapes the way
a person communicates. Some of the examples are: greeting people when
meeting, thanking, apologizing, etc.
People can also learn communication from trial and error method, and its
consequences ranges from social exclusion to embarrassment. This model also
adds that it‘s not just social reality that help people in the communication process
but communication also shapes self and social reality in return. Communication is
not only for exchanging messages but also to create and establish relationship
helping people in the formation of a community.
Cultural Context
Cultural context is the lifestyle and identity of a person. Caste, class, race,
ethnicity, gender, etc are the contexts which promotes communication. If two
people are from the same cultural group, they will have better communication
with each other.
Cultural identities are made by communication. It changes the

communication pattern of a person. Marginalization of cultural groups oppresses
their communication with the other parts of the society. People become unsure of
themselves when they communicate with intercultural groups. Some people also
take it as unacceptable.
People have a closed mindset about the other groups of people they
communicate with displaying the trait of Ethnocentrism. Experiences, attitudes,
moods, cultural beliefs, social up-bringing, mindset, their sense of reality and
many other factors affect the responses and the message exchange.
Relational Context
Relational context of communication relates to relationship history and

manners. A person talks with an old friend differently than a stranger. Manners
take the role of communication when it is with strangers. Manners come from
pre-established norms and values, and are more scripted making interaction
difficult. Type of relationship and the roles of people create differences in the way
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people communicate. Communication always occurs on the common systems of

both the parties.
Criticisms of Transactional Model
1. Without verbal response, the sender can not be sure that the receiver got the
message as intended. Feedback is an important component in the communication
process, especially in interpersonal communication as it gives a space to clarify
misunderstandings.
2. The transactional model gives the opportunity for a lot of noise because the
communication is simultaneous. For example, when many people are talking at the
same time in a meeting, the objective of the meeting will not be fulfilled.
Differences between Transactional and other Communication Models
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OTHER MODELS

Used for interpersonal communication Used for Intrapersonal, interpersonal,
group or mass communications.
Senders and Receivers are known as Senders and receivers are different
Communicators, they interchange people
their
Roles
Includes the role of context and Role of context and environment are
environment not mentioned in other models
Includes noise and communication Not necessarily have the concept of
barriers as factors noise
Talks about non-verbal Ignores non-verbal communication
communication
Simultaneous feedback Feedback comes later in interaction
model and is not included in linear
model
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication follows a set of rule or guidelines to ensure its effectiveness. The

following principles if assimilated will facilitate communication and render it effective.
1. Principle of Clarity: the idea or message to be communicated should be clearly

spelt out. It should be worded in such a way that the receiver understands the
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same thing which the sender wants to convey. There should be no ambiguity in the
message. It should be kept in mind that the words do not speak themselves but the
speaker gives them the meaning. A clear message will evoke the same response
from the other party. It is also essential that the receiver is conversant with the
language, inherent assumptions, and the mechanics of communication.
2. Principle of Attention: In order to make communication effective, the receiver‘s
attention should be drawn towards message. People are different in behavior,
attention, emotions etc. so they may respond differently to the message.
Subordinates should act similarly as per the contents of the message. The acts of a
superior also draw the attention of subordinates and they may follow what they
observe. For example, if a superior is very punctual in coming to the office then
subordinates will also develop such habits. It is said that ‗actions speak louder
than words.
3. Principle of Feedback: the principle of feedback is very important to make the
communication effective. There should be feedback information from the recipient
to know whether he has understood the message in the same sense in which the
sender has meant it.
4. Principle of Informality: formal communication is generally used for transmitting
messages and other information. Sometimes formal communication may not
achieve the desired results, informal communication may prove effective in such
situations. Management should use informal communication for assessing the
reaction of employees towards various policies. Senior management may
informally convey certain decisions to the employees for getting their feedback. So
this principle states that informal communication is as important as formal
communication.
5. Principle of Consistency: this principle states that communication should always
be consistent with the policies, plans, programs and objectives of the organization
and not in conflict with them. If the messages and communications are in conflict
with the policies and programs then there will be confusion in the minds of
subordinates and they may not implement them properly. Such a situation will be
detrimental to the interests of the organization.
6. Principle of Timeliness: this principle states that communication should be done
at proper time so that it helps in implementing plans. Any delay in communication
may not serve any purpose rather decisions become of historical importance only.
7. Principle of Adequacy: the information communicated should be adequate and
complete in all respects. Inadequate information may delay action and create
confusion. Inadequate information also affects efficiency of the receiver; so
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adequate information is essential for taking proper decisions and making action
plans.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018):
1. Communication is an interaction situation wherein the participants are affected

by each one‘s behavior:
Every message is simultaneously a stimulus to new behavior and a

response to prior behavior of the receiver. No message should be isolated from
what has occurred before between the communicants if we really want to
understand the message. It should be understood in the totality of the situation.
2. One does communicate: We do communicate even when we are ignoring the
message of another or maintaining complete silence. An easy way to understand
this would be to think what you would do if someone, you did not want to interact
with, passed a smile to you. Even by ignoring him, you would still be
communicating, -I do not want to relate to you‖. Silence, posture and all non-
verbal behaviors are the ways we communicate even when we wish to deny doing
so.
3. The message received is not necessarily the message sent: We usually relate to
others as if there was only one reality the way we perceive the world. We all live as
separate individuals with different experiences and different views of reality. How
we interpret verbal and non-verbal messages may be quite different from the
meaning intended by the speaker (communicator). Even when several people are
viewing the same behavior, each interprets it differently. While talking or writing we
are describing only those experiences that occur inside us and they may not be the
same for others because every person, because of his different background, is
unique.
4. Communication occurs simultaneously at more than one level. We
communicate on the level of the literal content of the information being conveyed
as well as on the relationship level. In other words, we do not convey information to
the receiver verbally only. By the context, in which the communication occurs, and
by various verbal and non-verbal cues, we are also telling the other person how we
see our relationship with him, how we see ourselves, and how he should interpret
our messages.
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This second level of communication is called meta-communication and

refers to any communication about communication or any verbal or non-verbal
cues about the literal content of the message sent. For example, I may say to
another person, - “I‘m very happy with you”, and be serious indicating that I do not
mean what I say. I may also verbally meta-communicate by adding, -“I was
only joking”, which tells the receiver how he should interpret my original
statement.
The context in which communication occurs is another important

component of meta-communication. If I slap my wife while travelling in the bus, I
would be telling the world something quite different than if I were to do the same
thing in my own house.
FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
1. Interpersonal communication is inescapable. We can't not communicate. The

very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Through not only
words, but through tone of voice and through gesture, posture, facial expression,
etc., we constantly communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we
constantly receive communication from others. Even when you sleep, you
communicate. Remember a basic principle of communication in general: people
are not mind readers. Another way to put this is: people judge you by your
behavior, not your intent.
2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible. You can't really take back
something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably remain. Despite the
instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the witness
made," the lawyer knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A
Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never
swallow it again."
3. Interpersonal communication is complicated. No form of communication is
simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even simple requests are
extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate there are really
at least six "people" involved: 1) who you think you are; 2) who you think the other
person is; 30 who you think the other person thinks you are; 4) who the other
person thinks /she is; 5) who the other person thinks you are; and 6) who the other
person thinks you think s/he is.
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4. Interpersonal communication is contextual. In other words, communication

does not happen in isolation. There is:
a) Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the
interaction. Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the
psychological context. ("You" here refers to both participants in the
interaction.)
b) Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--
the "mix."
c) Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are
communicating. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very
different from one that takes place in a bar.
d) Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are
communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time
of day, all are examples of factors in the environmental context.
e) Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect
the interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own
country) where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you
will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes from a
culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we
have in the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding.
ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION
Ethics is defined as a set of rules or guidelines; these are theories as to which is

right or wrong. In communication, ethics is considerable important because it would
likely guide everyone to effective communication. Theses ethical principles are universal
in the sense that all people should consider these things because of their vitality in the
communication process and effectiveness.
Communication ethics emphasizes that morals influence the behavior of an

individual, group, or organization thereby affecting their communication. For instance,
given the unethical communication practice of a certain company of concealing the non-
remittance of deducted premiums from employees salaries to the SSS or the Social
Security System (or GSIS or Government Service Insurance System in the case of
government offices), the company’s accountability to its employees is undoubtedly
affected. Compare this situation with that of an organization that observes ethical
practice and remits the employees‘monthly contributions to the SSS or GSIS regularly.
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It is important to note that one’s behavior should be regulated by honesty, decency,

truthfulness, sincerity, and moral uprightness.
Communication ethics is the notion that an individual's or group's behavior are

governed by their morals which in turn affects communication. Generally speaking
communication ethics deals with the moral good present in any form of human
communication. This includes interpersonal communication, mass mediated
communication, and digital communication.
The questions that need to be asked are the following:
a) What do ethics have to do with communication?

b) How can ethics (the consideration of right and wrong) help us in crafting
our communications?
c) Is it possible to be an effective communicator and yet not an ethical
communicator?
“Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate.

Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making,
and the development of relationships and communities within and across
contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication
enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness,
responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others." – From the
National Communication Association
Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) took the classic example of a charismatic, but
immoral leader in explaining the concept of ethics in communication. He understands
how to persuade his followers with dazzling rhetoric that appeals to their emotions. Is he
an ethical communicator?
Communication ethics concerns not only the individual, but is of great concern to
businesses, corporations, and professional entities. A business with unethical
communication practices is not effective as one with ethical communication practices.
For example, a business with unethical communication practices may withhold evidence
that it is harming the environment or breaking a law through a lack of transparence;
while a business with ethical practices will immediately press a release to the affected
parties. In this example, transparency makes the business more effective because it
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notifies its clients, prospective or established, providers/ suppliers, or other affiliates

of the potential environmental hazard or law violation. In other words, in this example
transparency will encourage trust and good faith, that the effective business will not
conceal what is in the interest of its audience (Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018).
Johnson (as cited in Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018) developed Ten Basics
of Ethical Communication using principles learned in Straight Talk and Nonviolent
Communication as wells as best practices for small group work in general:
1) Seek to elicit the best‖ in communications and interactions with other

group members.
2) Listen when others speak.
3) Speak non-judgmentally.
4) Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own
thoughts, needs, and feelings.
5) Seek to understand others (rather than to be right)
6) Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others have
said without checking your understanding, or by universalizing your
opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions, assuming everyone shares
them.
7) Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are
comfortable sharing.
8) Respect the personal boundaries of others.
9) Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
10)Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have
relatively equal air time if they want it.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Completeness - The message must be complete and geared to the receiver’s

perception of the world. The message must be based on facts and a complex message
needs additional information and / or explanation. A good subdivision of subjects will
clarify the message as a result of which there will be a complete overview of what is
said.
Concreteness - Concrete business communication is also about a clear message. This

is often supported by factual material such as research data and figures. The words
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used as well as the sentence structure can be interpreted univocally. Nothing is left to
the imagination.
Courtesy - In addition to considering the feelings and points of view of the target group,
it is also important to approach the audience in a friendly and courteous manner. Uses
of terms that show respect for the receiver contribute towards effective communication.
The same goes for the manner in which you address someone. Not everyone will be
charmed if you use a familiar form of address and use of a formal address could come
across as too distant. By using the word, they, a larger audience is immediately
addressed.
Correctness - A correct use of language has the preference. In written business

communication, grammatical errors must be avoided and stylistic lapses or a wrong use
of verbs are not sufficient either in verbal communication. A correct use of language
increases trustworthiness and the receiver will feel that they are taken seriously.
Clarity - Clear or plain language is characterized by explicitness, short sentences and

concrete words. Fuzzy language is absolutely forbidden, as are formal language and
cliché expressions. By avoiding parentheses and keeping to the point, the receiver will
get a clear picture of the content of the message. Briefly-worded information
emphasizes the essence of the message. Coherence means the connection of ideas at
the idea level, and cohesion means the connection of ideas at the sentence level.
Consideration - Communicating with the target group (Consideration). In order to

communicate well, it is important to relate to the target group and be involved. By taking
the audience into account, the message can be geared towards them. Factors that play
a role in this are for example: professional knowledge, level of education, age and
interests.
Conciseness - A message is clear when the storyline is consistent and when this does
not contain any inconsistencies. When facts are mentioned, it is important that there is
consistent, supporting information. Systematically implementing a certain statement or
notation also contributes to clear business communication. When statements are varied,
they will confuse the receiver.
Observing a code of ethics is essential as it determines the kind of behavior that

is proper and desirable over one that is displeasing and offensive. A code of ethics sets
the standards to be observed by a person or a company that will create a good
reputation or a positive image not only for an individual but also for the organization. It
will, therefore, pave the way for the attainment of the desired results leading to the
34 | P a g e
success of an individual or the entire company. Success in decision-making will likewise

impact the company’s reputation.
References:
7 Principles of Communication – Explained! (2015, May 15). Retrieved January 5, 2022,

from https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/management/communication/7- principles-of-
communication-explained/53333
Adler, R., & Rodman, G. (1997). Understanding Human Communication (6 th ed.).

Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Alexander, L. (1984). Comex: The Communication Experience in Human Relations.

Retrieved from https://www.westgatech.edu/WorkEthics/Communication%20doc.pdf
Berlo‘s Smcr Model of Communication. (2019, September 24). Retrieved January 5,

2022, from https://www.communicationtheory.org/berlos-smcr-model-of-
communication/
Bernales, R., Balon, W., & Biligan, R. (2018). Purposive Communication in Local and
Global Contexts. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Businesstopia. (2018, February 15). Transactional Model of Communication.
Chase, R., & Shamo, W. (2014). Elements of Effective Communication [Ebook]. Plain &
Precious Publishing. Retrieved from
https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Elements_of_Effective_Communicatio
n_4th_Edition?id=iWqsBAAAQBAJ
Communication Coach Alex Lyon. (2018, January 15). Communication Barriers [Video
file]. In YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsl468Hwr4o
Communication ethics. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_ethics
Communication: Definition, Principles, Elements and Means of Communication.

Retrieved from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/communication- definition-
principles-elements-and-means-of-communication/36557
Diaz, Rafaela H. (2005). Speech and Oral Communication. Philippines: National Book
Store.
35 | P a g e
Drew, C. (2020). Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication | 7 Key Concepts (2020).

Retrieved January 5, 2022, from https://helpfulprofessor.com/shannon-weaver-
model/#:~:text=The%20Shannon%20and%20Weaver%20Model,noise%2C%20deco
der%2C%20and%20receiver.&text=The%20model%20is%20also%20known,perso n
%20who%20developed%20the%20theory.
Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication. Retrieved from

http://www.pstcc.edu/facstaff/dking/interpr.htm
McPheat, S. (2010). Effective Communication Skills [Ebook]. MTD Training & Ventus
Publishing ApS. Retrieved from http://promeng.eu/downloads/training-
materials/ebooks/soft-skills/effective-communication-skills.pdf
Padilla, Mely M. et al. (2003). Speech for Effective Communication. Philippines: Trinitas
Publishing, Inc.
Principles, theories and methods of effective communication (written and oral) in

general, and in a management context. Retrieved from
https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/organisation-
management/5a-understanding-itd/effective-communication
36 | P a g e

Chapter 1 Purposive Communication

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PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Alexander (1984) further explains that every communicative act is based on

2. It can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels

3. It is therefore a social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a

4. The Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary defines communication, as the act

5. Communication is derived from the Latin word “communis” which means,

6. Communication refers to the process of human beings responding to the

7. The communication done by animals is relatively different from humans. The

8. We often talk about communication as if it occurred in discrete, individual acts. In

Other Concepts of Communication

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO MODE

VERBAL COMMUNICATION: ORAL

Verbal Communication: Oral- Advantages

 It provides complete understanding of communication delivered and there

Verbal Communication: Oral- Disadvantages

VERBAL COMMUNICATION: WRITTEN

Verbal Communication: Written- Advantages

and clearly. As it is a legal document everybody takes much care does

Verbal Communication: Written- Disadvantages

 Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written

1. Visual communication, on the other hand, is the type of communication

Verbal Communication: Visual- Advantages

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO CONTEXT

This sub-section, context in communication is referred to as composite of people

b) Intrapersonal communication can be defined also as communication with

c) Communications expert Leonard Shedletsky examined intrapersonal

internal conflict resolution, and evaluations and judgments of self and

THE PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

In a survey conducted by the Katz Business School at the University of Pittsburg,

We must consider a deeper understanding of the process and elements of

situation. To understand the process there is a need to know the elements or

Verbal delivery of messages includes: Elements of voice (rate,

Verbal message consists of three variables: Content (is

 The degree to which the decoder understands the message is

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The goal of communication is to convey information—and the understanding of

The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is common

The most efficient communication occurs at a minimum cost in terms of

However, efficient time‐saving communications are not always effective. A low‐

Sometimes communication is effective, but not efficient. A work team leader

The Communication Process and Models

Figure 2: Aristotle’s Model of Communication (1)

Aristotle’s Model of Communication (2)

Aristotle defined communication (called RHETORIC in his time) as ―the

a) A Speaker discovers some logical, emotional and ethical proofs;

The Aristotelian model is SPEAKER-CENTERED. But, of course, during his time,

Figure 3: Shannon’s Model of Communication

1. Sender (Information Source)

Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a

Nonetheless, the feedback elements seems like a post-hoc add-on to the

Some times when feedback will occur include:

BERLOS’ SMCR MODEL

Source: The source is situated where the message originates.

a) Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate.

b) Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and

f) Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message

b) Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language,

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.