Chapter 2

BODY COORDINATION.

2.1 Body Coordination.

• the adjustment of our body’s reaction towards any stimulus around us and
from the inside of our body.
• ensures that each part of the body is controlled so that it functions
harmoniously with each other when it receives a stimulus.
• there are two types of body coordination :
a) nervous coordination
b) hormonal coordination

Body Coordination.

Body Coordination

Nervous Hormonal
Coordination Coordination
controlled and controlled and
coordinated by the coordinated by the
nervous system endocrine system

Example Example
walking, looking, body growth,
running, writing, reproduction,
talking, listening, and controlling blood
reading concentration, and food
digestion

Importance of body coordination

• enables our body organs to function as a unit to detect stimuli and
respond toward them.
• controls coordination between stimuli and body responses.
• helping us to avoid injuries or dangers.
• enables us to adapt to the changes around us.

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2.2 Human Nervous System.
• is divided into :
o central nervous system
o peripheral nervous system
• the massages carried by the nervous system are electrical signals called
impulses.

Human
Nervous
System

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System System

Somatic Autonomic
Brain Spinal Cord nervous nervous
system system

Cranial
Nerves

Spinal
Nerves

chart showing the classification of human nervous system in brief

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Central Nervous System.
• the central nervous system is the control centre of the body.
• this system consists of :
o brain
o spinal cord
• the brain controls all activities of the body like walking and seeing.
• the spinal cord controls the reflex actions like pulling the hand away when
the fingers touch a hot object.
• the central nervous system receives impulses from the sensory from the
sensory organs or other parts of the body for interpretation.
• after an impulses is interpreted, a new impulse is transmitted to the
muscle or gland to respond to the stimuli.

Peripheral Nervous System.

• consists of all the nerves which connects the central nervous system to
the receptor and effector located at other parts of the body.
• the functions is to transmit impulses from the sensory organs or receptor
through the central nervous system to the muscle for it to respond
accordingly or to the gland to produce the required secretion.
• divided into :
a) somatic nervous system
– controls all the voluntary actions
– consists of the spinal nerve (from the spinal cord) and the
cranial nerve (from the brain)
– spinal nerve controls voluntary actions like walking,
scratching, and running.

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 – cranial nerve controls involuntary actions like talking,
smelling, and seeing.
– spinal nerve connects the spinal cord with parts of the body
like the limbs, skin, and abdomen.
– cranial nerve connects the brain to sensory organs in the
head and neck like the eyes, nose, ears, tongue, and jaws.
b) autonomic nervous system
– controls involuntary action
– example ; heartbeat, and contraction of blood vesels.
– contains nerves which connect the spinal cord to internal
organs and glands like liver, kidneys, heart, and lungs.

Neurone.

• is a basic unit of the nervous system.

• the functions is to carry impulses.
• cell body contains nucleus and cytoplasm.
• dendron – is a cytoplasm projection which spreads out from the cell body.
• dendrites – is the small branches of dendron.
• axon – is a long projection from the cell body and surrounded by an
insulating membrane called myelin sheath.
• myelin sheath – separated by small gaps called nodes of Ranvier.
• parts of the neurone and their functions :

Neurone Part Function

Cell body Controls all activities of the neurone.
Dendrite Receive impulses from other neurone and
transmits them to cell body.
Dendron Dendrite that carries impulses towards cell body.
Axon Dendrite that carries impulses out of cell body.
Myelin sheath Insulator on axon that prevents the leakage of
impulses.

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 Increases the speed of impulses transmission.

Types of neurone.
• there are three types of neurone :
(a) sensory neurone
(b) relay neurone (intermediate neurone)
(c) motor neurone
• relay nuerone only appears in the central nervous system and connects
the sensory neurone with the motor neurone.
• each type of neurone possesses the same basic structure but is different
in terms of its position and function.
• the three types of neurone have the following similarities :
o each has a cell body containing nucleus, dendron, dendrite, and
axon,
o the main role is to receive and transmit impulses
• the end of the neurone is separated by minute space called synapse
which allow impulses to be transmitted in one direction only.
• the synapse is found between the axon of a neurone and the dendrite of
the cell body from another neurone.

Characteristics Sensory Neurone Relay Neurone Motor Neurone

Structure

Position of cell In the middle of At the center of At the end of

body neurone neurone neurone
Length of Short Changes Long
axon
Movement of From the sensory From the sensory From the relay
impulse organ to the central neurone to the neurone going out
nervous system motor neurone in from the central
the central nervous nervous system to
system the effectors
Function Carries impulses Transmits impulses Transmits impulses
from sensory organ from sensory from central nervous
to central nervous neurone to motor system to effector

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 system neurone

comparison between sensory neuron, relay neurone, and motor neurone.

2.3 Nervous Coordination.

Receptors and effectors.

• Receptors is a cell in the sensory organs which detects stimuli resulting
from the changes in the surrounding.
• there are five main types of sensory organs :
(a) eyes
(b) ears
(c) nose
(d) tongue
(e) skin
• Effectors is an organ which responds to the stimuli :
(a) muscles
(b) gland
• all receptors and effectors are connected to the nervous system by
neurones.

Sensory neurone Relay neurone Motor neurone

Reflex actions.

• are

automatic and fast response of the body towards external stimuli without
the involvement of thinking of the cerebrum.
• takes place in the spinal cord.

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• it protects us from dangerous situations or injuries.
• the path of a reflex action is called a reflex arc.

Receptor

Spinal Cord

Reflex Action

flow chart showing reflex action occurring through the final cord

• example of the receptor : sensory cells situated in the skin

example of the effector : arm muscles

Receptors / Sensory Sensory

Organs neurones Synapses

Motor Relay
neurones Synapses neurones

Effectors / flow chart showing reflex arc of a reflex action

Muscles

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2.4 The Role of Proprioceptors in Maintaining Balance and Body
Coordination.

Kinaesthetic Senses.
• enable us to be aware of the movement and position of the limbs to
maintain balance.
• enable us to detect body movements and allow us to button our shirt even
with our eyes closed.
• help in maintaining balance and body coordination.
• kinaesthetic sensory receptors are found in :
1. muscles
2. joints
3. ligaments
4. tendons
• proprioceptors act as sensory organs because of their sensitivity towards
the tension of muscles.
• the tension muscles, joints, ligaments, or tendons, will stimulate the
proprioceptors to trigger an impulse and transmit through the nerves
through the brain.
• after an interpretation, an impulse will be transmitted to parts of the body
to coordinate suitable reaction.
• example of activities are :
1. playing the piano
2. tying shoelaces without looking
3. combing hair without looking into the mirror

2.5 The Human Brain and Its Complexity.

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Human Brain. medulla oblongata
• the human brain is the most complex organ.
• it is protected by a hard bone structure called the cranium.
• a big portion of neurones is found in the brain.
• the main functions of the brain is
1. receive impulses, then
2. interpret it, then
3. transmit the impulse to the part of the body concerned to respond.
• the human brain is divided into three main parts :

(a) Cerebrum
 the largest region of the brain.
 its folded surface greatly increases the surface area to place more
neurones.
 consists of left hemisphere and right hemisphere.
 the left hemisphere receive nerve impulses from the right side of
the body while the right side of the body receive nerve impulses
from the left side of the body.
 it is the control centre of voluntary actions.
 controls mental activities like thinking, memory, and emotions.
 controls senses like sight, hearing, smelling, and touching.
 controls muscle movement like walking, writing, and running.

(b) Cerebellum
 situated at the lower part of the cerebrum and at the back of the
medulla oblongata.
 has folded surface.
 controls body balance.
 coordinates muscle movement.
 controls activities like riding a bicycle.

(c) Medulla Oblongata

 connects the brain with the spinal cord.
 it is the control centre of involuntary actions.
 controls involuntary actions like :
i. breathing
ii. blood pressure
iii. heartbeat
iv. food digestion
v. peristalsis
vi. coughing

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 vii. sneezing
viii.vomiting
ix. secretion of saliva
x. enzyme

Voluntary Actions and Involuntary Actions.

• voluntary actions – actions we are aware of and which are done according
to our intention.
• involuntary actions – actions which carry on automatically.
Voluntary actions Differences Involuntary actions

Actions we are Type of Automatic

aware responses
Begin in brain Stimuli of actions No Stimuli

Region of the
Cerebrum brain which Medulla
controls the Oblongata
actions
Brain through the Impulse Medulla oblngata
muscles transmission to organs
Skeletal muscles Part that Internal organs
like bisceps responds like the heart

Somatic nervous Type of nerve Autonomic

system involved nervous system
Writing, speaking Examples Heartbeat

Effects of injury to certain region of the brain.

• an injury to a certain region of the brain resulting from an accident or
sickness will affect the function of a certain part of the body.
• in severe conditions, an injury to a certain region of the brain can cause
death.

1. Injury to region controlling movement

• results in certain parts of the body to be paralysis

2. Injury to senses of smell and taste

• results in the loss of senses of smell and taste

3. Injury to medulla oblongata

• results in fatality

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 4. Injury to sense of hearing region
• results in deafness

5. Injury to the sense of sight region

• results in blindness

6. Injury to the cerebellum

• results in the loss of body balance

2.6 Hormonal Coordination The Body.

Hormone.
• are chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands.
• are complex protein.
• initiate most of the chemical reactions which occur in the body.
• produced in a small quantity.
• carried by the circulation system to all parts of the body.

Endocrine glands and their functions.

Endocrine system.
• consists of endocrine glands (ductless gland) that secrete hormone
directly into the bloodstream.
• the human endocrine system consists of :
(a) pituitary gland
(b) thyroid gland
(c) adrenal gland

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 (d) pancreas
(e) ovary
(f) testis

Endocrine Function of Effect of excessive Effect of

gland hormone hormone deficiency of
(location) hormone
Pituitary Controls the activity Excessive growth Stunted growth
gland (at the of other endocrine (gigantism). (dwarfism).
base of the glands.
brain)
Control the growth of
muscles and bones.

Thyroid Controls the body The metabolic rate The metabolic rate
(under the metabolic rate. becomes very high. becomes very low.
larynx/vocal
cord at the Controls growth and Emotions becomes Physical growth
gland) mental development unstable, quick- become stunted.
of children. tempered and eyes
protrudes from the Development of
eye socket. the brain in
children is
retarded.

Causes goitre.

Adrenal (at Increases heartbeat The level of glucose Ability to

the top of and respiration. and salt in the blood overcome
both kidneys) is high. pressure daily
Increases body lessens.
metabolisms. High blood
pressure. The muscles
become weak.

Pancreas To control blood Shortage of glucose Diabetes.

(behind the sugar level. in the blood.
stomach)

Ovary (in the Controls the Extreme feminine Infertility.

female menstrual cycle. characteristics.
reproductive Menstrual cycle
system) Controls the female interrupted.

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 secondary sex
characteristics. Miscarriage of a
fetus before time.

Development of
secondary sex
characteristics are
stunted.

Testis (in the Controls the sperm Extreme masculine Sperms produced
male production. characteristics. are immature.
reproductive
system) Controls the male Development of
secondary sex secondary sex
characteristics. characteristics are
stunted.

types of hormone and their functions

2.7 Coordination Between The Nervous System and The Endocrine System.

Comparison between nervous coordination and hormonal coordination.

• both are important in performing body activities.
• hormonal control differs from nervous control in some aspects.
• their similarities are :
o control and coordinate body functions and activities.
o respond to a stimulus.
o possess target organ

• their differences are :

Nervous system Differences Endocrine System

Consists of nerves Coordination Consists of ductless
glands
Goes through the nerves Way of impulse transmission Goes through
electrochemically bloodstream in the form
of hormone
Very fast Speed of impulse transmission Slow
A short while Duration of effect Long
Specific Target areas Wide
Fast and immediate Response Slow and continuous
Writing, dancing Examples of body coordination Growth, body
metabolism

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The importance of coordination between the nervous system and the
endocrine system.
Both system coordinate the appropriate body response towards a stimulus.

Example : when fear striking during a fire, the adrenal gland secretes
hormone that changes glycogen into glucose for the muscles’ usage.

The muscle will gain more energy to enable the person to react faster like
running away from fire.

Fear

Autonomic Nervous System

nerve impulse nerve impulse
relationship between the
Motor Neurone nervous system and the Adrenal gland
endocrine system.
causes hormones increase
metabolic rate
Muscles react quickly

2.8 The Effects of Drug Abuse on Body Coordination and Health.

Drugs.
• defined as a chemical substance which can change the function and
physiology of the body.
• used to treat patients.
• types of drugs and their characteristics :
o depressants
 example : morphine, heroin, barbiturate
 to relieve tension.
 calm a person’s mind.
 slow down response to stimulus.
o stimulants
 example : amphetamine, nicotine
 increase the metabolic rate.
 make a person more active.
o opiates
 example : morphine, cocaine
 relieve the sensation of pain and anxiety
o hallucinogens

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  example : marijuana, LSD
 causes hallucination.
 causes madness and death.
• drug abuse occurs if it is used not for medical purposes.
• drug abuse can lead to addiction and health deteoration.
• types of drugs that are commonly taken by drug addict :
o opium
 source – flower of the poppy plant
o morphine
 source – brown substance processed from opium
o heroin
 source – white or brown powder processed from morphine
o marijuana
 source – leaves and dry flowers of the Cannabis Sativa plant

 other than affecting body coordination, drug abuse can also harm our health.
It can cause the following health problems :
(a) high blood pressure
(b) heart problems
(c) damage to the liver
(d) weakened of the immune system
(e) higher occurrence rates of cancer
(f) mental problems
(g) infections of contagious diseases
(h) fatality due to overdose of drugs

2.9 Effects of Excessive Consumption of Alcohol on Body Coordination

and Health.

• alcoholic drinks contain ethanol.

• ethanol is produced from the fermentation of glucose by yeast.
• examples of alcohol : beer, whisky, vodka, rum, and brandy.

Effects of excessive consumption of alcoholic drinks.

Effects of excessive consumption • alcohol slows down

• response of a drinker • alcohol can damage
of alcoholic drinks the rate of nerve
in an emergency is liver cells, reduce the
impulse transmission
slow. production of bile,
and affects the
• a drinker cannot drive cause cirrhosis of the
central nervous
safely because his liver (scar tissue) and
system.
sight is blurred, his hepatitis.
hearing is poor, and • in severe cases,
his reaction becomes continuous
slower. consumption of
• a drinker uses a alcohol can cause
longer time to stop Page death.
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2.10 Importance of Sound and Healthy Mind.

Mind
• is the ability of the brain to think and judge.
• a healthy mind enables a person to make logical judgment before his acts.
• a person’s mind determines his emotions and behavior.
• a person with a healthy mind will show characteristics such as positive
thinking, independent, caring and responsible.
• a person with unhealthy mind will not have self esteem, be short-
tempered, feels worry easily and find it difficult to control his emotions.

Factors that affect Mind

External factors Internal factors

• Brain injury
• Social factors • Diseases
• Environment conditions • Hormone imbalance
• Mental stress • Drug abuse
• Excessive consumption of alcohol

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