Food Safety Officer & Technical Officer Guide 2019

FOOD SAFETY OFFICER & TECHNICAL OFFICER GUIDE 2019
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Contents of this book (Functional Knowledge Test)

FSSAI Question Bank PDF 2019 Available
(Collection of MCQs, Short Q&A, Long Q&A)- Click Here
Chapter 1 (Page 3 to 47): Indian and International Food Laws

(An Overview)
 Food Safety and Standards Act of India, 2006: Provision, definitions and
different sections of the Act and implementation.
 FSS Rules and Regulations
 Overview of other relevant national bodies (e.g. APEDA, BIS, EIC,
MPEDA, Spice Board etc.)
 International Food Control Systems/Laws, Regulations and
Standards/Guidelines with regard to Food Safety – (i) Overview of CODEX
Alimentarius Commission (History, Members, Standard setting and
Advisory mechanisms: JECFA, JEMRA JMPR): WTO agreements
(SPS/TBT):
 Important national and international accreditation bodies
Chapter 2 (Page 48 to 100): FSSAI - Role, Functions, Initiatives

( A General Understanding)
 Genesis and Evolution of FSSAI
 Structure and Functions of Food Authority
 Overview of systems and processes in Standards, Enforcement,
Laboratory ecosystem, Imports, Third Party Audit etc.
 Promoting safe and wholesome Food (Eat Right India, Food Fortification,
snf, Clean Street Food Hub, RUCO and various other social and behavioural
change initiatives)
 Training and capacity building
 Role of State Food Authorities
Chapter 3 (Page 101 to 122): Principles of Food Preservation,

Processing and Packaging
 Food Processing Operations, Principles, Good Manufacturing Practices
 Overview of food preservation methods and their underlying principles
including novel and emerging methods/principles
 Overview of food packaging methods and principles including novel
packaging materials/techniques
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Chapter 4 (Page 123 to 146): Principles and Basics of Food
Chemistry and their role in Human Nutrition
 Structure and functions of macro-and micro nutrients
 Role of macro and micronutrients in human nutrition
 Overview of food additives with respect to their technological functions
 Overview of anti-nutritional factors and their removal from foods
 Overview of enzymes as food processing aids
 Overview of nutraceuticals and functions foods
 Overview of food contaminants and adulterants and their effects on
human health
 Food allergens and allergencity
 Importance of diet in alleviating health risks, especially non-
communicable diseases
Chapter 5 (Page 147 to 178): Food Microbiology & General

principles of Food Hygiene
 General principles of food microbiology and overview of food borne
pathogens
 Overview of sources of microorganisms in food chain (raw materials,
water, air, equipment etc.) and microbiological quality of foods
 Microbial food spoilage and Food borne diseases
 General principles and techniques in microbiological examination of
foods
 Overview of beneficial microorganisms and their role in food processing
and human nutrition
 General principles of food safety management systems including
traceability and recall – sanitation, HACCP, Good production and
processing practices (GMP, GAP, GHP, GLP, BAP, etc)
Chapter 6 (Page 179 to 200): General concepts of Food Analysis

and Testing
 Fundamentals of field level and laboratory sampling with reference to
importance of statistical tools.
 Overview of basic/classical methods of food analysis
 Overview of modern analytical techniques including mass spectrometry
and molecular techniques.
 Principles of Quality assurance and Quality control with reference to food
analysis and testing.
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Chapter 1: Indian and International Food Laws (An Overview)
Food Safety and Standards Act of India, 2006: Provision, definitions

and different sections of the Act and implementation.
What is FSSAI?
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is an

autonomous body established under the Ministry of Health & Family
Welfare, Government of India.
The FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards
Act, 2006.
The authority also has 8 regional offices located in Delhi, Guwahati,

Mumbai, Kolkata, Cochin, Lucknow, Chandigarh and Chennai. It has 19
referral laboratories notified by FSSAI, 88 State/UT laboratories
located throughout India and 172 laboratories are NABL accredited
private laboratories notified by FSSAI.
FSSAI Abbreviation- Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
FSSAI Headquarter- New Delhi
FSSAI Chairperson- Rita Teotia
FSSAI Chief Executive Officer (CEO)- Pawan Kumar Agarwal
Formation Date of FSSAI- August 2011
FSSAI Laboratories- 172 FSSAI Notified Laboratories, 19 Referral

Laboratories, 88 State Laboratories
FSSAI published four books- The Yellow Book, The Orange Book, The
Purple Book, The Pink Book (Each Book is available free of cost in
FSSAI official Website).
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The Yellow book is aimed at inculcating wholesome food habits at a
young age, as habits formed in our early years stay with us for life.
The Orange Book serves a guide for general practices recommended for
ensuring safe and nutritious food at the workplace.
The Purple Book contains food standards and practices to be followed

by restaurants.
The Pink Book has practical tips and information about food safety and
nutrition that Indian households need on a daily basis.
Highlights of the Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006
The safety of food is vital to all consumers and food businesses.
• Consumers must have confidence that the food they buy and eat will
be what they expect,
• Food will do them no harm and that they are protected from
adulteration/fraud.
• Although food safety legislation affects everyone in the country, it is

particularly relevant to anyone working in the production, processing,
storage, distribution and sale of food, no matter how large or small the
business. This includes non-profit making organisations also.
The Food Safety & Standards Act 2006 is Act to consolidate the laws
relating to food and to establish the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India for laying down science based standards for articles
of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage distribution, sale and
import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human
consumption and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Salient Features of the Act:
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Movement from multi-level and multi-department control to a
single line of command
FSSAI as a single reference point for all matters relating to Food
Safety and Standards, Regulations and Enforcement
Integrated response to strategic issues like Novel foods, Health
Foods, Nutraceuticals, GM foods, international trade etc.
Decentralisation of licensing for manufacture of food products
Achieve high degree of consumer confidence in quality & safety of
food
Investors friendly regulatory mechanism with emphasis on self-
regulations and capacity building
Enforcement of the legislation by the State Governments/UTs
through the State Commissioner for Food Safety, his officers and
Panchayati Raj/Municipal bodies
Emphasis on gradual shift from regulatory regime to self-
compliance through food safety management system.
Consistency between domestic and international food policy
measures without reducing safeguards to public health and
consumer protection
Adequate information dissemination on food to enable consumer
to make informed choices.
Compounding and Adjudication of cases – to reduce Court’s
workload and expedite the disposal of cases
Graded penalty depending upon the gravity of offences.
New provisions under the act
Regulation of food imported in the country

Provision for food recall
Surveillance
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New enforcement structure
Envisages large network of food labs
New justice dispensation system for fast track disposal of cases
Harmonisation of domestic standards with international food
standards
Covering Health Foods, supplements, nutraceuticals
Issuing Licenses within a time frame of 2 months
Provision of Improvement Notice by Designated Officers
Compensation to Victims (for any case of Injury/ Grievous injury/
Death)
Reward to informer (informing about the violators – adulteration
etc.) by State Govt.
No License for small food business operators; only registration is
mandatory
Central licensing from Authority.
Food Safety Officer
Joint Food Safety Commissioner

Joint Director
Deputy Food Safety Commissioner
Chief Food Analyst
Designated Officer Food Analyst
Senior Food Safety Officer
Food Safety Officer
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Overview of other relevant national bodies (e.g. APEDA, BIS, EIC,
MPEDA, Spice Board etc.)
The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development

Authority (APEDA)
The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development

Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India under
the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development
Authority Act passed by the Parliament in December, 1985. The Act (2
of 1986) came into effect from 13th February, 1986 by a notification
issued in the Gazette of India: Extraordinary: Part-II [Sec. 3(ii):
13.2.1986). The Authority replaced the Processed Food Export
Promotion Council (PFEPC).
Chairman- Shri Paban K. Borthakur
Head Office- New Delhi
Regional Offices- Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Hyderabad and

Guwahati
Functions of APEDA:
In accordance with the Agricultural and Processed Food Products

Export Development Authority Act, 1985, (2 of 1986) the following
functions have been assigned to the Authority.
 Development of industries relating to the scheduled products for

export by way of providing financial assistance or otherwise for
undertaking surveys and feasibility studies, participation in
enquiry capital through joint ventures and other reliefs and
subsidy schemes;
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 Registration of persons as exporters of the scheduled products on

payment of such fees as may be prescribed;
 Fixing of standards and specifications for the scheduled products
for the purpose of exports;
 Carrying out inspection of meat and meat products in slaughter
houses, processing plants, storage premises, conveyances or other
places where such products are kept or handled for the purpose of
ensuring the quality of such products;
 Improving of packaging of the Scheduled products;
 Improving of marketing of the Scheduled products outside India;
 Promotion of export oriented production and development of the
Scheduled products;
 Collection of statistics from the owners of factories or
establishments engaged in the production, processing, packaging,
marketing or export of the scheduled products or from such other
persons as may be prescribed on any matter relating to the
scheduled products and publication of the statistics so collected or
of any portions thereof or extracts therefrom;
 Training in various aspects of the industries connected with the
scheduled products;
 Such other matters as may be prescribed.
BIS (The Bureau of Indian Standards)
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), empowered by the Bureau of

Indian Standards Act,2016, operates product certification schemes by
which it grants licenses to manufacturers covering practically every
industrial discipline from agriculture and textiles to electronics. BIS is
functioning under the administrative control of Ministry of Consumer
Affairs, Food & Public Distribution. The certification allows the
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licensees to use the popular ISI mark, which has become synonymous
with quality products for the Indian and neighboring markets for over
55 years.
BIS is the National Standard Body of India established under the BIS
Act 2016 for the harmonious development of the activities of
standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for
matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. BIS has been
providing traceability and tangibility benefits to the national economy
in a number of ways – providing safe reliable quality goods; minimizing
health hazards to consumers; promoting exports and imports
substitute; control over proliferation of varieties etc. through
standardization, certification and testing.
Director General- Smt Surina Rajan
Additional Director General- Shri C.B. Singh
Regional Offices- Kolkata (Eastern), Chennai (Southern), Mumbai

(Western), Chandigarh (Northern) and Delhi (Central)
Regulatory requirements and procedure for Certification
While the scheme itself is voluntary in nature, the Indian Government

has, in public interest, enforced mandatory certification on various
products through various quality control orders issued from time to
time, under various acts. While BIS continues to grant licenses on
application, the enforcement of compulsory certification is done by the
authorities notified in such quality control orders. Overseas applicants
canal so be granted BIS certification for use of ISI mark for their
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products under the Foreign Manufacturers Certification Scheme
(FMCS).
In this connection, the Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and

Restriction on Sales) Regulations, 2011 has prescribed mandatory
certification under the BIS Act for the following products:
• Infant formula (IS14433)

• Milk cereal based weaning food (IS1656)
• Processed cereal based weaning food (IS11536)
• Follow up formula(IS15757)
• Packaged drinking water(IS14543)
• Packaged mineral water(IS13428)
• Milk Powder(IS1165)
• Skimmed Milk Powder(IS13334)
• Partly Skimmed Milk Powder(IS14542)
• Condensed Milk,Partly Skimmed and Skimmed Condensed
Milk(IS1166)
EIC (Export Inspection Council)
The Export Inspection Council (EIC) was set up by the Government of

India under Section 3 of the Export (Quality Control and Inspection)
Act, 1963 (22 of 1963), in order to ensure sound development of export
trade of India through Quality Control and Inspection and for matters
connected thereof.
Chairman- Shri Santosh Kumar Sarangi
EIC is an advisory body to the Central Government, which is

empowered under the Act to:
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 Notify commodities which will be subject to quality control and/

or inspection prior to export,
 Establish standards of quality for such notified commodities, and
 Specify the type of quality control and / or inspection to be applied
to such commodities.
Besides its advisory role, the Export Inspection Council, also exercises
technical and administrative control over the five Export Inspection
Agencies (EIAs), one each at Chennai, Delhi, Kochi, Kolkata and
Mumbai established by the Ministry of Commerce, Government of
India, under Section 7 of the Act for the purpose of implementing the
various measures and policies formulated by the Export Inspection
Council of India.
Export Inspection Council, either directly or through Export Inspection

Agencies, its field organisation renders services in the areas of:
Certification of quality of export commodities through installation of

quality assurance systems (In-process Quality Control and Self
Certification) in the exporting units as well as consignment wise
inspection.
Certification of quality of food items for export through installation of

Food safety Management System in the food processing units.
Issue of Certificates of origin to exporters under various preferential

tariff schemes for export products.
Services of EIC
EIC, either directly or through the Export Inspection Agencies, its field
organizations, renders services in the areas of:
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 Certification of quality of export commodities through installation

of quality assurance systems (In-process Quality Control and Self-
Certification) in the exporting units as well as consignment-wise
inspection.
 Certification of quality of food items for export through
installation of Food
 Safety Management Systems in the food processing units as per
international standards.
 Issue of different types of Certificates such as Health, Authenticity
etc. to exporters under various product schemes for export.
 Issue of Certificates of Origin to exporters under various
preferential tariff schemes for export products.
 Laboratory testing services.
 Training and technical assistance to the industry in installation of
Quality and Safety
 Management Systems based on principles of Hazard Analysis
Critical Control
 Point (HACCP), ISO-9001: 2000, ISO: 17025 and other related
international standards, laboratory testing etc.
 Recognition of Inspection Agencies as per ISO 17020 and
Laboratories as per ISO 17025 and utilizing them for export
inspection and testing.
MPEDA (The Marine Products Export Development Authority)
The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) was set

up by an act of Parliament during 1972. The erstwhile Marine Products
Export Promotion Council established by the Government of India in
September 1961 was converged in to MPEDA on 24th August 1972.
MPEDA is given the mandate to promote the marine products industry
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with special reference to exports from the country. It is envisaged that
this organisation would take all actions to develop and augment the
resources required for promoting the exports of “all varieties of fishery
products known commercially as shrimp, prawn, lobster, crab, fish,
shell-fish, other aquatic animals or plants or part thereof and any other
products which the authority may, by notification in the Gazette of India,
declare to be marine products for the purposes of (the) Act”. The Act
empowers MPEDA to regulate exports of marine products and take all
measures required for ensuring sustained, quality seafood exports from
the country. MPEDA is given the authority to prescribe for itself any
matters which the future might require for protecting and augmenting
the seafood exports from the country. It is also empowered to carry out
inspection of marine products, its raw material, fixing standards,
specifications, and training as well as take all necessary steps for
marketing the seafood overseas.
Chairman- KS Srinivas
Head Office- Kochi
Regional Offices- Kochi, Kolkata, Chennai, Vizag, Mumbai, Veraval
MPEDA is the nodal agency for the holistic development of seafood

industry in India to realise its full export potential as a nodal agency.
Based on the recommendations of MPEDA, Government of India
notified new standards for fishing vessels, storage premises, processing
plants and conveyances. MPEDA’s focus is mainly on Market
Promotion, Capture Fisheries, Culture Fisheries, and Processing
Infrastructure & Value addition, Quality Control, Research and
Development.
Functions of MPEDA:
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 Registration of infrastructural facilities for seafood export trade.

 Collection and dissemination of trade information.
 Promotion of Indian marine products in overseas markets.
 Implementation of schemes vital to the industry by extending
assistance for infrastructure development for better preservation
and modernised processing following quality regime.
 Promotion of aquaculture for augmenting export production
through hatchery development, new farm development,
diversification of species and up gradation of technology
 Promotion of deep-sea fishing projects through test fishing, joint
ventures and up gradation & installation of equipments to
increase the efficiency of fishing.
 Market promotional activities and publicity.
 To carry out inspection of marine products, its raw material, fixing
standards and specifications, training, regulating as well as to take
all necessary steps for maintaining the quality of seafood that are
marketed overseas.
 Impart trainings to fishermen, fish processing workers,
aquaculture farmers and other stake holders in the respective
fields related to fisheries.
 Conduct research and development for the aquaculture of aquatic
species having export potential through Rajiv Gandhi Centre for
Aquaculture (RGCA).
 Conduct extension and awareness activities, trainings etc through
Network for Fish Quality Management and Sustainable Fishing
(NETFISH) & National Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture
(NaCSA).
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 To prescribe for itself any matters required for protecting and

augmenting the seafood exports from the country in the future.
Spices Board
Spices Board was constituted on 26th February 1987 under the Spices
Board Act 1986 (No. 10 of 1986) with the merger of the erstwhile
Cardamom Board (1968) and Spices Export Promotion Council (1960).
Spices Board is one of the five Commodity Boards functioning under
the Ministry of Commerce & Industry. It is an autonomous body
responsible for the export promotion of the 52 scheduled spices and
development of Cardamom (Small & Large). The Spices Board is the
Indian government regulatory and export promotion agency for Indian
spices.
Chairman- Shri Subhash Vasu
Secretary- Shri D Sathiyan
Head Office- Kochi
Spices Board was constituted in 1987 under Spices Board Act 1986 with
the responsibility of production/development of cardamom and export
promotion of 52 spices shown in the schedule of the Act.
The board has a state-of-the-art testing laboratory at its headquarters

in Kochi. There are also regional laboratories at Mumbai, Chennai,
Delhi, Tuticorin, Kandla and Guntur. Through the laboratories, the
Spices Board makes mandatory quality checks for spices exported from
India. The Spices Board has an outlet next to its headquarters in Kochi.
Spices are sold under the brand 'Flavourit'. The Spices Board of India
has started an online campaign, called the Spice Train, to educate
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Indians about the country’s rich spice heritage. Spices Board provides
information on several spices grown and exported from India.
Functions of Spices Board:
 Research, Development and Regulation of domestic marketing of

Small & Large Cardamom
 Post-harvest improvement of all spices
 Promotion of organic production, processing and certification of
spices
 Development of spices in the North East
 Provision of quality evaluation services
 Export promotion of all spices through support for:-
 Technology upgradation.
 Quality upgradation
 Brand promotion
 Research & product development
Other responsibilities related to export promotion of spices:
 Quality certification and control

 Registration of exporters
 Collection & documentation of trade information
 Provision of inputs to the Central Government on policy matters
relating to import & export of spices
There are total 15 acts under Spices Board Acts.

1. Spices Board Act 1986 and Spices Board Rules 1987
2. Cardamom (Licensing and Marketing) Rules 1987
3. Spices Board (Registration of Exporters) Regulations 1989
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4.Spices Board (Meeting) Rules 1992
5. Spices Board Service (Classification, Control and Appeal)
Regulations, 1992
6. Spices Board (Quality Marking) Regulations 1992
7. Spices Board (Registration of Exporters) Amendment Regulations
up to 2004
8. Spices Board (Registration of Exporters) Amendment Regulations
2011
9.Cardamom (Licensing and Marketing) Amendment Rules 2014
10.Amendment in order regarding Saffron Production and Export
Development Agency
11.Spices Board (Registration of Exporters) Amendment Regulations,
2017
12.Cardamom (Licensing and Marketing) Amendment Rules, 2018
13.Spices Board (Amendment) Rules 2018
14.Secretary, (Spices Board) Recruitment Rules, 2018
15.Spices Board Service (Classification, control and Appeal)
Amendment Regulations 2018
International Food Control Systems/Laws, Regulations and

Standards/Guidelines with regard to Food Safety
WTO (World Trade Organization)
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental
organization that is concerned with the regulation of international trade
between nations. The WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995
under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 124 nations on 15 April 1994,
replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which
commenced in 1948. It is the largest international economic
organization in the world.
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The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and

intellectual property between participating countries by providing a
framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution
process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements,
which are signed by representatives of member governments and
ratified by their parliaments. The WTO prohibits discrimination
between trading partners, but provides exceptions for environmental
protection, national security, and other important goals. Trade-related
disputes are resolved by independent judges at the WTO through a
dispute resolution process.
Chairman- Roberto Azevêdo

Founded- 1 January 1955
Head Quarter- Geneva, Switzerland
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is a
specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts
to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries,
FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to
negotiate arguments and debate policy.
FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps

developing countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture,
forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food
security for all. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates as "let there be
bread". As of August 2018, The FAO has 197 member states, including
the European Union (a "member organization"), Niue and The Cook
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Islands (States in free-association with New Zealand), and the Faroe
Islands and Tokelau, which are associate members.
Chairman- José Graziano da Silva

Founded- 16 October 1945
Head Quarter- Rome, Italy
Trade in food is difficult to imagine without standards. Food standards

give confidence to consumers in the safety, quality and authenticity of
what they eat. By setting down a common understanding on different
aspects of food for consumers, producers and governments, standards
enable trade to take place. If every government applies different food
standards, trade is more costly, and it is more difficult to ensure that
food is safe and meets consumers' expectations.
Food standards and trade go hand in hand in ensuring safe, nutritious
and sufficient food for a growing world population. The Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) acknowledge the role that trade can play in
promoting sustainable development. Together, FAO and the WTO and
their international system of food standards and trade contribute to
achieving SDG 2 on hunger, food security, nutrition and sustainable
agriculture; SDG 3 on healthy lives and wellbeing; SDG 8 on economic
growth, employment and work; and SDG 17 on strengthening global
partnerships for sustainable development.
Introduction:
The annual value of trade in agricultural products has grown almost

three-fold over the past decade, largely in emerging economies and
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developing countries, reaching USD 1.7 trillion. Over the past two
decades, the reduction in tariffs
through global and regional trade agreements has provided greater
opportunities for the expansion of global food trade. However, in order
to trade internationally and access markets for high-value products,
producers must be able to meet food
standards. Governments apply food standards to ensure that food is
safe, and meets quality and labelling requirements. The use of
international food standards worldwide helps reduce trade costs by
making trade more transparent and efficient, allowing food to move
more smoothly between markets.
Trade is inextricably linked to food security, nutrition and food safety.
Trade affects a wide number of economic and social variables, including
market structures, the productivity and composition of agricultural
output, the variety, quality and safety of food products, and the
composition of diets. The institutional framework, the system, that
governs the development and application of international food safety
standards is based on the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme
– the
Codex Alimentarius Commission – and the WTO.
Agricultural development, trade and food security are at the heart of the
FAO mandate and the reason for FAO’s investment in Codex. The WTO
deals with the rules for international trade; its SPS and TBT Agreements
set out the framework in
which international standards are applied by governments to ensure the
safety and quality of internationally traded food products. This
publication focuses on the close relationship between food standards
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and trade. It describes the system governing the development and
implementation of food standards. It further
highlights the importance of rules, the harmonization of regulations on
the basis of international standards, and the need for countries to be
prepared in order to take advantage of the system.
The text offers insights for decision-makers in national governments
and other stakeholders dealing with trade, standards, regulations and
food policy. It explains that by bringing together trade, food safety and
food standards, building awareness, domestic capacity and promoting
collaboration, there can be tangible public health and economic benefits.
Part I describes the system of Codex standards and WTO agreements.
Part II examines the dynamics of the system in action and the
importance of preparation and participation in Codex and the work of
the SPS and TBT Committees by countries at all levels of development.
The final section explores drivers of change likely to affect food
standards and trade in the future.
Overview of CODEX Alimentarius Commission (History, Members,

Standard setting and Advisory mechanisms: JECFA, JEMRA JMPR):
WTO agreements (SPS/TBT)
The Codex Alimentarius Joint FAO/WHO International Food
Standards Programme, established by FAO and the World Health
Organization (WHO) in 1963, is the single most important international
reference point for food standards.
The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of internationally recognized

standards, codes of practice, guidelines, and other recommendations
relating to foods, food production, and food safety.
Subsidiary bodies of Codex
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general subject committees (horizontal)
commodity committees (vertical)
regional coordinating committees
ad hoc intergovernmental task forces
Its name is derived from the Codex Alimentarius Austriacus. Its texts
are developed and maintained by the Codex Alimentarius Commission,
a body that was established in early November 1961 by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), was joined by
the World Health Organization (WHO) in June 1962, and held its first
session in Rome in October 1963. The Commission's main goals are to
protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the
international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the
World Trade Organization as an international reference point for the
resolution of disputes concerning food safety and consumer
protection.[3][4]
As of 2019, there are 188 members of the Codex Alimentarius

Commission: 188 member countries and one member organization, the
European Union (EU). There were 215 Codex observers: 49
intergovernmental organizations, 150 non-governmental organizations,
and 16 United Nations organizations.
The joint nature of Codex is the key to its success. All actors along the
food chain need to work together to ensure safe food in every home.
What is Codex?
Codex Alimentarius is a compilation of harmonized international food

standards, guidelines and codes of practice. Collectively, these Codex
texts aim to protect consumer health and promote fair practices in the
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food trade, and are developed with the joint input of independent
experts and the participation of 188 members representing over 99
percent of the world’s population.
Scope of Codex Alimentarius
The Codex Alimentarius covers all foods, whether processed, semi-

processed or raw. In addition to standards for specific foods, the Codex
Alimentarius contains general standards covering matters such as food
labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, and
procedures for assessing the safety of foods derived from modern
biotechnology. It also contains guidelines for the management of
official i.e. governmental import and export inspection and certification
systems for foods.
The Codex Alimentarius is published in the six official languages of the

United Nations: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Spanish and Russian.
Not all texts are available in all languages.
General texts
Food labelling (general standard, guidelines on nutrition labelling,

guidelines on labelling claims)
Food additives (general standard including authorized uses,

specifications for food grade chemicals)
Contaminants in foods (general standard, tolerances for specific

contaminants including radionuclides, aflatoxins and other
mycotoxins)
Pesticide and veterinary chemical residues in foods (maximum residue

limits)
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Risk assessment procedures for determining the safety of foods derived
from biotechnology (DNA-modified plants, DNA-modified micro-
organisms, allergens)
Food hygiene (general principles, codes of hygienic practice in specific

industries or food handling establishments, guidelines for the use of the
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point or “HACCP” system)
Methods of analysis and sampling
Specific standards
Meat products (fresh, frozen, processed meats and poultry)
Fish and fishery products (marine, fresh water and aquaculture)
Milk and milk products
Foods for special dietary uses (including infant formula and baby foods)
Fresh and processed vegetables, fruits, and fruit juices
Cereals and derived products, dried legumes
Fats, oils and derived products such as margarine
Miscellaneous food products (chocolate, sugar, honey, mineral water)
History of Codex Alimentarius
The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission is one of the best

known and most successful cooperative projects between two United
Nations agencies. It was founded by FAO in 1961, 16 years after the
founding of FAO itself. In some ways, though, the origins of Codex
Alimentarius go back even further than 1945.
FOOD LAWS OF THE PAST
25
Protecting the purity of the nation's food supply has been a function of
governments for centuries. In ancient Athens, beer and wines were
inspected for purity and soundness. The Romans had a well-organized
State food control system to protect consumers from fraud or bad
produce. In Europe in the Middle Ages, individual countries passed
laws concerning the quality and safety of eggs, sausages, cheese, beer,
wine and bread. Some of these ancient statutes still exist today.
It was not until the second half of the nineteenth century that the first
general food laws were developed and the beginnings of structured food
control systems put in place. Laws and standards established at this
time were mainly designed to prevent adulteration and to protect
consumers against fraud. Food chemistry became a recognized field of
endeavour in this period, and the determination of the "purity" of a food
was primarily based on the chemical parameters of simple food
composition. Chemistry, however, posed other problems when
industrial chemicals were used to preserve or colour foods or to disguise
their true nature. The concept of "adulteration" was extended to include
the illegal use of harmful chemicals in foods.
Countries approached these problems in different ways. Some early

"pure food" laws left a great deal of discretion to the official analytical
chemist to determine whether or not a food was adulterated. Basic food
standards or regulations were developed in association with these laws,
often addressing particular problems such as the addition of water to
milk or the presence of harmful chemical preservatives such as sodium
borate. Food laws and food standards were approached differently in
different legal structures. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire between
1897 and 1911, a collection of standards and product descriptions for a
wide variety of foods was developed as the Codex Alimentarius
26
Austriacus. Mainly the outcome of a voluntary effort on the part of
experts in the food industry and universities, the Codex Alimentarius
Austriacus was not, strictly speaking, a collection of legally enforceable
food standards. It was, however, used by the courts to determine
standards of identity for foods (Davies, 1970). It was to lend its name to
the present-day international Codex Alimentarius Commission.
The different sets of standards arising from the spontaneous and

independent development of food laws and standards by different
countries had the effect of creating inevitable barriers to food trade.
This problem came to be recognized in the early years of the twentieth
century, and trade associations were formed to put pressure on
governments to harmonize their food standards so as to allow trade in
safe foods of defined quality. One of the earliest such associations was
the International Dairy Federation (IDF), founded in 1903, whose work
on standards for milk and milk products was later to be an important
catalyst in the development of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
EARLY WORK OF FAO:
The devastation of the Second World War, especially in Europe,

convinced politicians and economists that improved agricultural trade
would be essential for rapid reconstruction and the ability to feed
people. In this spirit, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt
convened FAO's founding conference, the United Nations' Conference
on Food and Agriculture, in Hot Springs, Virginia in 1943. The
conference recognized that different standards in different countries
would create problems in trade and in the ability of the world to feed
people in nutritionally deficient areas. It called on the new organization
to help governments extend and improve standards of nutrient content
and purity for all important foods; and to help governments consider
27
the formulation and adoption of similar international standards to
facilitate and protect the interchange of products between countries.
Following the creation of FAO in 1945 and the World Health

Organization in 1948, the two organizations began a series of joint
expert meetings on nutrition and related areas. In 1950, experts at the
first meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Nutrition
stated: "Food regulations in different countries are often conflicting and
contradictory. Legislation governing preservation, nomenclature and
acceptable food standards often varies widely from country to country.
New legislation not based on scientific knowledge is often introduced,
and little account may be taken of nutritional principles in formulating
regulations" (FAO/WHO, 1950). Noting that the conflicting nature of
food regulations may be an obstacle to trade and may therefore affect
the distribution of nutritionally valuable food, the committee suggested
that FAO and WHO should study these problems more closely.
Codex international food standards facilitate global trade - Les normes

alimentaires internationales du Codex facilitent le commerce mondial -
Las normas alimentarias internacionales del Codex facilitan el comercio
mundial
One of the most critical problems to emerge from the studies of FAO
and WHO regards the use of food additives. The report of the fourth
session of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Nutrition
(FAO/WHO, 1955) noted that "the increasing, and sometimes
insufficiently controlled, use of food additives has become a matter of
public and administrative concern". It also noted that the means of
solving problems involved in the use of food additives may differ from
country to country and stated that this fact "must in itself occasion
concern, since the existence of widely differing control measures may
28
well form an undesirable deterrent to international trade". Also in 1955,
the year that report was published, FAO and WHO convened the first
Joint FAO/WHO Conference on Food Additives. The Joint FAO/WHO
Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) began work immediately
and still meets regularly. At its first meeting, it articulated the General
principles for the use of food additives, a text that still forms the
framework for consideration of food additive use. It may be found, in a
slightly modified form, in Volume 1 of the Codex Alimentarius
(FAO/WHO, 1992).
Work on standards for food commodities also began in earnest in the

early 1950s. In 1951 an international convention on the naming and
composition requirements of particular varieties of cheese was signed
in the Italian city of Stresa. The Committee on Inland Transport of the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Initiated work
to provide quality standards for fresh fruit and vegetables moving in
trade in Europe, with the objective of preventing disputes over the
handling of these products during transport. These standards were to
form the basis for the current work of the Codex Alimentarius
Commission on quality requirements for fresh tropical fruit and
vegetables moving in trade anywhere in the world.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission develops quality requirements for

fresh tropical fruit and vegetables traded throughout the world - La
Commission du Codex Alimentarius élabore des prescriptions
qualitatives pour les fruits et légumes frais tropicaux exportés dans le
monde entier - La Comisión del Codex Alimentarius está elaborando
requisitos de calidad para las frutas y hortalizas naturales
comercializadas en todo el mundo
29
In the late 1950s, FAO and ECE independently began work on
requirements and analytical procedures for determining the purity of
fruit juices. This work, together with ECE's work on standards for quick-
frozen fruits and vegetables, was later taken over by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission.
More important was the work of IDF on standards and labelling

requirements for milk and milk products. After an initial period in
which it developed its own standards, IDF asked FAO to take over the
task as an intergovernmental and truly international organization. The
Joint FAO/WHO Committee of Government Experts on the Code of
Principles concerning Milk and Milk Products began its work in 1958.
The committee developed formal procedures for the elaboration of its
standards which involved consultation with governments between
meetings of the committee itself. These procedures, in a modified form,
are the procedures used today by the Codex Alimentarius Commission
for the development of worldwide Codex-standards.
FAO STEPS IN
Events then moved very quickly. The First FAO Regional Conference for
Europe, meeting in Rome in October 1960, stated: "The desirability of
international agreement on minimum food standards and related
questions (including labelling requirements, methods of analysis, etc.)
was recognized as an important means of protecting the consumer's
health, of ensuring quality and of reducing trade barriers, particularly
in the rapidly integrating market of Europe." The conference also felt
that coordination of the growing number of food standards
programmes undertaken by many organizations presented a particular
problem (FAO, 1960).
30
From February 1961, the Director-General of FAO, B.R. Sen, actively
entered into discussions with WHO, ECE, the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Council of
the Codex Alimentarius Europaeus with proposals that would lead to
the establishment of an international food standards programme. The
President of the Council of the Codex Alimentarius Europaeus informed
the Director-General that the proposed programme had been formally
accepted by the council on 3 June 1961. This was reported to the Council
of FAO at its thirty-fifth session in mid-June 1961 (FAO, 1962a). In
November 1961 the eleventh session of the Conference of FAO passed
the resolution by which the Codex Alimentarius Commission was
established (FAO, 1962b).
THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION JOINS IN AS WELL
The Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Conference, convened in Geneva

in June 1962, established the framework for cooperation between the
two agencies. The Codex Alimentarius Commission was to be the body
responsible for implementing the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme. The work of the Latin American Código, the Council of the
Codex Alimentarius Europaeus, the FAO Committee of Government
Experts on the Code of Principles concerning Milk and Milk Products
and ECE on quality standards for fresh fruits and vegetables was
gradually to be incorporated into the programme, as would the joint
FAO/WHO work on food additives and pesticide residues. The
conference also hammered out guidelines for the commission's first
session. In May 1963, the Sixteenth World Health Assembly approved
the establishment of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme
with the Codex Alimentarius Commission as its principal organ (WHO,
1970) and cleared the way for the commission to hold its first session in
31
Rome in October 1963. Some 120 participants from 30 countries and 16
international organizations attended.
CODEX TODAY
At first glance, the Codex Alimentarius Commission of today would

probably not be recognizable to the people whose far-sighted actions
are described above. It has held 21 sessions, the latest in July 1995. Its
membership has grown from 30 countries, mainly industrialized, to 151
countries representing almost all stages of development (see Figure).
Its budget is currently US$5.17 million for the biennium, with FAO
providing 82 percent of the budget and WHO 18 percent. Membership
covers over 97 percent of the world's population. The commission's
plenary meetings are attended by as many as 350 people, representing
over 70 countries; some meetings of Codex committees attract a
participation almost as large.
Participation in sessions of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1963-

1995 - Participation aux réunions de la Commission du Codex
Alimentarius, 1963-1995 - Participación en las reuniones de la
Comisión del Codex Alimentarius, 1963-1995
The Codex Alimentarius Commission has adapted to the needs of its

member countries. The regional Coordinating Committee for Europe
was formed in 1965 to maintain the impetus created by the Council of
the Codex Alimentarius Europaeus. Regional coordinating committees
were subsequently established for Africa (1973), Asia (1976), Latin
America and the Caribbean (1975) and North America and the
Southwest Pacific (1989). As work in specific areas has been completed,
Codex committees have adjourned sine die, allowing the following new
committees to be established: Cereals, Pulses and Legumes (1979);
Vegetable Proteins (1979); Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods
32
(1983); and Food Import and Export Inspection and Certification
Systems (1991).
The Codex programme, too, has changed. There is far less emphasis on
the detailed standards for specific foods that were the hallmark of the
Codex Alimentarius Austriacus and Codex Alimentarius Europaeus. Far
from appearing as loose-leaf booklets, new Codex standards will be
published on CD-ROM.
Yet the Codex Alimentarius Commission does show traces of its origins.
Its name, which is Latin for "food code" or "food law", obviously derives
from the Codex Alimentarius Austriacus. Its detailed procedures for the
elaboration of standards were first tested by the Joint FAO/WHO
Committee of Government Experts on the Code of Principles
concerning Milk and Milk Products. The arrangement, unique in the
United Nations system, whereby host governments are responsible for
the funding and operation of the subsidiary Codex committees on a
permanent basis was used by the Council of the Codex Alimentarius
Europaeus as a means of defraying costs. Its careful attention to the
problems of food additives and pesticide residues is based on the
pioneering work of FAO and WHO in the early 1950s. Its attention to
trade as a means of enhancing food security and consumer protection
can be traced to the decisions taken at the 1943 Hot Springs conference,
where representatives of 34 countries set out a programme to free the
world from hunger and malnutrition.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission has succeeded in meeting most of

the challenges set out for it by the 1962 Joint FAO/WHO Food
Standards Conference. Its role as a coordinating mechanism for
developing food standards, regional or international, is unquestioned.
No modern international or regional body would consider developing
33
such standards outside the Codex mechanism. The published Codex
Alimentarius requires 14 volumes to lay out its 237 food standards, 37
codes of hygienic and good manufacturing practice, 3 700 maximum
limits for pesticide residues and numerous other guidelines and
recommendations.
In March 1991, the Joint FAO/WHO Conference on Food Standards,

Chemicals in Food and Food Trade put new challenges to the Codex
Alimentarius Commission to prepare it for its new role as a provider of
international science-based food standards under the Agreement on the
Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the Agreement
on Technical Barriers to Trade of the Uruguay Round of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). These agreements entered
into force on 1 January 1995. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has
found, at long last, the legal framework for the use of its standards. As
a result of the Uruguay Round agreements there will be more challenges
for the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
Advisory mechanisms: JECFA, JEMRA JMPR
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) is

an international expert scientific committee that is administered jointly
by FAO and WHO. It has been meeting since 1956, initially to evaluate
the safety of food additives. Its work now includes the evaluation of
contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants and residues of veterinary
drugs in food. To date, JECFA has evaluated more than 1300 food
additives, approximately 25 contaminants and naturally occurring
toxicants, and residues of approximately 80 veterinary drugs. The
Committee has also developed principles for the safety assessment of
chemicals in food that are consistent with current thinking on risk
34
assessment and take account of recent developments in toxicology and
other relevant sciences. As of June 2001 the Committee had met a total
of 57 times.
JECFA serves as a scientific advisory body to FAO, WHO, and their

member governments, and to the Codex Alimentarius Commission
(CAC). Advice to the CAC on food additives, contaminants and naturally
occurring toxicants is normally provided via the Codex Committee on
Food Additives and Contaminants (CCFAC) and advice on residues of
veterinary drugs via the Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary
Drugs in Foods (CCRVDF).
All countries need to have access to reliable risk assessments of

chemicals in food, but relatively few have the expertise and funds
available to carry out separate risk assessments on large numbers of
chemicals. JECFA performs a vital function in providing a reliable
source of expert advice, and some countries use information from
JECFA in formulating their own regulatory programmes. In the same
way, CCFAC and CCRVDF develop standards for chemicals in food
based on JECFA evaluations.
For food additives, contaminants and naturally occurring toxicants, the

Committee:
 elaborates principles for evaluating their safety;

 conducts toxicological evaluations and establishes acceptable
daily intakes (ADIs) or tolerable intakes;
 prepares specifications of purity for food additives; and assesses
intake.
For residues of veterinary drugs in food, the Committee:
 elaborates principles for evaluating their safety;

35
 establishes ADIs and recommends maximum residue limits

(MRLs);
 determines criteria for the appropriate methods of analysis for
detecting and/or quantifying residues in food.
For food additives, JECFA normally establishes ADIs on the basis of

available toxicological and other relevant information. Specifications of
the identity and purity are also developed for food additives, which help
to ensure that the product in commerce is of appropriate quality, can be
manufactured consistently, and is equivalent to the material that was
subjected to toxicological testing.
For contaminants and naturally occurring toxicants, levels

corresponding to 'tolerable' intakes such as the provisional maximum
tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) or provisional tolerable weekly intake
(PTWI) are normally established when there is an identifiable no-
observed-effect level. When a no-observed-effect level cannot be
identified the Committee may provide other advice depending on the
circumstances.
In the case of veterinary drugs, data on good practice are evaluated and
corresponding MRLs in animal tissues, milk or eggs are recommended.
Such MRLs are intended to provide assurance that when the drug has
been used properly, the intake of residues of the drug present in food is
unlikely to exceed the ADI.
Microbiological Contamination of Foods (JEMRA)
Since 1999, and at the request of the CAC, FAO and WHO have initiated
a series of joint expert consultations to assess risk associated with
microbiological contamination of foods (JEMRA). This followed the
36
adoption by the CAC of the Principles and Guidelines for the Conduct
of Microbiological Risk Assessment (MRA).
The aim of these joint expert consultations is to provide a transparent

review of scientific data on the state of the art of MRA, and to develop
the means of achieving sound quantitative risk assessments of specific
pathogen-commodity combinations. The work includes an evaluation
of existing risk assessments; a review of the available data and current
risk assessment methodologies, highlighting their strengths and
weaknesses and how they may be applied; provision of examples; and
identification of data and information needs/gaps. A further aim of
these consultations is the development of guidelines relating to the
different steps of risk assessment, such as hazard characterization and
exposure assessment. The purpose of such guidelines is to help the risk
assessor, the risk manager and other interested parties to understand
the principles and science behind the risk assessment steps.
A series of such consultations have already been organized. They have

dealt with the risk assessment of Salmonella spp in broilers, Salmonella
Enteriditis in eggs, Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat foods,
Campylobacter in broiler chickens, and Vibrio spp. in seafood. The work
plan and priorities for MRA are established in close collaboration with
the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene.
FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR)
The JMPR is comprised of the Joint Meeting of the FAO Panel of

Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and in the Environment and the
WHO Core Assessment Group. JMPR carries out toxicological
evaluation of pesticide residues, normally resulting in an estimate of the
ADI. In addition, JMPR proposes maximum residues limits (MRLs) for
individual pesticides in or on specific commodities. These MRLs are
37
primarily based on the residue levels estimated in supervised field trials
when the pesticide is used according to Good Agricultural Practices
(GAP). In cases where initial estimates indicate that the ADI may be
exceeded, more refined intake calculations are performed using
national food consumption data and information from pesticide
residues monitoring programmes.
These Expert Committees establish chemical safety standards based on

a review of toxicological studies in the more sensitive test animal
species. They factor in an adequate level of safety, use risk assessment
procedures, consider use and consumption patterns and define the
specifications of the identity and purity of food grade chemicals to be
used.
WTO agreements (SPS/TBT):
SPS TBT
Agreement on Sanitary and Agreement on Technical Barriers
Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) to trade (TBT) covers:
covers:  Guarantees quality
 Food safety  Protects health and life of
 Animal health  human, animal and plants
 Plant health  Protects the environment
 Prevents fraud
Protection of: Human or animal Fight against human epidemics

health against food safety risks Nutritional issues Packaging
Human health against animal Food quality Correct use E.g.,
diseases Plants or animals against human drugs Food labelling (exc.
parasites, diseases, pests e.g.,
38
bacteria, drug or pesticides Food safety) Quality or
residues, locusts, water hyacinth manipulation of insecticides
Main Purpose for SPS & TBT Agreement
Technical regulations and sanitary measures shall not become

unnecessary obstacles to trade
Members are free to establish their “appropriate” levels of protection

but these must be based:
 On science for SPS measures

 On legitimate objectives for Technical specifications (TBT)
Common Features of SPS & TBT
 Same treatment for national or imported goods (inspection or

conformity assessment procedures)
 Encourage Harmonization of SPS measures and technical
regulations (ref. to international standardization institutions) –
SPS and TBT committees
 Right to Technical assistance for developing countries
 Concept of Equivalence (recognize that a different measure can
achieve the same protection level)
 Choice of the least restrictive measure or regulation for trade
 Obligation of Transparency (notification procedures – enquiry
points)
International & National Accreditation Bodies
International Body- RvA (Raad Vor Accreditatie), ANAB Accreditation
National Body- National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies

(NABCB)
39
RvA (Raad Vor Accreditatie)
RvA is the national accreditation body of Netherlands.
The primary task consists of accrediting and renewing the

accreditations of conformity-assessment bodies: laboratories,
inspection bodies, certification bodies and verification bodies.
Background
The RvA was founded in 1995 following a multi-party merger involving:
 the Dutch Calibration Organisation (NKO);

 the Foundation for the Recognition of Laboratories and
Inspection Bodies (STERLAB/STERIN);
 the Certification Council (RvC).
The RvA is a private organisation. In 2010 the Dutch government
appointed the RvA as the national accreditation body based on
European Regulation 765/2008. As an independent organisation and
independent government agency. RvA is a non-profit organisation.
National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies (NABCB)

Accreditation
NABCB a constituent Board of the Quality Council of India (QCI), is the

Indian national accreditation body, which provides accreditation to
Certification as well as Inspection Bodies in accordance with ISO
Standards, international requirements/ guidelines and NABCB
Accreditation Criteria.
The National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies provides

accreditation to Certification and Inspection Bodies based on
assessment of their competence as per the Board’s criteria and in
accordance with International Standards and Guidelines.
40
NABCB is internationally recognized and represents the interests of the
Indian industry at the international forums under the aegis of the
International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and the International
Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) and its recognized
regional bodies in the Asia Pacific region, the Pacific Accreditation
Cooperation (PAC) and the Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation
Cooperation (APLAC) for certification and inspection bodies
respectively with the sole objective of promoting acceptance of India’s
certifications and inspections internationally by becoming a signatory
to the Multilateral/Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MLAs/MRAs).
ANAB Accreditation
ANAB is a non-governmental organization that provides accreditation

services to public- and private-sector organizations and is jointly owned
by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American
Society for Quality (ASQ).
ANAB accredit management systems certification bodies, calibration

and testing labs, forensic test and calibration service providers,
inspection bodies, police crime units, reference material producers, and
proficiency test providers.
ANAB is a signatory of the International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and

International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC)
multilateral recognition arrangements.
The ANAB portfolio covers the spectrum of conformity assessment

accreditation. In addition to the ANAB programs, it includes ANSI
programs for ISO/IEC 17024 personnel certifiers, ISO/IEC 17065
product certifiers, and ISO/IEC 14065 greenhouse gas verifiers.
Certification (FSSC 22000)

41
The FSSC 22000 Food Safety System Certification provides a
framework for effectively managing food safety and quality
responsibilities. FSSC 22000 demonstrates a company has a robust and
effective food safety management system (FSMS) in place to meet the
requirements of regulators, food business clients and consumers.
The FSSC 22000 Scheme is managed by the independent Foundation

FSSC 22000. FSSC 22000 is international food sector. FSSC 22000 is
fully based on the international, independent standards: ISO 22000,
ISO 22003 with sector specific technical specifications for Prerequisite
Programs (PRPs) and additional Scheme requirements.
Certification Accreditation
ISO 9001 (Quality Management Systems) RvA & NABCB
ISO 14001 (Environmental

RvA & NABCB
Management Systems)
OHSAS 18001 (Occupational Health and

RvA & NABCB
Safety Management Systems)
ISO 22000 (Food Safety Management

RvA & NABCB
Systems)
ISO/IEC 27001 (Information Security

RvA & NABCB
Management Systems)
ISO 50001 (Energy Management Systems) ANAB & NABCB
IATF (International
IATF 16949
Automotive Task Force)
42
NABCB + License
FSSC 22000 (Food Safety System
Agreement with FSSC
Certification 22000)
22000
Important Questions & Answers
1. What is NABCB?
Ans. NABCB is the acronym for National Accreditation Board for

Certification Bodies. NABCB is a constituent of Quality Council of India
(QCI). QCI has been established in 1998 through the joint initiatives of
the Indian Government and the industries
2. What is the objective of NABCB?
The objective of NABCB is to establish and offer accreditation schemes,

based on internationally accepted standards, for certification bodies
and inspection bodies engaged in providing services of system
certification (ISO 9001, ISO 14001 etc.), product certification and
inspection.
3. What is accreditation?
Ans. Accreditation is the formal recognition of competence. In our

context it relates to competence of certification bodies and inspection
bodies.
4. Why is accreditation needed?
Ans. Accreditation is the recognized mechanism accepted by WTO /

TBT agreements for establishing equivalence of certification/
inspection schemes operated in different countries as also the test
results of various laboratories
43
Clause 6.1.1 of TBT Agreement refers to mutually satisfactory
understanding regarding adequate and enduring technical competence
of the relevant conformity assessment bodies in the exporting Member,
so that confidence in the continued reliability of their conformity
assessment results can exist; in this regard, verified compliance, for
instance through accreditation, with relevant guides or
recommendations issued by international standardizing bodies shall be
taken into account as an indication of adequate technical competence;
5. What is the structure of NABCB?
Chairman of the Board is nominated by Chairman of Quality Council of

India. The other members are nominees of Ministry of Commerce,
Department of Industrial Policy & Promotions, CII, FICCI &
ASSOCHAM (industry associations), Bureau of Indian standards,
nominees of Association of Certification Bodies (2- one representing
CBs and one representing auditors), nominee from consulting
organizations and nominee of consumer bodies (11 members including
Chairman). There could be other invitee members.
6. What are the accreditation schemes offered by NABCB now?
Ans. NABCB offers accreditation in the areas of Management System

Certification [based on ISO 9001 (QMS), ISO 14001 (EMS), ISO 22000
(FSMS)] , Product Certification and Inspection bodies.
7. How does NABCB obtain its finances and what is the fee structure for
accreditation?
Ans. NABCB obtains its finances through the services offered and from
no other sources. The fee structure is decided by NABCB Board from
time to time. The current fee structure is a part of the application pack
and is also available on request
44
8. How does NABCB ensures that its accreditation is recognized
worldwide?
Ans. NABCB is a member of the Asia Pacific Accreditation Cooperation

(association of Accreditation Bodies in the Asia-Pacific Region) and
International Accreditation Forum (Association of Accreditation Bodies
worldwide). NABCB is also a signatory to the IAF MLA (Multi-lateral
Arrangement for Mutual Recognition). This status has been achieved
after undergoing an assessment by our peers from other countries.
9. How can a company not satisfied with the Certification Body,

complain against it?
Ans. Each Certification body has a procedure to resolve the complaints,

disputes and appeals. The company should first write to the
certification body for resolution of the complaint, dispute or appeal.
In case the certification body is not able to satisfy the company raising
complaint, dispute or appeal, then the company can approach the
respective accreditation body with complete details of the matter for
redressal. If NABCB is approached with the complaint, it will be
forwarded to the respective accreditation body if the certification body
referred in the complaint is not accredited by NABCB.
If the complaint/dispute or appeal does not have the name and address
of the sender and/or is not accompanied by the relevant evidence of the
basis of complaint and the effort to resolve the complaint with the
Certification Body, NABCB will reserve the right to decide whether to
process the complaint, Dispute or appeal or not.
10. How can a customer complain against an ISO Certified Company?
45
Ans. Each of the Certified Company has procedure to address the
complaints of the customers. If the customer is not happy with the
redressal of his complaint, he/she should complain to the respective
Certification Body for redressal of their complaint.
11. How long does the accreditation process take?
Ans. The accreditation process depends on the readiness of inspection

bodies and the implementation of management system in accordance
with the requirements of ISO/IEC 17020 and accreditation
requirements. NABCB will review the objective evidence that the facility
is producing. Typically, timelines are a minimum of 6 months for the
whole process, or it could take up to a maximum of 1 year depending on
your state of readiness. The timelines for different stages are
Acknowledgement of application: 5 days
Initial scrutiny of application: 5 days
Document review: 15 days
The above are timelines for different stages and are dependent on the
nature of responses submitted and their correctness. Different stages
are planned based on the satisfactory completion of previous stages
12. What are main steps where accreditation process gets delayed?
Ans. Some specific issues that result in delay in the accreditation

process
Document review stage where in inadequate documents are submitted.

It is observed self-assessment checklist is not appropriately completed
during submission. Cross references are not adequately marked. In
addition, all relevant procedures and forms mentioned in self-
assessment checklist are not submitted at one go. Longer time taken for
46
satisfactory closure of NC. It is essential that for early and satisfactory
closure of NC appropriate root cause analysis is conducted and
necessary actions initiated. Lack of competence in scope sectors as
absence of same prohibits the stage of conduct of witness assessment
therefore delaying accreditation process Scope is not properly defined.
13. What are main clauses of ISO/IEC 17020 which require special care?
Ans. Inspection bodies need to address all the requirements with care
showing special emphasis on the requirements of impartiality and
independence in Clause 4.1. In addition, competence requirements also
need to be adhered and qualification of inspectors need to be
ascertained with appropriate review. Record upkeep and control of
documents have to be also ensured. Scope sought for accreditation
should be clearly defined.
14. What are the benefits of accreditation?
Ans. NABCB has a mutual recognition (MRA) with international bodies

i.e International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) and Asia
Pacific Accreditation Cooperation (APAC) which allows the acceptance
of inspection reports across MRA signatory nations worldwide. Besides
this the other benefits include.
 Recognition of Technical Competence

 Customer confidence & satisfaction
 Minimizes risks
 Avoids re-testing/inspection & Reduces costs
 Increased efficiency
 Marketing advantage & Increased business
 International Recognition
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15. Who supports if there is are issues faced during process of
preparation?
Ans. NABCB staff would extend support to guide on queries faced

during preparatory stage of accreditation.
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Chapter 2: FSSAI - Role, Functions, Initiatives (A General
Understanding)
Composition of Authority
Various central Acts like Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954,

Fruit Products Order , 1955, Meat Food Products Order,1973, Vegetable
Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947,Edible Oils Packaging
(Regulation)Order 1988, Solvent Extracted Oil, De- Oiled Meal and
Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967, Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
etc will be repealed after commencement of FSS Act, 2006.
The Act also aims to establish a single reference point for all matters
relating to food safety and standards, by moving from multi- level,
multi- departmental control to a single line of command. To this effect,
the Act establishes an independent statutory Authority – the Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India with head office at Delhi. Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) and the State Food
Safety Authorities shall enforce various provisions of the Act.
Establishment of the Authority
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the

Administrative Ministry for the implementation of FSSAI. The
Chairperson and Chief Executive Officer of Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India (FSSAI) have already been appointed by Government
of India. The Chairperson is in the rank of Secretary to Government of
India.
Functions of FSSAI
49
 Framing of Regulations to lay down the Standards and guidelines
in relation to articles of food and specifying appropriate system of
enforcing various standards thus notified.
 Laying down mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of
certification bodies engaged in certification of food safety
management system for food businesses.
 Laying down procedure and guidelines for accreditation of
laboratories and notification of the accredited laboratories.
 To provide scientific advice and technical support to Central
Government and State Governments in the matters of framing the
policy and rules in areas which have a direct or indirect bearing of
food safety and nutrition.
 Collect and collate data regarding food consumption, incidence
and prevalence of biological risk, contaminants in food, residues
of various, contaminants in foods products, identification of
emerging risks and introduction of rapid alert system.
 Creating an information network across the country so that the
public, consumers, Panchayats etc receive rapid, reliable and
objective information about food safety and issues of concern.
 Provide training programmes for persons who are involved or
intend to get involved in food businesses.
 Contribute to the development of international technical
standards for food, sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.
 Promote general awareness about food safety and food standards.
History of FSSAI
FSSAI was established by Former Union Health Minister Dr Anbumani

Ramadoss,Government of India on 5 September 2008 under Food
Safety and Standards Act, 2006. The FSSAI consists of a chairperson &
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22 members. The FSSAI is responsible for setting standards for food so
that there is one body to deal with and no confusion in the minds of
consumers, traders, manufacturers, and investors. Ministry of Health &
Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative Ministry of
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. The following are the
statutory powers that the FSS Act, 2006 gives to the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
Framing of regulations to lay down food safety standards
Laying down guidelines for accreditation of laboratories for food testing
Providing scientific advice and technical support to the Central

Government
Contributing to the development of international technical standards in

food
Collecting and collating data regarding food consumption,

contamination, emerging risks etc.
Disseminating information and promoting awareness about food safety

and nutrition in India.
Overview of systems and processes in Standards
Standards framed by FSSAI are prescribed under Food Safety and

Standards (Food Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulation,
2011, Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulation,
2011 and Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and
Residues) Regulations, 2011.
The FSSAI has prescribed standards for following food products:
 Dairy products and analogues
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 Fats, oils and fat emulsions
 Fruits and vegetable products
 Cereal and cereal products
 Meat and meat products
 Fish and fish products
 Sweets & confectionery
 Sweetening agents including honey
 Salt, spices, condiments and related products
 Beverages, (other than dairy and fruits & vegetables based)
 Other food product and ingredients
 Proprietary food
 Irradiation of food
The development of standards is a dynamic process based on the latest

developments in food science, food consumption pattern, new food
products and additives, changes in the processing technology leading to
changed specifications, advancements in food analytical methods, and
identification of new risks or other regulatory options.
Formulation of standards of any article of food under the Food Safety

and Standards Act 2006, involves several stages. After consideration by
the Food Authority, the draft standard is published (Draft notified), for
inviting stakeholder comments. Since India is a signatory to the WTO-
SPS Committee, Draft Standard is also notified in WTO. Thereafter,
taking into account the comments received from the stakeholders, the
Standard is finalized and notified in Gazette of India, and implemented.
FSSAI License
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FSSAI issues three types of license based on nature of food business and
turnover:
Registration: For Turnover less than ₹12 Lakh
State License: For Turnover between ₹12 Lakh to ₹20 Crore
Central License: For Turnover above ₹20 Crore
Departments of FSSAI
a) Import Division
b) International Co-operation
c) Regulatory Compliance Division (RCD)
d) Food Safety Management System (FSMS) Division
e) Risk Assessment and R&D division (RARD)
f) Information Education Communication (IEC) Division
g) Regulation and Codex Division
h) Quality Assurance/ lab Division
i) HR Division
j) Standards Division
Regulatory Framework of FSSAI
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India is a statutory body

under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. The Food Safety and
Standards Act (FSS), 2006 is the primary law for regulation of food
products. This act also sets up the formulation and enforcement of food
safety standards in India. The FSSAI appoints food safety authorities on
the state level.
The FSSAI functions under the administrative control of the Ministry

of Health and Family Welfare. The main aim of FSSAI is
i. To Lay down science-based standards for articles of food

53
ii. To regulate manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import of
food
iii. To facilitate food safety
The FSS Act is a bucket for all the older laws, rules and regulations for
food safety. The FSS Act took 7 older acts into one umbrella.
i. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

ii. Fruit Products Order, 1955
iii. Meat Food Products Order, 1973
iv. Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
v. Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order 1988
vi. Solvent Extracted Oil, De- Oiled Meal and Edible Flour (Control)
Order, 1967
vii. Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
Introduction to Food
Food is one of the basic needs of the human being. It is required for the
normal functioning of the body parts and for a healthy growth. Food is
any substance, composed of carbohydrates, water, fats and/or proteins
that is either eaten or drunk by any animal, including humans, for
nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from
plants, animals or another kingdom such as fungus. On the other hand,
Food science is a study concerned with all technical aspects of food,
beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking
and consumption. It is considered one of the life sciences, and is usually
considered distinct from the field of nutrition. Food science is a highly
interdisciplinary applied science. It incorporates concepts from many
different fields including microbiology, chemical engineering,
biochemistry, and many others. Some of the sub disciplines of food
science include:
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 Food processing - the set of methods and techniques used to transform

raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for
consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food
processing industry
 Food safety - the causes, prevention and communication dealing with

foodborne illness
 Food microbiology - the positive and negative interactions between

microorganisms and foods
 Food preservation - the causes and prevention of quality degradation
 Food engineering - the industrial processes used to manufacture food
 Product development - the invention of new food products
 Sensory analysis - the study of how food is perceived by the

consumer's senses
 Food chemistry - the molecular composition of food and the

involvement of these molecules in chemical reactions
 Food packaging - the study of how packaging is used to preserve food

after it has been processed and contain it through distribution
 Food technology - the technological aspects of food
 Food physics - the physical aspects of foods (such as viscosity,

creaminess, and texture)
Introduction to Food Safety
Concern for the supply of food that is safe for the consumer has
increased over the years. Rising liberalization of agro-industrial
markets and the world-wide integration of food supply chains require
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new approaches and systems for assuring food safety. Food processors
and retailers are sourcing their ingredients worldwide and it can be
hard to track the region let alone the producer of the ingredient.
Retailers are buying their produce from all over the globe. International
trade in high-value food products (fresh and processed fruits and
vegetables, fish, live animals and meat, and nuts and spices) has
expanded enormously in the last twenty five years. It is in particular,
these products for which food safety plays an important role. At present,
concern over food safety is at an all-time high. With each food ―scare‖
reported – from banned dyes in multiple products to links between
animal and human diseases – consumer concern grows. In response,
the public and the private sector have developed new process standards
and require suppliers of food products to follow them. Both, the market
and legislations in importing countries demand for comprehensive and
transparent schemes reaching "from farm to fork”.
Definition: Food Safety can be defined as the assurance that food will
not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and or eaten
according to its intended use (WHO).
All conditions and measures that are necessary during production,

processing, storage, distribution and preparation of food that when
ingested does not represent an appreciable risk to health.
GLOBAL TRENDS AND THEIR IMPACT ON FOOD SAFETY
The days of locally produced food being processed, distributed and

consumed in the same locality have significantly decreased in recent
decades. The regional, national and global food chain has required
parallel changes in food science and technology, including preservation.
At the same time, there have been social changes such as an increasing
number of meals being consumed outside the home environment and
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also an ageing population. Public exposure to a food-borne pathogen
may change due to changes in processing, changes in consumption
patterns and the globalization of the food supply chain. Many risk
factors influence host (our) susceptibility to infection. These may be:
 Pathogen (microbes)-related: ingested dose, virulence
 Host-related: age, immune status, personal hygiene, genetic

susceptibility.
 Diet-related nutritional deficiencies, ingestion of fatty or highly

buffered foods.
The globalization of the food supply is recognized as a major trend

contributing to food safety problems. Pathogenic micro-organisms are
not contained within a single country's borders. Additionally, tourism
and increased cultural interests may lead to new eating habits, such as
the consumption of 'sushi' (origin in Japan) or our very own ‗tandoori
tikka masala‘ in Western countries. The continuous increase in
international trade has been achievable partly through advances in food
manufacturing and processing technologies together with
improvements in transportation. Regional trade arrangements and the
overall impact of the Uruguay Round Agreements have reduced many
tariff and subsidy-related constraints to free trade, encouraging
increased production and export from the countries with the most cost-
effective production means. However, many exporting countries do not
have the infrastructure to ensure high levels of hygienic food
manufacture. The continuing integration and consolidation of
agriculture and food industries and the globalization of food trade are
changing the patterns of food production and distribution as well as
supply and demand. The pressure to produce food for export is very
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significant in developing economics and can lead to improper
agricultural practices. The consequences may include the following:
 accidental or sporadic low level microbial contamination of a single

product, which can result in a major epidemic of food-borne illness.
 high levels of mycotoxins, often resulting from poor storage and

handling conditions
 high pesticides residues food
 industrial contamination of food with metals and chemicals such as

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins.
Eating away from home is a major trend of recent years. Many of the
meals eaten away from home require extensive food handling and /or
are cold foods that are not cooked before consumption. Subsequently
this leads to the potential for transmission of foodborne diseases from
food handlers to consumers. Several studies have documented an
increasing lack of knowledge related to personal hygiene, the use of
clean utensils and storage of food at the correct temperature. Thus, the
changing trend has increased the importance that food be handled in a
sanitary manner. With volume processing and preparation of food,
effects of contamination are accentuated if sanitary practices are not
followed. Added mechanization and larger volume operations of food
processing and preparation have increased the need for workers in all
segments of the food industry to have an understanding of sanitary
practices and how hygienic conditions can be attained and maintained.
Yet, if workers are expected to abide by these practices, it is necessary
to impart a certain amount of appreciation of the reasoning behind the
required practices and biological basis for the reasoning.
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FOOD SAFETY ISSUES
Specific food safety concerns differ markedly and include:
Additives, colours and flavors

Drug residues
Fertilizers and other growing aids
Irradiation
Microbiological contamination
Naturally occurring food toxicants
Food supplements
Pesticides
Pollutants
Processing ,packaging and labeling
Adulteration and Misbranding
Consumers are most concerned about pesticides and additives as both

are linked in the consumer's mind to cancer. It is also interesting,
perhaps even alarming, that most consumers are not concerned about
microbiological contamination, despite solid evidence that, of all the
hazards, it is the one most likely to occur. Many homes have unsafe food
storage and preparation practices. Consumers rarely consider their own
food practices a hazard. Food industry, however, is most concerned
about the microbiological safety of its products. In addition, many
quality control checks are made to ensure that foods are free of
extraneous matter such as glass, machine fillings and insect parts. Large
food companies in many parts of the world adhere to a code of
manufacturing practice known as 'Good Manufacturing Practice
(GMP)'. This code helps to assure that products are manufactured
under conditions of proper storage and sanitation. Many also employ
an elaborate system known as 'Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
59
points (HACCP)' to make sure that there is no chance of contamination
or error during processing.
FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SAFETY
Food hazards are the factors, which are the biggest threat to food safety.
A hazard is defined as: a biological, chemical, or physical agent in a food,
or condition of a food, with the potential to cause an adverse health
effect.
A. Biological hazards are living organisms, including bacteria, viruses,

fungi and parasites
B. Chemical hazards are in two categories: naturally occurring poisons

and chemicals or deleterious substances. The first group covers natural
constituents of foods that are not the result of environmental,
agricultural, industrial or other contamination. Examples are aflatoxins
and shellfish poisons. The second group covers poisonous 28 chemicals
or deleterious substances which are intentionally or unintentionally
added to foods at some point in the food chain. This group of chemicals
can include pesticides and fungicides and well as lubricants and
cleaners. C. Physical hazard is any physical material not normally found
in food which causes illness or injury. Physical hazards include glass,
wood, stones and metal which may cause illness and injury. Examples
of hazards are given in below Table:
Hazards Associated with Food
Biological Chemical Physical

Macro biological Veterinary Residues, Glass, Hair
Antibiotics
Microbiological Growth Stimulants Metal
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Pathogenic Bacteria Plasticisers and Stones
*spore forming packaging migration
*Non spore forming
Chemical Residues Wood
Pesticides Plastic
Cleaning Fluids Parts of Pests
Parasites and Protozoa Allergens Insulation Material
Viruses Toxic Metals; Lead Bone
and Cadmium
Mycotoxins Food Chemicals; Fruit Pits
preservatives,
processing aids,
polychlorinated
biphenyls, printing
inks, prohibited
substances
Food Contamination
Food contamination refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and

microorganisms in food which can cause consumer illness. A food
contaminant has been defined as any substance not intentionally added
to food, which is present in such food as a result of the production,
manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, transport or
storage of such food as a result of environmental contamination.
It is important to protect food from risk of contamination to prevent

food poisoning and the entry of foreign objects.
There are three main ways in which food can become contaminated:
(i) Microbial Contamination;
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(ii) Physical Contamination;
(iii) Chemical Contamination.
Enforcement
While standards help to set the benchmarks that need to be met, it is

imperative to have robust institutional frameworks and systems to
ensure compliance to the standards and regulations. A comprehensive
compliance system includes surveillance and inspections for both
domestic and imported food products. The primary onus of ensuring
compliance rests with the States and UTs. States/ UT Governments
have appointed Commissioners of Food Safety, notified Adjudicating
Officers, Designated Officers and Food Safety Officers for their
respective jurisdictions to perform various functions mandated under
the Act. Further, Additional Food Safety Commissioners have been
notified for Railways, Airports and Ports along with Designated Officers
for Airports and Ports. Appellate Tribunal is established in 25
States/UTs.
All Food Businesses in India across the food value chain are required to
be licensed or registered under the provisions of the FSS Act 2006.
FSSAI has created an online system for Food Licensing and Registration
(FLRS) and all States/UTs (except Nagaland) are issuing Food
Licenses/Registrations through online mode.
A large-scale IT platform for Food Safety Compliance through Regular
Inspections and Sampling (FoSCoRIS) is being put in place. Inspections
would use standard compliance matrices to ensure consistency in
approach of inspections across the country. FoSCoRIS is a web-based
real-time inspection platform for Food Safety Officers (FSOs). Used via
hand held device like mobile phones and Tablets, it uses instant geo-
tagging, time stamping, real time data collection and multi-levels of
verification. The system uses a nation-wide IT platform to bring
together all key stakeholders, namely the food businesses, food safety
officers (FSOs), designated officers (DOs), state food safety
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commissioners (FSCs) so that such inspections and sampling is done by

maintaining a high level of integrity of the process and the process itself
is effectively monitored at various levels.
The “Manual for Food Safety Officers” has been prepared as a guidance
document for Food Safety Officers (FSOs) to be used while performing
their duties for ensuring regulatory compliance of the Food Safety and
Standards Act, 2006 and Rules and Regulations made there under.
In this manual regulatory provisions and subject matters pertaining to
inspections, sampling, surveillance to be conducted by FSOs, their
duties, responsibilities, accountabilities and procedures have been
covered to the possible extent and also current tools and mechanisms
to meet the objectives and policies. The manual will help in bringing
uniformity, consistency and transparency in regulatory compliance
procedures at ground level across the country.
Laboratory Ecosystem
Food Safety appropriately remains a high priority for industry

stakeholders, regulatory agencies as well as the consumers. Efforts are
being put in at each level to reduce the risks related to food and with the
emergence of new safety challenges and complexities stakeholders are
trying to establish and upgrade mechanisms to comply with the
requisite norms. Given the scenario, importance of Food testing
laboratories in the Indian food ecosystem cannot be undermined. Food
testing laboratories ensure an effective food safety mechanism in the
country. The scientific analysis in the food testing laboratories
determines whether the food tested is fit for human consumption and
devoid of any form of adulteration / contamination. In India, National
Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL),
a Constituent Board of Quality Council of India is the nodal agency for
the accreditation of food testing laboratories. NABL has been
established with the objective to provide Government, Industry
Associations and Industry in general with a scheme for third party
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assessment of the quality and technical competence of testing and

calibration laboratories. On the other hand, FSSAI is the nodal agency
governing the food safety scenario in India. As the country’s food
regulator, FSSAI is also mandated to recognize and notify laboratories
through a well-defined regulation in order to improve and streamline
the food testing activity. The authority thus has formulated regulations
for recognition and notification of laboratories to improve and
streamline the process of notification of food laboratories. This
regulation not only provides a legal foundation for the operation of the
laboratory system that already exists under the ambit of FSS Act 2006,
but also ushers transparency by defining the procedural requirements
for the recognition and notification of food testing laboratories. In
addition, through a policy and provision in the regulation, the authority
has also enabled recognition and notification of food testing
laboratories that are situated abroad provided they are accredited by
the Indian accreditation board or accreditation board of their own
country. The authority has recently received applications from food
testing laboratories situated in the neighboring countries like Srilanka
and Bangladesh for their recognition and notification as FSSAI notified
laboratories. The FSSAI Act provides for the establishment of food
testing laboratories for analysis of food samples. As per Sec 43 (1) of
FSS Act, the Food Authority may notify food laboratories and research
institutions accredited by National Accreditation Board for Testing 8
and Calibration Laboratories (NABL) or any other accreditation agency
for the purpose of carrying out analysis of samples of Food analysts
under this Act.
FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS ACT, 2006 [23rd August, 2006]
“An Act to consolidate the laws relating to food and to establish the
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India for laying down science
based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture,
storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and
64
wholesome food for human consumption and for matters connected

therewith or incidental thereto.” As on September 2018, FSSAI has
notified a total of 172 laboratories for the purpose of carrying out
analysis of food samples taken under the Food Safety and Standards Act
2006 and rules and regulations made thereunder. Besides these, there
are around 19 referral laboratories notified by FSSAI (2 overlaps with
FSSAI notified laboratories) as well as 88 state food testing laboratories
as a part of its network (12 common laboratories under notified
laboratories as well as state laboratories). This brings the total number
of laboratories in the FSSAI network to 265. The segment -wise
composition of all the laboratories recognized and notified by FSSAI are
as below:
The Meta Study on Food Testing Laboratories in India estimates a total

of around 600 food testing laboratories in India. These laboratories
include all NABL accredited laboratories (for food products- including
those owned by private sector, institutions, FBOs, state/central
government), FSSAI notified laboratories, State laboratories,
laboratories assisted by MoFPI for upgradation and few other
institutional and private sector laboratories. Many of these food testing
labs can also test for water (drinking water, packaged drinking water
and water used for food processing). Additionally there are around 300
laboratories (NABL accredited) who can test water, packaged drinking
water and/or water used for food processing, taking the total number of
food and water testing labs to more than 900 laboratories.
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Other than these labs, there is another pool of food testing laboratories
which exist within the ecosystem which largely includes small players
operating in the food testing space and a larger pool of food testing labs
which exist with the Food Business Operators to carry out their
regular/routine tests for raw material as well as finished goods.
However the number of such laboratories existing in the ecosystem is
difficult to determine. In total, these small laboratories along with the
labs existing with FBOs are likely to exceed 1,000-1,500 in number,
taking the total number of food testing laboratories in India to more
than 2,000 laboratories. A brief snapshot of food and water testing
laboratories scenario is provided below.
Total Food and Water Testing Labs in 915 Labs

India
NABL Accreditation 775 Labs
Total Food Testing Labs in India 600
Total Food Testing Labs NABL 462
Accredited
BIS Recognized Labs 229
FSSAI Network 265 Labs (172 FSSAI Notified, 19
Referral Labs, 88 State Labs)
EIC Approved Labs 35
APEDA Recognized Labs 40
MoFPI Assisted 72
NABL Accredited Laboratories: There are around 462 NABL accredited

laboratories for food and food products in India (As of Sept 1, 2018
NABL data). This universe consists of laboratories across all states in
India, which are open to testing for others, partially open to others or
66
are in house laboratories. These food testing laboratories are either
owned by the private sector (majorly as a food testing business entity),
Institutions (open for others for testing or internal testing and R&D),
Government agencies – carrying out third party testing and/or in house
tests and R&D), State Laboratories (under the FSSAI network of
laboratories carrying out tests for legal samples and others) as well as
laboratories owned and operated by FBOs (carrying out food testing/
R&D for in house operations and/or for others as well). Of all the above
stated categories, the maximum laboratories fall under the private
sector category followed by institutional laboratories and Laboratories
owned by FBOs. The universe of Food Testing Laboratories is much
larger than those accredited by NABL. Besides the NABL accredited
Laboratories there are additionally around 132 laboratories which are
not accredited by NABL, but are operational in the field of Food Testing.
Some of these laboratories are APEDA/ EIC approved for testing of
export products, while some have received assistance from MoFPI for
their upgradation.
Laboratories owned by FBOs: The Food Business Operators form a very

significant part of the overall food testing ecosystem. Being the end
consumers of the services, they are the ones driving the demand for food
testing and allied services. Within the food processing industry as well
there are estimates on the sizing and types of FBOs governing the
industry. It is estimated that large corporates form 20% of the industry,
while the MSME segment contributes the remaining 80%.
Interestingly few of these large corporates have established their own

laboratories, some of which are state of the art and Total Food
Processing Industry Large Corporates 20% MSME 80% Source: NABL,
YBL Analysis Exhibit 5: NABL Accredited Testing Facilities by FBOs 12
67
NABL accredited. There are around 50 NABL accredited laboratories
owned and operated by various Food business operators. Of these, 52%
laboratories are open to others for testing, 38% cater only to in-house
requirements while 10% are partially open to others for testing. Some
of the key companies who own the NABL accredited laboratories
include ITC, Nestle India Ltd., Tilda Hain, Britannia, Markfed, Patanjali
Food & Herbal Park, Mother Dairy, Karnataka Co-operative Milk
Producers Federation Limited, LT Foods, Synthite Industries, Dabur,
Marico, Akay Flavours & Aromatics Pvt. Ltd, Coca-Cola, Eastern
Condiments, Jain Irrigation Systems Limited, Parry Agro amongst
others. Many of these corporates own more than 1 such laboratories.
Majority of the labs owned by FBO can test for food and agri products,
while a few specialized labs can also test for marine products and
pesticide residues. Besides these NABL accredited laboratories, there
are numerous other small laboratories which exist within the
processing plants of the FBOs for their day to day testing of raw
materials and final products. The number of such laboratories existing
in the ecosystem is difficult to determine, as there is no central
repository or database that capture such laboratory details.
FSSAI Imports
Under this system, an importer and CHA, has to take NOC i.e. No
Objection Certificate from FSSAI to import any food items in India.
NOC is the document issued by FSSAI to the importer/CHA which

allows import of food items in India.
FSSAI provides an opportunity to CHA and importer to apply for online

application for clearance of consignments.
How to access the system?

68
The system can be accessed by using the link http://ics.fssai.gov.in
using any standard web browser like IE, Firefox and Google Chrome etc.
It is a web enabled system hence, can be accessed 24*7 by all the users.
WHAT IS THE VALIDITY PERIOD OF IMPORT LICENSE?
Under Regulation 2.1.7 (1) of FSS (Licensing and Registration of Food

Businesses) Regulations 2011, a license granted under these
Regulations shall be valid and subsisting, unless otherwise specified, for
a period of 1 to 5 years as chosen by the Food Business Operator, from
the date of issue of license subject to remittance of fee applicable for the
period and compliance with all conditions of license.
WHERE CAN I FIND THE LIST OF BANNED/ RESTRICTED

PRODUCT IN INDIA?
The list of banned/ restricted product in India is provided by DGFT and

can be obtained from their website www.dgft.in. However, Food
Authority may prohibit/restrict import of any article of Food based on
risk perception or outbreaks of disease, etc. and issue orders as deemed
fit in this regard. The Food Authority may issue guideline(s)/order(s)
as deemed necessary from time to time for ensuring the safety and
wholesomeness of Food imported into India. All such prohibitions and
restrictions to be informed to the Customs immediately.
The Food Safety and Standards (Food Import) Regulations, 2016
Most Important Definitions
(a) “Act” means the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (34 of 2006);
(b) “Authorised Officer” means a person appointed as such by the Chief

Executive Officer of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
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by an order for the purpose of performing functions under section 25 of
the Act;
(c) “Balance shelf-life” means the period between the date of import
(Import General Manifest) and “Best Before” or “Date of expiry” as the
case may be;
(d) “bill of entry” means the bill of entry filed by the Importer under the
provisions of section 46 of the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962);
(e) “Custodian” means an officer appointed by Commissioner of

Customs under whose custody the imported goods shall remain until
they are cleared from the customs area for home consumption or are
ware housed or are transshipped as provided in the law.
(f) “customs airport” means any airport appointed under clause (a) of
section 7 of the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962);
(g) “customs area” means the area of a customs station and includes any
area in which imported goods or export goods are ordinarily kept before
clearance by customs authorities;
(h) “Custom House Agent” shall have the meaning assigned to it in

clause (c) of section 2 of the Custom House Agent Regulation, 2004;
(i) "customs port" means any port appointed under clause (a) of section
7 of the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962) to be a customs port and
includes a place appointed under clause (aa) of that section to be an
inland container depot;
(j) “fees” means the charges specified by food authority for clearance of
imported food consignments;
(k) “Food Analyst” means a person appointed under section 45 of the

Act to analyse the food sample;
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(l) “Food Importer” means a Food Business Operator importing or
desirous of importing Food into Indian territory, who is duly licensed
as Importer under the Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and
Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations, 2011 made under the
Act;
(m) “Import” means bringing into India any article of food by land, sea
or air;
(n) “non-conformance report” means a report issued to the customs

authorities and the food importer by the Authorised Officer, or any
other officer specifically authorized for this purpose, by the Food
Authority, for non compliance of the provisions of the Act and the rules
and regulations made thereunder, of the consignment of the Food
Importer;
(o) “no objection certificate” means a certificate issued to the customs

authorities and the food importer by the Authorised Officer, or any
other officer specifically authorised for this purpose, by the Food
Authority for conformance with the provisions of the Act and the rules
and regulations made thereunder, of the consignment of the Food
Importer;
(p) “packing list” means the itemised list of articles of food giving the
description, quantity and weight of each imported articles of food;
(q) “pre-arrival document scrutiny” refers to the scrutiny of documents

submitted by the Food Importer to the Authorised Officer in advance,
before the actual arrival of the articles of food to facilitate faster
clearance of articles of food imported at the customs port;
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(r) “prohibited food” means that articles of food as declared by the Food
Authority from time to time and published on the website of the Food
Authority;
(s) “prohibited sources” means the particular locations for which

conditional or absolute restrictions are specified by the Food Authority
on its website for import of articles of food;
(t) “review application fee” means the fee levied by the Food Authority
towards disposal of review application submitted by the Food Importer
against the order of Authorised Officer pertaining to clearance of
Import of articles of food;
(u) “Review Officer” means the Chief Executive Officer or an officer

authorised by the Chief Executive Officer of the Food Authority for
review of the orders of the Authorised Officer;
(v) “risk based random sampling” means the activity of drawing

samples randomly based on the risk criteria identified and the
compliance history of the importer;
(w) “shelf life” means the period between the date of manufacture and
the “Best Before” or “Date of expiry” whichever is earlier as printed on
the label;
(x) “Single Window Interface for Facilitating Trade” means the

provision of single window system provided by the Customs to the
importer and Custom House Agent to apply for import clearance;
(y) “stuffing list” means a list of food items and its actual physical
arrangement inside the container or cartons or pallets or skids;
(z) “Transit Country List” means the list of countries through which the
imported articles of food transits before it reaches the Indian territory;
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(aa) “unclaimed food” means an imported articles of food consignment
not having a claimant or bill of entry or both;
(ab) “un-cleared food” means an imported articles of food consignment

of which the delivery is not taken by the importer within the period
specified in the no objection certificate issued by the Food Authority;
(ac) “visual inspection” means the process of inspection by the

authorised officer or an officer deputed by him for the purpose by which
the physical condition of the food consignment, scrutiny of documents
and compliance of packaging and labelling regulations are ascertained
for the Food Safety compliance prior to drawing of samples.
Third Party Audits
FSSAI is introducing Third party food safety audit of the food business
operators through FSSAI Recognized Auditing Agencies in accordance
with the Draft Food Safety and Standards (Food Safety Auditing)
Regulations, 2017. The draft regulation covers the following sections:
a) Procedure for recognition of Auditing Agencies/ Auditors by

constituting an Evaluation Committee on third party audit.
b) Procedure for Renewal/ Cancellation/Suspension of recognition

c) Role of Evaluation Committee for Third Party Auditing
d) Audit Process
e) Audit Reporting
f) Audit Monitoring System
g) Duties of Auditors
A robust framework for audit monitoring and governance of the same

is also being developed alongside. As per the above draft regulation,
select Food Categories prescribed by the Food Authority, will be subject
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to mandatory Food Safety Auditing. Food Businesses falling under such
category would be required to get their businesses timely audited by
recognized Auditing Agencies on their own according to the audit
frequency prescribed by the Food Authority. Food businesses which are
not subject to mandatory Food Safety auditing can also voluntarily opt
for the same for their businesses.
Food Businesses having undergone satisfactory audits will be subjected
to less frequent audits by Central or State licensing authorities. Hence,
Third party Audits will reduce the burden on the regulatory Food Safety
Audits conducted by Central or State Licensing Authorities while at the
same time assuring safe food to the consumers.
FSSAI has initiated the process of provisional recognition of auditing

agencies to create a pool of auditing agencies that could be used for
audit of some food businesses as decided by FSSAI. The experience and
feedback obtained would be used while finalizing the regulations in this
regard.
Promoting safe and wholesome Food
Eat Right India
Brand Ambassador- Actor Raj Kumar Rao
Slogan- Aaj Se Thoda Kam
Better food and nutrition is the foundation for health and wellbeing,
and is required not on y to survive, but thrive with human dignity as
productive members of society. 'Eating right' is the key to leading a
healthy life. It is at the heart of preventive health care, that is, to prevent
non-communicable diseases (NCOs), combat deficiency of essential
micronutrients and avoid food borne illnesses.
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'The Eat Right Movement' built on two broad pillars of 'Eat Healthy' and
'Eat Safe', aims to engage, excite and enable citizens to improve their
health and wellbeing led by FSSAI, it is a collective effort to make both
the demand and supply-side interventions through engagement of key
stakeholders. On the demand side, it focuses on social and behavioral
change among citizens and nudging citizens towards making the right
food choices. On the supply side it focuses on nudging the food
businesses to reformulate their products provide better nutritional
information to consumers and make investments in healthy food as
responsible food businesses.
The 'Eat Healthy' pillar of the movement is about nudging citizens to

make healthy food choices and building healthy food habits. It
encourages them to choose nutritious and fortified foods in the right
proportion and limit foods that are high in salt, sugar and fat. It also
stresses upon the importance of physical activity and mental wellbeing.
The 'Eat Safe' pillar is about ensuring food safety to prevent food borne
diseases. It includes maintaining hygiene and sanitation, both personal,
and environmental proper waste disposal, following safe food practices
and combating adulteration.
'The Eat Right Movement' brings together three ongoing initiatives of

FSSAI that target citizens:
• The Safe and Nutritious Food (SNF) Initiative, focused on social

and behavioral change around food safety and nutrition at home, school,
workplace and on-the-go.
• The Eat Healthy Campaign, focused on reducing our daily intake

of salt, sugar, fat, phasing-out trans-fats
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• Food Fortification, focused on promoting five staple foods-wheat
flour, rice, oil, milk and salt, with key vitamins and minerals added to
improve their nutritional content.
'The Eat Right Movement' is a multi-sectoral effort with primary focus

on reducing our daily intake of salt, sugar, fat, phasing-out trans-fats
from our diets and promoting healthier food options. It is based on
seven broad areas of action.
Increase the demand for healthier food by influencing each other as role
models, caregivers and peers and promote sustainable diets
[SNF@Home and SNF@Workplacel]
Set food standards in schools, regulate positioning of unhealthy food

outlets where children gather, promote healthy eating habits and use
food as a pedagogical tool.
Have appropriate consumer-friendly nutrition labelling, claims and

restriction on marketing to children through suitable regulation.
Have higher taxation for unhealthy food through differential GST Rates.
Ensure availability of healthier food options, promote such options, and

guide consumers through appropriate menu labelling on nutrition in
the food services sector.
Redesign choices available at point of sale with increased availability

and prominent display of healthier options and more shelf space for
such food in retail outlets including sale through electronic platforms.
Encourage the food processing industry to reformulate their food

products by reducing unhealthy ingredients and invest in production of
healthier foods.
Food Fortification
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Fortification is the addition of key vitamins and minerals such as Iron,
Iodine, Zinc, Vitamins A & D to staple foods such as rice, wheat, oil, milk
and salt to improve their nutritional content. These nutrients may or
may not have been originally present in the food before processing or
may have been lost during processing.
Why do we Need Fortification of Food?
Deficiency of micronutrients or micronutrient malnutrition, also

known as? hidden hunger?, is a serious health risk. Access to safe and
nutritious food is a must and sometimes due to lack of consumption of
a balanced diet, lack variety in the diet or unavailability of foodone does
not get adequate micronutrients. Often, there is considerable loss of
nutrients during the processing of food as well. One of the strategies to
address this problem is fortification of food. This method complements
other ways to improve nutrition such as such as diversification of diet
and supplementation of food.
India has a very high burden of micronutrient deficiencies caused by

Vitamin A, Iodine, Iron and Folic Acid leading to Night Blindness,
Goitre, Anaemia and various birth defects. According to the National
Family Health Survey (NFHS-4)
58.4 percent of children (6-59 months) are anaemic.
53.1 percent women in the reproductive age group are anaemic.
35.7 percent of children under 5 are underweight.
Fortification is a globally proven intervention to address the much

prevalent micronutrient deficiencies in the population.
What are the Benefits of Fortification?
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Food Fortification has a high benefit-to-cost ratio. The Copenhagen
Consensus estimates that every 1 Rupee spent on fortification results in
9 Rupees in benefits to the economy. It requires an initial investment to
purchase both the equipment and the vitamin and mineral premix, but
the overall costs of fortification are extremely low. Even when all
program costs are passed on to consumers, the price increase is
approximately by 1-2%, which is less than the normal price variation.
Following are the various benefits of fortification of foods:
1. Nutrients are added to staple foods since they are widely consumed.
Thus, this is an excellent method to improve the health of a large section
of the population, all at once.
2. It is a safe method of improving nutrition among people. The addition

of micronutrients to food does not pose a health risk to people. The
quantity added is small and well under the Recommended Daily
Allowances (RDA) and are well regulated as per prescribed standards
for safe consumption.
3. It is a cost-effective intervention and does not require any changes in

eating patterns or food habits of people. It is a socio-culturally
acceptable way to deliver nutrients to people.
4. It does not alter the characteristics of the food like the taste, aroma
or the texture of the food.
Food Fortification Resource Centre (FFRC)
The Food Fortification Resource Centre is a Resource and Support

Centre to promote large-scale fortification of food across India. It is a
resource hub which provides information and inputs on standards and
food safety, technology and processes, premix and equipment
procurement and manufacture, quality assurance and quality control
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for fortification of foods.FFRC's approach is to motivate, nudge and
facilitate the food industry to adopt Food Fortification as a norm.
This initiative follows the Joint Declaration by all stakeholders to fight

micronutrient malnutrition through fortification of food at the National
Summit for Fortification of Food, held on October 16-17, 2016 at Vigyan
Bhawan, New Delhi after which 5 national level workshops were held to
build consensus amongst the country. The initiative is being headed by
a team of Coordinators at the Centre who are driving the effort
nationwide.
Safe and Nutritious Food (SNF)
It can be classified into four categories.
SNF @ Home
SNF@ School
SNF @Workplace
SNF @ Hospital
SNF @ Home
'Safe and Nutritious Food at Home' is a nationwide campaign to help

citizens eat safe, eat right and be smart food consumers.
This initiative of FSSAI is aimed at filling in this gap. This would have
useful and practical tips and information about food safety and
nutrition that Indian households need on a day-to-day basis. This
website would be a one-point credible source of information and good
practices regarding food safety and nutrition.
Creating Resources on Safe and Nutritious Food
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Disseminating Knowledge on Safe and Nutritious Food through
community outreach
Providing Training on Food Safety and Nutrition
SNF @ School
'Safe and Nutritious Food at School' is a nation-wide campaign to help

school children inculcate the habit of eating safe and eating right. The
Yellow Book, the resource book for this campaign helps children learn
about safe and wholesome food in a fun, interactive way, through
curricular and extra-curricular activities. It has two volumes for
primary and secondary school students respectively. An excellent
Teacherâ€™s Training Manual is also available. These books and more
can be downloaded from FSSAI's Citizen's Portal.
Students are the most susceptible to food-borne diseases and due to

their lack of awareness, are open to experimenting with food and diet
while at school. Food Funda's objective is to create continuous
engagement with students, teachers & parents to make them aware
about the importance of Safe & Nutritious Food. Project
SNF@SCHOOL is based on a three-pronged approach, at the school,
state and national level. This is being done through curricular or co-
curricular activities. At school level, the culture of food safety &
nutrition is to be promoted through Health and Wellness Coordinators
and Health Teams. An enabling legislative and regulatory framework is
being developed to promulgate this message. The success rides on every
individual as a stakeholder because safe & nutritious food is not only a
necessity, but a way of life & a shared responsibility.
SNF @ Workplace
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The "Safe and Nutritious Food at Workplace" or SNF@Workplace is a
nation-wide campaign to help people eat safe, eat healthy and eat right
at their workplaces. With the rising incidence of diet-related diseases
and lifestyle disorders, we need to be more conscious and mindful of
our diets. This initiative, therefore, promotes safe and healthy diets
through its resource book-'THE ORANGE BOOK' and through FSSAI-
trained Food Safety Supervisors (FSS) and Health and Wellness
Coordinators (HWC) at every workplace across India.
SNF @ Hospital
'Safe and Nutritious Food at Hospital' is a nation-wide campaign to help

people eat safe and eat right in hospitals. Due to the increased risk of
infection and cross-contamination, extra caution regarding hygiene and
sanitation is needed in hospitals. Further, the campaign would help
develop an overall ecosystem for safe and nutritious food in hospitals.
This book and more resources can be downloaded from FSSAI's
Citizen's Portal.
Food hygiene in hospital poses peculiar problems, particularly given the

presence of patients who could be more vulnerable than healthy people
to microbiological and nutritional risks. This makes it imperative to
train food handlers, about food hygiene and Hazard Analysis and
Critical Control Points (HACCP).
Clean Street Food Hub
India has a rich tradition of street food that often reflects local culture.
Easy availability of street food coupled with its wide variety and delicacy
of the offerings, not to forget the comparative low prices, have made
street food popular with all sections of society, including the elite and
foreign tourists.
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Street food is, however, often perceived as unhygienic and a major
health risk. Hence there is a need for capacity building of street food
vendors that should lead to their behavior change. Many initiatives have
been taken up in the past, but these were all sporadic and did not take
up all vendors in any area, as a result, were not sustainable.
Project Clean Street Food is one of the initiatives taken up by FSSAI

under a 360 degree approach to Food Safety and Healthy Nutrition.
This would involve training and capacity building of the street food
vendors and ensure proper regulatory oversight over them under the
Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
Broad objectives of Project Clean Street Food:
To ensure health, hygiene and safety standard of street food for all
consumers.
To ensure social and economic upliftment of street vendor
community by helping them in improving quality of offerings
thereby attracting more customers.
To enhance the popularity of Street food by transforming it into a
global brand by itself.
India's 'food streets' are repositories of age-old delicacies and are must-
eat locations. These streets draw people from different cultures and
socio-economic status together in an egalitarian daily celebration of the
tastes and flavours that define our cities. They are also remunerative
sources of livelihood for thousands of people who keep the distinctive
traditional cuisines of India alive in their flavorful and affordable food
offerings. However, these food streets are wallowing under the
widespread concern on basic hygiene practices and are perceived to be
unsafe.
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1. As an effort to revive and promote traditional Indian foods and
generate awareness about food safety, FSSAI has prescribed standards
and benchmarks for upgrading the existing infrastructures of food
streets across the country. These guidelines set Standards and define
Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS) with respect to the location
and facilities; cleaning and sanitation; water supply and quality; waste
disposal and other regulatory requirements that need to be followed to
ensure food safety and hygiene.
2. The guidelines act as a ready reckoner with activation and

implementation plans that can be easily adopted by participating States
and bodies. FSSAI will duly recognize and certify those Food Hubs and
Food Festivals that comply with these standards and benchmarks, and
such branding and certification would help to create consumer trust.
12 Golden Rules For Safe Food
1. Keep vending premises/cart clean and pest free.
2. Use potable water for food preparation.
3. Cook food thoroughly. Keep hot food hot and cold food cold.
4. Handle and stove veg & non ver, raw & cooked food separately.
5. Store cold food at cool temperature.
6. Use separate chopping boards, knives etc. for raw/cooked & veg/non
veg food.
7. Wear clean clothes/uniform
8. Wash hands before & after handling food and after using toilets,
coughing, sneezing etc.
9. Use water proof bandage to cover cuts or burn wounds

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10. Do not handle food when unwell.
11. Use clean and separate dusters to clean surfaces and wipe utensils.
12. Keep separate and covered dustbins for food waste.
Repurpose Used Cooking Oil (RUCO)
The consumption of Used Cooking Oil (UCO) poses adverse health

effects. During frying, several properties of oil are altered, Total Polar
Compounds (TPC) are formed on repeated frying. The toxicity of these
compounds is associated with several diseases such as hypertension,
atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, liver diseases. Therefore, it is
essential to monitor the quality of vegetable oils during frying. In order
to safeguard consumer health, FSSAI has fixed a limit for Total Polar
Compounds at 25 percent beyond which the vegetable oil shall not be
used. From 1st July, 2018 onwards, all Food Business Operators (FBOs)
are required to monitor the quality of oil during frying by complying
with the said regulations. Repurpose Used Cooking Oil (RUCO) is an
ecosystem that will enable the collection and conversion of UCO to
biodiesel.
Background Note on Used Cooking Oil
1. It is well known that the consumption of Used Cooking Oil poses

adverse health effects. In the interest of safeguarding public health, the
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has notified the
Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration of Food
Businesses), First Amendment Regulation, 2017. These regulations
prescribe the limit for Total Polar Compounds (TPC) to be maximum
25% beyond which the Cooking Oil is not suitable for use. From 1st July,
2018 onwards, all Food Business Operators (FBOs) are required to
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monitor the quality of oil during frying by complying with the said
regulations.
2. At present, Used Cooking Oil is either not discarded at all or disposed

of in an environmentally hazardous manner choking drains and
sewerage systems. Also, Used Cooking Oil from organised Food
Business Operators reportedly finds its way to small restaurants /
dhabas and road-side vendors. Given that Used Cooking Oil is a
potential feedstock for biodiesel, its use for making biodiesel will be
environmentally safe and prevent diversion of used cooking oil.
3. Annually, about 23 million MT Cooking Vegetable Oil is consumed in

India. There is potential to recover and use about 3 million MT of this
for production of bio-diesel.
4. Effective implementation of Used Cooking Oil standards and its

disposal requires a ‘Triple E Strategy’ and a coordinated effort. First ‘E’
in the ‘Triple E Strategy’ is ‘Education’ i.e, educating both the
consumers and food businesses about public health consequences of
spoiled ‘Used Cooking Oil’. Second ‘E’ is ‘Enforcement’, particularly
amongst large food processing plants, restaurants and fast-food joints
that are frying food in large quantities; and third ‘E’ is developing an
‘Ecosystem’ for collection of Used Cooking Oil and producing biodiesel
from it.
5. Also, Biodiesel opens a great entrepreneurship opportunity and

employment in the country. Honorable Prime Minister Shri Narendra
Modi has said that “social entrepreneurs can benefit from Swachh
Bharat programme as it has huge business element, while stressing on
the need to convert waste into wealth. He has said that waste to wealth
is a belief that is gaining momentum. If we consider waste as waste, then
we have lost our precious possession.” Government bodies, oil industry
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and biodiesel associations can collaborate to plan a strategy to collect
used cooking oil and convert it into an environment friendly resource.
Tips for Consumers
✓ Do not re-heat cooking oil.
✓ Consumption of used cooking oil leads to several health problems.
✓ Choose good quality frying oil (oil having high saturated and
monounsaturated fatty acids are good for frying).
✓ It is ideal to use oil once for frying.
✓ Cooking Oil once used for frying foods can be filtered and used for
curry preparation in order to make it economical.
✓ Used oil should not be stored for longer time as the rate of
deterioration is higher than the unused oil and should be consumed in
a day or two.
✓ Fry at the lowest frying temperature consistent with producing a fried

product of good quality. The perfect temperature for frying would be
that lowest temperature when the product comes up on the surface of
the oil once the batter is dropped into the frying oil. The oil should not
reach its smoke point. (The smoke point of an oil or fat is the
temperature at which it gives off smoke).
✓ Remove the food particles from the oil while frying before the
particles turn black.
✓ Use fryer or utensils made of good material for frying. Stainless Steel
is the ideal material to use. Avoid iron pans as it accelerates oxidation
resulting in rancidity.
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Food Safety Training and Certification (FoSTaC)
What is FoSTaC
Food Safety Training & Certification (FoSTaC) is a large scale training

and certification ecosystem for Food Businesses across the food value
chain. Persons successfully trained & certified under FoSTaC will be
termed as Food Safety Supervisor (FSS). These Food Safety Supervisors
in turn will train other food handlers in their premises, to create an
ecosystem of trained persons.
FoSTaC has been designed by FSSAI to fulfil its mandate Section 16(3)
h of the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006. Under FoSTaC, the
curriculum and content for 16 courses for different kinds of food
businesses on three competency levels I e Basic, Advanced & Special has
been created centrally by domain experts. Training is to be delivered
through Training Partners including Large Food Businesses, Academic
and Vocational Institutions, Training Agencies approved under Skill
Development Councils and Missions, Industry, Scientific and
Technology Associations and Civil Society Organisations.
Objective of FoSTaC
All food businesses having central licences or state licenses should have
at least one trained and certified food safety supervisor for every 25
food-handlers or part thereof on all their premises. This requirement is
proposed to be made mandatory in a phased manner as per the
indicative timeline below:
Capacity Building
In order to fulfil their responsibility and ensure self-compliance, FBOs

need to engage in capacity building of their employees and their
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upstream and downstream supply chains, through systematic and
structured training programmes. To help FBOs fulfil this responsibility,
FSSAI has developed Food Safety Training and Certification (FoSTaC)
ecosystem for FBOs across the food value chain. FSSAI, through
eminent domain experts, has developed 16 courses at 3 levels - Basic,
Advanced and Special, targeting different sectors of Food Business
including Catering, Manufacturing, Storage, Retail and Transport and
also for product specific areas including Milk, Meat & Poultry, Oil etc.
These are short duration courses of 4 to 12 hours, which can be
delivered in online or offline mode and focus on FSMS practices, GHP
and GMP.
It would be the responsibility of each FBO to have at least one person

trained and certified as a Food Safety Supervisor in each of their
premises. Each supervisor would in turn train all other food handlers in
the facility. Over the next 2 years, all licensed FBOs are expected to have
their trained and certified Food Safety Supervisors in position.
Role of State Food Authorities
Maintaining the food quality levels in order to ensure safety and

providing satisfaction to every consumer is the aim of every Food
Business Operator. Food safety and standards authority of India (FSSAI
Registration) plays an important role in formulating the controlling
procedures. It implements the measures in order to eliminate the toxic
and the hazardous elements. The result is that every consumer receives
an equal level of assurance of food safety. A product’s packaging speaks
about the product quality and in this way, it informs consumers about
the safety standards. Food manufacturers must apply those techniques
that help in controlling of food degradation. Consumer’s confidence is
the biggest asset and also for achieving the point for food authorities.
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Consumers can also contribute by providing scientific techniques to the
government. The government needs to implement those standards that
come under its cost budget because sometimes, strict standards require
more finance. FSSAI role in food quality is important.
Food safety standards, however, differ from one food article to another.
The aim should be to implement those measures that are necessary for
that particular food type. Public health shall be of primary importance.
Malpractices like fraud, adulteration and the misleading claims to
double cross consumers must be prohibited.
Frequent appointment of Food consultants must take place in order to

ensure safety levels. It needs to conduct audits to check whether the
food industry is complying with the food safety standards or not? The
government must thus communicate with both the manufacturers and
the consumers to have a common understanding and for minimizing
the misconceptions. FSSAI role in food quality is important for smooth
functioning.
The food industry can undertake numerous tasks to ensure food safety.
It may conduct hazard analysis test in order to identify hazards

and finally removing them.
It can also establish critical limits for each controlling point,
procedures in order to maintain food making actions and to
establish verification procedures in order to confirm the corrective
steps taken.
Employees must go through extensive training since they are also
responsible for the right handling of food products.
Distributors must ascertain the quality check of food articles.
Give proper time to advertising, promotional activities and for
marketing business. It is at this stage only that attracts customers.
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If you want to apply for Food License, you can go with FSSAI Food
License.
On the part of consumers, the food quality and safety steps are to be
performed like washing hands before handling, keeping raw material
separate from the processed food, consuming of food article within the
prescribed time, analyzing of the food ingredients according to their
needs and many others. The food control safety measure is the
requirement in order to bridge the gap between safe food and
adulterated food. The food industry needs standards that are more
flexible and which is also efficient in producing and marketing food and
thus ultimately serving the consumers with a protective sheet. FSSAI
role in food quality is important for smooth functioning.
Functions, Duties and Roles and Responsibilities of Food Safety Officer
Commissioner of Food Safety of the State (Duties)
Prohibit the manufacture, storage, distribution or sale of any article of

food.
Survey of the Industrial Units.
Conduct or organise training programmes.
Uniform implementation of the standards and other requirements as

specified.
Ensure a high standard of objectivity, accountability, practicability,

transparency and credibility.
Sanction of prosecution for offences punishable with imprisonment

under this Act.
Designated Officer (Duties)
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Issue or cancel license.
Prohibit the sale of any article of food.
Receive report and samples of article of foods.
Recommend to the Commissioner of Food Safety for sanction to launch

prosecutions.
Sanction or launch prosecutions.
Maintain record of all inspections made by Food Safety Officers and

action taken by them in the performance of their duties;
Investigate any complaint.
Food Safety Officer (Duties)
Take sample.
Seize any article of food.
Can enter and inspect any place.
May destroy, deteriorated, perishable product after giving notice in

writing.
May seize any article of food and books of account or other documents
found in position of manufacturer, distributor and dealer where
position of adulterant found.
In case of non-availability of the FBO, the FSO may seize the adulterant
food and seal the premises for investigation after taking a sample of
such adulterant or food for analysis.
May cause a person to be examined by a qualified medical professional

duly authorized by the Designated Officer.
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Highlights of Swasth Bharat Yatra
100+ Days, 6 Tracks, 18000 Kms, 7500+ Eat Right Champions, 2000+
Activations, 300+ Stopovers, 1 Crore+ people Community Out Reach
Enthusiastic participation from every nook and corner of the

country, where monks took to cycling at Leh and locals gathered
up in Kanyakumari to spread message of Eat Right India.
Local women participated by displaying indigenous varieties of
millets and vegetables that should be a part of a healthy balanced
diet. The women also spread knowledge about the diet of pregnant
and lactating women, adolescent girls to meet their iron needs to
prevent anaemia.
A movement of general public where armed forces, police,
politicians, tribal, Divyaangjans, transgender, School children,
Students, Professionals etc. joined hands to take it forward.
Unique activities like formation of square by more than 5000
students, Human chain made by more than 600 participants to
welcome cyclist, Cultural performances [Lezim, Dandia, Naga,
Santhali, Bharat Natyam dance etc., Brass Band and Flute recital,
Yoga & Aerobics performances, Skit and Mime performances etc].
Swasth Bharat Yatra drew whole hearted participation across all
age groups. Eat Right Champions of 7 to 82 years of age vowed to
spread messages of eat healthy.
10th National Street Food Festival
National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI) is a network

and advocacy platform of 636 street vendor organizations representing
8,67,426 vendors across 25 states of India. In its advocacy efforts,
NASVI adopted a new strategy by organizing National Street Food
Festival in Delhi bringing the food vendors from different parts of the
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country at one platform. The success of the event had strong impact in
helping NASVI in advocating street vendors as well as to question the
stereotype view of street food as unhealthy and unhygienic
In its 10th edition now National Street Food Festival is being presented
this year by Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) in
association with NASVI from 14th to 16th December from 12 Noon to
12 Night at Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, Near India Gate,
Rajpath Area, Janpath, Central Secretariat Metro Gate No. 3, New Delhi.
Coupled with fun, music and entertainment, it is one of the signature
events of the Delhi. Entry tickets to the festival are available online at
Book my Show and also at the entry gate during the festival.
Get Food Facts Right (Important Questions & Answers)
1). What is Wheat Atta?
As per the sub – regulation 2.4.1.1 of FSS (Food Products Standards and
Food Additives) Regulations, Atta or resultant atta means the coarse
product obtained by milling or grinding clean wheat free from rodent
hair and excreta.
2). What is wheat protein?
Wheat flour contains 2 classes of proteins – 1) Glutenin which is

responsible for elasticity and 2) Gliadin which is responsible for raising
of the dough. In the presence of water, these two proteins bond together.
This creates an elastic network of protein called gluten. As such, gluten
occurs naturally in atta.
3). What is wheat gluten?
Gluten is the rubbery mass that is left when wheat flour dough is washed
with water to remove starch, non-starchy polysaccharides and water
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soluble constituents. It is comprised of 80-85% protein, 5% lipids. Most
of the remainder is starch and non-starch carbohydrates. Gluten is
obtained from flour by kneading the wheat flour with water,
agglomerating the elastic gluten into dough which is elastic and then
washing out the starch.
4). Is gluten good or bad for health?
Gluten is a protein found in some grains, such as wheat, rye and barley.
Gluten may act as a prebiotic, feeding the “good” bacteria in our bodies.
However, Gluten may cause health problems for persons with gluten-
related disorders, such as celiac disease, dermatitis herpetiformis and
other forms of non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Gluten causes small
intestinal damage for persons with celiac disease and dermatitis
herpetiformis, leading to mal-absorption, malnutrition, and associated
health conditions.
5). Is gluten present in any other food stuff?
Gluten naturally occurs in many other cereal grains such as barley and
rye.
6). What is the minimum limit of gluten in Atta, Maida and Semolina?
FSSAI has prescribed limit of ‘Not less than 6.0 per cent (on dry weight
basis)’ for gluten content in the standard of ‘Atta or Resultant Atta and
Semolina’ and ‘Not less than 7.5 per cent (on dry weight basis)’ for
gluten content in the standard of ‘Maida’.
7). What is Saboodana (Tapioca Sago)?
Saboodana (Tapioca Sago) is the product made from the starch

obtained from roots of tapioca (Manihot esculenta crantz syn.
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Utilissima). It shall be hard, clean, wholesome globules or pearls of
uniform colour, shape and size having characteristic taste and flavour.
8). Can starch from any other source be used for manufacturing of
Saboodana (Tapioca Sago)?
Saboodana (Tapioca Sago) is the product made from the starch

obtained from roots of tapioca (Manihot esculenta crantz syn.
Utilissima) only. Starch used from any other source such as Maize
starch is adulteration and cannot be named as Saboodana or Tapioca
starch sago or Sago.
Oils and Fats-
1). Whether any standards exist to determine the quality of used

cooking oil beyond which the oil is not safe for further use after repeated
frying?
As per Clause (4) of sub-paragraph 7 relating to Fried Foods of

paragraph VI, Part-V, Schedule 4 of Food Safety and Standards
(Licensing and Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations, 2011,
Vegetable oil having developed Total Polar Compound more than 25%
shall not be used.
2). Are there any standards for Trans Fats in Various Edible Oils and
Fats?
The Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food
Additives) Regulations, 2011 prescribe the limit of trans fats to be not
more than 5% by weight in Interesterified Vegetable Fats, Vanaspati,
Bakery and Industrial Margarine and Bakery Shortening.
3). Is there any proposal to cover other oils and Fats such as Refined
Vegetables oil, Fat Spread, Margarine etc. for limit of trans fats?
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A proposal for fixing the limits for Trans Fats to be not more than 5%
by weight in Refined Vegetable Oil, Partially Hydrogenated Soybean Oil,
Table Margarine, Mixed Fat Spread and Vegetable Fat Spread is under
consideration of the Authority.
4). There is confusion about the presence of various Veg Oils in Blended
Edible Vegetable Oil. What are the provisions in the regulations? What
a customer should see on the label of the container?
The clause 24 of sub-regulation 2.2.1 of Food Safety and Standards

(Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulations, 2011
prescribe the standards of Blended Edible Vegetable Oil wherein it is
mentioned that the blended edible vegetable oil is an admixture of any
two edible vegetable oils where the proportion by weight of any edible
vegetable oil used in the admixture is not less than 20 per cent. A
consumer should always look at the composition of blended oil i.e.,
name of oils used, nature (raw or refined) and quantity of oils on the
label of blended oil.
5). What does the vegetable oil consists of?
Vegetable oils consist of fatty acids and other minor constituents like
pigments, fat soluble vitamins, antioxidants, sterols, free fatty acids, etc.
There are three types of fatty acids: saturated (SAFA),
monounsaturated (MUFA) and poly unsaturated (PUFA).
6). What is SAFA; MUFA; and PUFA?
SAFA is a fatty acid carbon chain with no double bond or point of

unsaturation; MUFA is a fatty acid carbon chain with one double bond
or one point of unsaturation; and PUFA is a fatty acid carbon chain with
two or more double bonds or point of unsaturation. PUFA can further
be categorized as Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids.
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7). How can a consumer visually judge which oil is rich in SAFA and
which one is rich in MUFA and PUFA?
The degree of saturation of fatty acids in a fat affects the temperature at

which the fat melts. Generally, the more unsaturated the fatty acids, the
more liquid the fat is at room temperature (at around 25 °C). In contrast,
more the saturated the fatty acids, the firmer the fat. So, Sunflower oil
is liquid at room temperature which means more unsaturation. The oils
or fats which are semi-solid or solid are rich in saturated fatty acids e.g.
Butter, Coconut Oil.
8). Which vegetable oils are rich in SAFA or MUFA or PUFA?
The vegetable oils rich in SAFA, MUFA, PUFA are as under-
Oils and Fats rich in SAFA: Butter, Ghee, Coconut Oil, Palm Oil,
Palm Kernel Oil etc.
Oils and Fats rich in MUFA: Groundnut Oil, Mustard Oil, Sesame
Oil, Rice bran Oil, Olive Oil etc.
Oils and Fats rich in PUFA: Corn Oil, Soybean Oil, Sunflower seed
Oil, Safflower seed Oil etc.
9). What is recommended amount of SAFA, MUFA and PUFA be

consumed in our diet?
The recommended healthy ratio of SAFA: MUFA: PUFA is 1:1.5:1.
10). What are essential fatty acids and their dietary sources?
Of all the fatty acids, omega-3 and omega-6 are considered as essential
fatty acids since these cannot be synthesized in the body. The dietary
sources of omega-3 and omega-6 are as under:
Oils rich in Omega-3: Mustard, Low erucic acid-Mustard,

Flaxseed, Soybean Oil, Fish Oil.
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Oils rich in Omega-6: Corn/Maize Oil, Soybean Oil, Sunflower Oil,
Groundnut Oil, Small amount in dairy products.
11). What is the recommended ratio of omega 3: omega 6 to be

consumed in our diet?
The recommended healthy ratio of Omega 3: Omega 6 ranges from 1:5

to 1:10.
12). How a consumer can ensure healthy ratio of SAFA, MUFA and
PUFA and omega 3 and omega 6?
It can be ensured by using the edible oils rich in SAFA, MUFA, and
PUFA in rotation, such as on monthly basis. To ensure omega 3 and
omega 6, Mustard, Flaxseed, Soybean Oil may be included.
Fruits & Vegetables-
1). Is calcium carbide is permitted for artificially ripening of fruits?
Calcium carbide is not permitted for artificial ripening of fruits. Under

regulation 2.3.5 Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and
Restrictions on Sale) Regulation 2011, related to use of carbide gas in
ripening of fruits has been prohibited and have following provision: “No
person shall sell or offer or expose for sale or have in his premises for
the purpose of sale under any description, fruits which have been
artificially ripened by use of acetylene gas, commonly known as carbide
gas”.
2). Whether chemicals are used for ripening fruits in the country?
Artificial ripening of fruits is permitted by Ethylene gas at a

concentration upto 100 ppm (100µl/L) depending upon the crop,
variety and maturity, under regulation 2.3.5 Food Safety and Standards
(Prohibition and Restrictions on Sales) Regulation 2011.
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3). Whether colouring of fruits and vegetables are permitted?
Use of colours on fruits and vegetables are not permitted under the
provisions prescribed in sub regulations 2.3.6 of Food Safety and
Standards (Prohibition and Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2011.
4). Whether coating of fresh fruits mainly apples with wax is permitted
to give shine and enhance its shelf life?
Fresh fruits and vegetables may be coated with bees wax (white and
yellow) or carnauba wax or shellac wax at level not exceeding Good
Manufacturing Practices as per the sub-regulation 2.3.6 of Food Safety
& Standards (Prohibition and Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2011.
Spices-
1). Cinnamon and Cassia
Cinnamon can be easily differentiated from the cassia. Cinnamon bark

is sweet, smooth, delicate and light brown in colour. Several thin layers
are curled and look like cigar.
While, cassia bark is thick, rough, uneven and dark brown in colour. On
rolling it look like hollow tube. FSSAI has introduced the addition of
parameter “Coumarin Content on dry basis - Not more than 0.3% by
weight” in the existing standard of Cinnamon and Cinnamon Powder
under regulation 2.9.4 of Food Safety & Standards (Food Products and
Food Additives) Regulations, 2011.
Organic Food Products-
1). Organic Foods
Organic food has become a very popular and familiar word these days.
With growing concerns about food safety and nutrition, the demand for
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organic food is increasing. Organic food is grown agriculturally without
the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. All organic products are
protected from prohibited substances and methods from the field to the
point of final sale, whether it is a raw agricultural commodity or a multi-
ingredient, processed product.
FSSAI has notified the Food Safety and Standards (Organic Foods)
Regulations, 2017 on 29.12.2017 recognizing two already established
systems of certification:-
i. National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP).
ii. Participatory Guarantee System (PGS-India).
2). Which legislation governing Organic Food in India?
Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 govern the regulation of

packaging, storage, distribution, sale and import etc. of Organic Food.
3). Who has to be certified under this legislation?
Organic Food Business Operator who are involved in the processing,

distribution, transport, storage, retail and imports of all organic
products need to be certified.
4). Who is exempted from the need of verification of compliance?
Direct sales by small original producer or producer organisation to the

end consumer are exempted from the need of verification of compliance.
5). Who is in charge of certifying organic products?
The Accredited Certification Bodies in case of NPOP and Regional

Councils in case of PGS-India certify Organic Food Products.
6). What are the residual limits of Insecticides in Organic Foods?
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The organic food are required to comply with Food Safety and
Standards (Contaminants, Toxins and Residues) Regulations, 2011
except for residues of insecticides for which the maximum limits shall
be 5% of the maximum limits prescribed in these Regulations or Level
of Quantification (LoQ) whichever is higher.
7). What about imported organic products?
Under bilateral or multilateral agreements based on the equivalence of

standards as per National Programme for Organic Production, organic
products are not required to be recertified on import to India. All
organic food consignments are to be accompanied by a Transaction
Certificate issued by an Accredited Certification Body.
8). When will these regulations come into force?
The Food Safety and Standards (Organic Foods) Regulations, 2017 will
come into force from 1st July 2018.
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Chapter 3: Principles of Food Preservation, Processing and Packaging
Food Preservation is a process in which
 Food and vegetables are prevented from getting spoilt

 The color, test, and nutritive values of food is also preserved
 Food products lasts for a long period of time: Shelf life of food
product is increased
Definition of Food Preservation- Retaining food over a period of time

without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and
without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value. Food
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi
and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats
which causes rancidity.
Why to preserve food?
If we are able to preserve foods, we enjoy any kind of foods in any season.
Types of Food:
Perishable
 Lasts for less time 2 days to 1 week

 Example: Fruits, milk, vegetables, meat
Semi perishable
 Lasts for around 2 months and are processed

 Example: Ice-cream, cheese, bread, cake, pastries
Shelf Stable
 Has longer shelf Life more than 6 months

 Example: Food grains
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Principles of Food Preservation
a) Inhibit the growth and activity of Microorganisms

 Asepsis(to keep out microorganisms)
 Removal of microorganisms
 Stopping the growth and activity of microorganisms (low
temperatures, drying or chemicals)
 Destruction of MO(heating or radiation)
b) Protecting against self decomposition of food
 Inhibit the activity of Endogenous Enzyme (Phenolase)
 Delay or inhibit chemical reactions(Non-enzymatic browning)
c) Protection from invasion and spoilage by insects and rodents
d) Protection against losses by mechanical causes
Food Preservation Methods
Principles of Food preservation can be broadly classified into two types:
1) Bactericidal methods
2) Bacteriostatic methods
1) Bactericidal methods
Most of the microorganisms are killed. Examples are
 cooking,
 canning,
 pasteurization,
 sterilization,
 irradiation etc.
2) Bacteriostatic methods
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Based on prevention of multiplication of microorganisms. It may be
achieved by
 removal of water
 use of acids, oils or spices
 keeping the foodstuff in low temperature
Examples are
 Drying
 Freezing
 Pickling
 Salting
 Smoking.
Techniques of Food Preservation
a) Physical
b) Chemical
Physical:
 freezing and canning(rely on killing the microorganisms or at least

stopping the their growth for long enough)
 drying, gamma irradiation, exposure to ultraviolet or high
intensity white light, ultra high pressure and filtration
Chemical:
Work either as:
 Direct microbial poisons

 Reducing the pH to a level that prevents the growth of MOs
#Chemicals used today are:
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1. Nitrates and Nitrites
 to preserve meats
2. Sulphites
 to prevent the browning of fruits and vegetables

 to prevent fungal spoilage
Common food preservation methods:
 Bottling and canning

 Pickling
 Drying
 Salting
 Vacuum packing
 Cooling and freezing
 Waxing
 Pasteurization
 Boiling
 Smoking
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Important Abbreviations
Food Processing
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform

raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for
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consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food
processing industry. Food processing typically takes clean, harvested
crops or slaughtered and butchered animal products and uses these to
produce attractive, marketable and often long-life food products.
Similar process are used to produce animal feed.
Classification of Food Processing
Primary food processing- Primary food processing turns agricultural

products, such as raw wheat kernels or livestock, into something that
can eventually be eaten. This category includes ingredients that are
produced by ancient processes such as drying, threshing, winnowing,
and milling grain, shelling nuts, and butchering animals for meat. It
also includes deboning and cutting meat, freezing and smoking fish and
meat, extracting and filtering oils, canning food, preserving food
through food irradiation, and candling eggs, as well as homogenizing
and pasteurizing milk.
Contamination and spoilage problems in primary food processing can

lead to significant public health threats, as the resulting foods are used
so widely. However, many forms of processing contribute to improved
food safety and longer shelf life before the food spoils. Commercial food
processing uses control systems such as hazard analysis and critical
control points (HACCP) and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)
to reduce the risk of harm.
Secondary food processing- Secondary food processing is the everyday

process of creating food from ingredients that are ready to use. Baking
bread, regardless of whether it is made at home, in a small bakery, or in
a large factory, is an example of secondary food processing. Fermenting
fish and making wine, beer, and other alcoholic products are traditional
forms of secondary food processing. Sausages are a common form of
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secondary processed meat, formed by comminution (grinding) of meat
that has already undergone primary processing.
Tertiary food processing- Tertiary food processing is the commercial

production of what is commonly called processed food. These are ready-
to-eat or heat-and-serve foods, such as TV dinners and re-heated airline
meals.
Aims of Food Processing
1. To extend the shelf life to allow time for distribution, sales and home
storage.
2. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive

flavours, colours, aromas and textures in food (collectively known as
eating quality, sensory characteristics or organoleptic quality); .
3. To provide the nutrients required for health (termed nutritional

quality of a food).
4. To generate income for the manufacturing company.
Examples of food processing methods include:
 Chopping
 Mixing
 Homogenizing
 Cooking
 Pastuerizing
 Blanching
 Spray-drying
 Frying
 Baking
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 Packaging
 Addition of gas such as air entrainment for bread or gasification
of soft drinks
Benefits & Drawbacks of Food Processing
Benefits
Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing

marketing and distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency. In
addition, it increases yearly availability of many foods, enables
transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances and
makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and
pathogenic micro-organisms. Modern supermarkets would not exist
without modern food processing techniques, and long voyages would
not be possible.
Processed foods are usually less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh
foods and are better suited for long-distance transportation from the
source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some
processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages and improved the
overall nutrition of populations as it made many new foods available to
the masses.
Processing can also reduce the incidence of food-borne disease. Fresh

materials, such as fresh produce and raw meats, are more likely to
harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of
causing serious illnesses.
The extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale
because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well
as the elimination of much hard labor gives the modern eater easy
access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors.
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The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly.
Mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual

production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a large profit
potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food
products. Individuals may see a benefit in convenience, but rarely see
any direct financial cost benefit in using processed food as compared to
home preparation.
Processed food freed people from the large amount of time involved in
preparing and cooking "natural" unprocessed foods. The increase in
free time allows people much more choice in life style than previously
allowed. In many families the adults are working away from home and
therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh
ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfill many different
needs: e.g. fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the
microwave oven within a few minutes.
Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with
allergies, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some
common food elements. Food processing can also add extra nutrients
such as vitamins.
Drawbacks
Processing of food can decrease its nutritional density. The amount of

nutrients lost depends on the food and processing method. For example,
heat destroys vitamin C. Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin
C than their fresh alternatives. The USDA conducted a study of nutrient
retention in 2004, creating a table of foods, levels of preparation, and
nutrition.
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New research highlighting the importance to human health of a rich
microbial environment in the intestine indicates that abundant food
processing (not fermentation of foods) endangers that environment.
Using some food additives represents another safety concern. The

health risks of any given additive vary greatly from person to person;
for example using sugar as an additive endangers diabetics. In the
European Union, only European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
approved food additives (e.g., sweeteners, preservatives, stabilizers) are
permitted at specified levels for use in food products. Approved
additives receive an E number (E for Europe), simplifying
communication about food additives included in the ingredients' list for
all the different languages spoken in the EU. As effects of chemical
additives are learned, changes to laws and regulatory practices are
made to make such processed foods safer.
Food processing is typically a mechanical process that utilizes extrusion,

large mixing, grinding, chopping and emulsifying equipment in the
production process. These processes introduce a number of
contamination risks. Such contaminates are left over material from a
previous operation, animal or human bodily fluids, microorganisms,
nonmetallic and metallic fragments. Further processing of these
contaminates will result in downstream equipment failure and the risk
of ingestion by the consumer. Example: A mixing bowl or grinder is
used over time, metal parts in contact with food will tend to fail and
fracture. This type of failure will introduce into the product stream
small to large metal contaminants.[citation needed] Further processing
of these metal fragments will result in downstream equipment failure
and the risk of ingestion by the consumer. Food manufacturers utilize
industrial metal detectors to detect and reject automatically any metal
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fragment. Large food processors will utilize many metal detectors
within the processing stream to reduce both damage to processing
machinery as well as risk to consumer health.
Food processing does have some benefits, such as making food last
longer and making products more convenient. However, there are
drawbacks to relying on a lot of heavily processed foods. Whole foods
and those that are only minimally processed, like frozen vegetables
without any sauce, tend to be healthier. An unhealthy diet high in fat,
added sugar and salt, such as one containing a lot of highly-processed
foods, can increase the risk for cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease,
according to the World Health Organization.
Food Packaging
Food is packaged for many purposes. Some reasons are:
 containment for shipping, dispensing, unitizing in to appropriate

sizes, improving the usefulness,
 protect from microbial contamination, physical dirt, insect
invasion, light exposure, flavor pickup, flavor loss, moisture
pickup, moisture loss and physical abuse
Food is packaged in metal cans, glass & plastic bottles, paper & paper
board, wide variety of plastic & metallic films and combinations of these
 Packaging is done by continuous automatic machines at a speed

of 1000 units per min
 The container forming is dependent on the type of the food
Roles of Food Packaging
The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from
outside influences and damage, to contain the food, and to provide
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consumers with ingredient and nutritional information (Coles 2003).
Traceability, convenience, and tamper indication are secondary
functions of increasing importance. The goal of food packaging is to
contain food in a cost-effective way that satisfies industry requirements
and consumer desires, maintains food safety, and minimizes
environmental impact.
Protection/preservation- Food packaging can retard product

deterioration, retain the beneficial effects of processing, extend shelf-
life, and maintain or increase the quality and safety of food. In doing so,
packaging provides protection from 3 major classes of external
influences: chemical, biological, and physical.
Chemical protection minimizes compositional changes triggered by

environmental influences such as exposure to gases (typically oxygen),
moisture (gain or loss), or light (visible, infrared, or ultraviolet). Many
different packaging materials can provide a chemical barrier. Glass and
metals provide a nearly absolute barrier to chemical and other
environmental agents, but few packages are purely glass or metal since
closure devices are added to facilitate both filling and emptying. Closure
devices may contain materials that allow minimal levels of permeability.
For example, plastic caps have some permeability to gases and vapors,
as do the gasket materials used in caps to facilitate closure and in metal
can lids to allow sealing after filling. Plastic packaging offers a large
range of barrier properties but is generally more permeable than glass
or metal.
Biological protection provides a barrier to microorganisms (pathogens

and spoiling agents), insects, rodents, and other animals, thereby
preventing disease and spoilage. In addition, biological barriers
maintain conditions to control senescence (ripening and aging). Such
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barriers function via a multiplicity of mechanisms, including preventing
access to the product, preventing odor transmission, and maintaining
the internal environment of the package.
Physical protection shields food from mechanical damage and includes

cushioning against the shock and vibration encountered during
distribution. Typically developed from paperboard and corrugated
materials, physical barriers resist impacts, abrasions, and crushing
damage, so they are widely used as shipping containers and as
packaging for delicate foods such as eggs and fresh fruits. Appropriate
physical packaging also protects consumers from various hazards. For
example, child-resistant closures hinder access to potentially dangerous
products. In addition, the substitution of plastic packaging for products
ranging from shampoo to soda bottles has reduced the danger from
broken glass containers.
Containment and food waste reduction- Any assessment of food

packaging's impact on the environment must consider the positive
benefits of reduced food waste throughout the supply chain. Significant
food wastage has been reported in many countries, ranging from 25%
for food grain to 50% for fruits and vegetables (FAO 1989). Inadequate
preservation/protection, storage, and transportation have been cited as
causes of food waste. Packaging reduces total waste by extending the
shelf-life of foods, thereby prolonging their usability. Rathje and others
(1985) found that the per capita waste generated in Mexico City
contained less packaging, more food waste, and one-third more total
waste than generated in comparable U.S. cities. In addition, Rathje and
others (1985) observed that packaged foods result in 2.5% total waste—
as compared to 50% for fresh foods—in part because agricultural by-
products collected at the processing plant are used for other purposes
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while those generated at home are typically discarded. Therefore,
packaging may contribute to the reduction of total solid waste.
Marketing and information- A package is the face of a product and often

is the only product exposure consumers experience prior to purchase.
Consequently, distinctive or innovative packaging can boost sales in a
competitive environment. The package may be designed to enhance the
product image and/or to differentiate the product from the competition.
For example, larger labels may be used to accommodate recipes.
Packaging also provides information to the consumer. For example,
package labeling satisfies legal requirements for product identification,
nutritional value, ingredient declaration, net weight, and manufacturer
information. Additionally, the package conveys important information
about the product such as cooking instructions, brand identification,
and pricing. All of these enhancements may impact waste disposal.
Traceability- The Codex Alimentarius Commission defines traceability

as "the ability to follow the movement of a food through specified
stage(s) of production, processing and distribution" (Codex
Alimentarius Commission 2004). Traceability has 3 objectives: to
improve supply management, to facilitate trace-back for food safety and
quality purposes, and to differentiate and market foods with subtle or
undetectable quality attributes (Golan and others 2004). Food
manufacturing companies incorporate unique codes onto the package
labels of their products; this allows them to track their products
throughout the distribution process. Codes are available in various
formats (for example, printed barcodes or electronic radio frequency
identification [RFID]) and can be read manually and/or by machine.
Convenience- Convenience features such as ease of access, handling,

and disposal; product visibility; resealability; and microwavability
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greatly influence package innovation. As a consequence, packaging
plays a vital role in minimizing the effort necessary to prepare and serve
foods. Oven-safe trays, boil-in bags, and microwavable packaging
enable consumers to cook an entire meal with virtually no preparation.
New closure designs supply ease of opening, resealability, and special
dispensing features. For example, a cookie manufacturer recently
introduced a flexible bag with a scored section that provides access to
the cookies. A membrane with a peelable seal covers the opening before
sale and allows reclosure after opening. Advances in food packaging
have facilitated the development of modern retail formats that offer
consumers the convenience of 1-stop shopping and the availability of
food from around the world. These convenience features add value and
competitive advantages to products but may also influence the amount
and type of packaging waste requiring disposal.
Tamper indication
Willful tampering with food and pharmaceutical products has resulted

in special packaging features designed to reduce or eliminate the risk of
tampering and adulteration. Although any package can be breeched,
tamper-evident features cannot easily be replaced. Tamper-evident
features include banding, special membranes, breakaway closures, and
special printing on bottle liners or composite cans such as graphics or
text that irreversibly change upon opening. Special printing also
includes holograms that cannot be easily duplicated. Tamper-evident
packaging usually requires additional packaging materials, which
exacerbates disposal issues, but the benefits generally outweigh any
drawback. An example of a tamper-evident feature that requires no
additional packaging materials is a heat seal used on medical packaging
that is chemically formulated to change color when opened.
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Other functions
Packaging may serve other functions, such as a carrier for premiums

(for example, inclusion of a gift, additional product, or coupon) or
containers for household use. The potential for packaging use/reuse
eliminates or delays entry to the waste stream.
Materials Used in Food Packaging
Package design and construction play a significant role in determining

the shelf life of a food product. The right selection of packaging
materials and technologies maintains product quality and freshness
during distribution and storage. Materials that have traditionally been
used in food packaging include glass, metals (aluminum, foils and
laminates, tinplate, and tin-free steel), paper and paperboards, and
plastics. Moreover, a wider variety of plastics have been introduced in
both rigid and flexible forms. Today's food packages often combine
several materials to exploit each material's functional or aesthetic
properties. As research to improve food packaging continues, advances
in the field may affect the environmental impact of packaging.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates packaging

materials under section 409 of the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act. The primary method of regulation is through the food contact
notification process that requires that manufacturers notify FDA 120 d
prior to marketing a food contact substance (FCS) for a new use. An FCS
is "any substance intended for use as a component of materials used in
manufacturing, packing, packaging, transporting or holding of food if
the use is not intended to have a technical effect in such food" (21 USC
§348(h)(6)). All FCSs that may reasonably migrate to food under
conditions of intended use are identified and regulated as food additives
unless classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) substances.
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Glass
Glass has an extremely long history in food packaging; the 1st glass
objects for holding food are believed to have appeared around 3000 BC
(Sacharow and Griffin 1980). The production of glass containers
involves heating a mixture of silica (the glass former), sodium carbonate
(the melting agent), and limestone/calcium carbonate and alumina
(stabilizers) to high temperatures until the materials melt into a thick
liquid mass that is then poured into molds. Recycled broken glass
(cullet) is also used in glass manufacture and may account for as much
as 60% of all raw materials. Glass containers used in food packaging are
often surface-coated to provide lubrication in the production line and
eliminate scratching or surface abrasion and line jams. Glass coatings
also increase and preserve the strength of the bottle to reduce breakage.
Improved break resistance allows manufacturers to use thinner glass,
which reduces weight and is better for disposal and transportation
(McKown 2000).
Because it is odorless and chemically inert with virtually all food

products, glass has several advantages for food-packaging applications:
It is impermeable to gases and vapors, so it maintains product freshness
for a long period of time without impairing taste or flavor. The ability to
withstand high processing temperatures makes glass useful for heat
sterilization of both low- acid and high-acid foods. Glass is rigid,
provides good insulation, and can be produced in numerous different
shapes. The transparency of glass allows consumers to see the product,
yet variations in glass color can protect light-sensitive contents. Finally,
glass packaging benefits the environment because it is reusable and
recyclable.
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Like any material, glass has some disadvantages. Despite efforts to use
thinner glass, its heavy weight adds to transportation costs. Another
concern is its brittleness and susceptibility to breakage from internal
pressure, impact, or thermal shock.
Metal
Metal is the most versatile of all packaging forms. It offers a

combination of excellent physical protection and barrier properties,
formability and decorative potential, recyclability, and consumer
acceptance. The 2 metals most predominantly used in packaging are
aluminum and steel.
Aluminum.
Commonly used to make cans, foil, and laminated paper or plastic

packaging, aluminum is a lightweight, silvery white metal derived from
bauxite ore, where it exists in combination with oxygen as alumina.
Magnesium and manganese are often added to aluminum to improve
its strength properties (Page and others 2003). Unlike many metals,
aluminum is highly resistant to most forms of corrosion; its natural
coating of aluminum oxide provides a highly effective barrier to the
effects of air, temperature, moisture, and chemical attack.
Besides providing an excellent barrier to moisture, air, odors, light, and

microorganisms, aluminum has good flexibility and surface resilience,
excellent malleability and formability, and outstanding embossing
potential. It is also an ideal material for recycling because it is easy to
reclaim and process into new products. Pure aluminum is used for light
packaging of primarily soft-drink cans, pet food, seafood, and
prethreaded closures. The main disadvantages of aluminum are its high
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cost compared to other metals (for example, steel) and its inability to be
welded, which renders it useful only for making seamless containers.
Aluminum foil.
Aluminum foil is made by rolling pure aluminum metal into very thin
sheets, followed by annealing to achieve dead-folding properties (a
crease or fold made in the film will stay in place), which allows it to be
folded tightly. Moreover, aluminum foil is available in a wide range of
thicknesses, with thinner foils used to wrap food and thicker foils used
for trays. Like all aluminum packaging, foil provides an excellent barrier
to moisture, air, odors, light, and microorganisms. It is inert to acidic
foods and does not require lacquer or other protection. Although
aluminum is easily recyclable, foils cannot be made from recycled
aluminum without pinhole formation in the thin sheets.
Laminates and metallized films.
Lamination of packaging involves the binding of aluminum foil to paper

or plastic film to improve barrier properties. Thin gauges facilitate
application. Although lamination to plastic enables heat sealability, the
seal does not completely bar moisture and air. Because laminated
aluminum is relatively expensive, it is typically used to package high
value foods such as dried soups, herbs, and spices. A less expensive
alternative to laminated packaging is metallized film. Metallized films
are plastics containing a thin layer of aluminum metal (Fellows and
Axtell 2002). These films have improved barrier properties to moisture,
oils, air, and odors, and the highly reflective surface of the aluminum is
attractive to consumers. More flexible than laminated films, metallized
films are mainly used to package snacks. Although the individual
components of laminates and metallized films are technically recyclable,
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the difficulty in sorting and separating the material precludes
economically feasible recycling.
Tinplate.
Produced from low-carbon steel (that is, blackplate), tinplate is the

result of coating both sides of blackplate with thin layers of tin. The
coating is achieved by dipping sheets of steel in molten tin (hot-dipped
tinplate) or by the electro-deposition of tin on the steel sheet
(electrolytic tinplate). Although tin provides steel with some corrosion
resistance, tinplate containers are often lacquered to provide an inert
barrier between the metal and the food product. Commonly used
lacquers are materials in the epoxy phenolic and oleoresinous groups
and vinyl resins.
In addition to its excellent barrier properties to gases, water vapor, light,

and odors, tinplate can be heat-treated and sealed hermetically, making
it suitable for sterile products. Because it has good ductility and
formability, tinplate can be used for containers of many different shapes.
Thus, tinplate is widely used to form cans for drinks, processed foods,
and aerosols; containers for powdered foods and sugar- or flour-based
confections; and as package closures. Tinplate is an excellent substrate
for modern metal coating and lithoprinting technology, enabling
outstanding graphical decoration. Its relatively low weight and high
mechanical strength make it easy to ship and store. Finally, tinplate is
easily recycled many times without loss of quality and is significantly
lower in cost than aluminum.
Tin-free steel .
Also known as electrolytic chromium or chrome oxide coated steel, tin-

free steel requires a coating of organic material to provide complete
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corrosion resistance. Even though the chrome/chrome oxide makes tin-
free steel unsuitable for welding, this property makes it excellent for
adhesion of coatings such as paints, lacquers, and inks. Like tinplate,
tin-free steel has good formability and strength, but it is marginally less
expensive than tinplate. Food cans, can ends, trays, bottle caps, and
closures can all be made from tin-free steel. In addition, it can also be
used to make large containers (such as drums) for bulk sale and bulk
storage of ingredients or finished goods (Fellows and Axtell 2002).
Plastics
Plastics are made by condensation polymerization (polycondensation)

or addition polymerization (polyaddition) of monomer units. In
polycondensation, the polymer chain grows by condensation reactions
between molecules and is accompanied by formation of low molecular
weight byproducts such as water and methanol. Polycondensation
involves monomers with at least 2 functional groups such as alcohol,
amine, or carboxylic groups. In polyaddition, polymer chains grow by
addition reactions, in which 2 or more molecules combine to form a
larger molecule without liberation of by-products. Polyaddition
involves unsaturated monomers; double or triple bonds are broken to
link monomer chains. There are several advantages to using plastics for
food packaging. Fluid and moldable, plastics can be made into sheets,
shapes, and structures, offering considerable design flexibility. Because
they are chemically resistant, plastics are inexpensive and lightweight
with a wide range of physical and optical properties. In fact, many
plastics are heat sealable, easy to print, and can be integrated into
production processes where the package is formed, filled, and sealed in
the same production line. The major disadvantage of plastics is their
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variable permeability to light, gases, vapors, and low molecular weight
molecules.
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Chapter 4: Principles and Basics of Food Chemistry and their role in
Human Nutrition
Macronutrients and Micronutrients
Macronutrients
Macronutrients are needed in larger quantities (in gram range). They

normally include water, carbohydrates, fat and protein. Macronutrients
(except water) are also called energy-providing nutrients. Energy is
measured in calories and is essential for the body to grow, repair and
develop new tissues, conduct nerve impulses and regulate life process.
Carbohydrates – are required for energy and provide body’s main

source of energy (4 calories per gram); they form the major part of
stored food in the body for later use of energy and exist in three form:
sugar, starch and fiber. The brain works entirely on glucose alone.
When in excess, it is stored in the liver as Glycogen. Carbohydrates are
also important for fat oxidation and can also be converted into protein.
Fats – are used in making steroids and hormones and serve as solvents
for hormones and fat soluble vitamins. Fats have the highest caloric
content and provide the largest amount of energy when burnt. When
measured by a calorimeter, fats provide about 9 calories per gram of fat,
making them twice as energy-rich than protein and carbohydrates.
Extra fat is stored in adipose tissue and is burnt when the body has run
out of carbohydrates.
Proteins – they provide amino acids and make up most of the cell
structure including the cell membrane. They are the last to be used of
all macronutrients. In cases of extreme starvation, the muscles in the
body, that are made up of proteins, are used to provide energy. This is
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called muscle wasting. As for carbohydrates, proteins also provide 4
calories per gram.
Water – makes up a large part of our body weight and is the main
component of our body fluids. The body needs more water every day
than any other nutrient and we replenish it through foods and liquids
we eat and drink. Water serves as a carrier, distributing nutrients to
cells and removing wastes through urine. It is also a compulsory agent
in the regulation of body temperature and ionic balance of the blood.
Water is completely essential for the body’s metabolism and is also
required for lubricant and shock absorber.
Micronutrients
These nutrients include minerals and vitamins. Unlike macronutrients,

these are required in very minute amounts. Together, they are
extremely important for the normal functioning of the body. Their main
function is to enable the many chemical reactions to occur in the body.
Micronutrients do not function for the provision of energy.
Vitamins – are essential for normal metabolism, growth and

development, and regulation of cell function. They work together with
enzymes and other substances that are necessary for a healthy life.
Vitamins are either fat soluble or water-soluble. Fat soluble Vitamins
can be stored in the fatty tissues in the body when in excess. Water
soluble vitamins are excreted in urine when in excess and so need to be
taken daily. Water soluble vitamins include Vitamin B and C. Green
leafy vegetables are rich in Vitamin B, whereas Vitamin C is found
abundantly in citrus fruits. Fat soluble vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E and
K. Green leafy vegetables, milk and dairy products and plant oils
provide these vitamins.
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Minerals – are found in ionized form in the body. They are further
classified into macrominerals and microminerals (or trace minerals).
Macrominerals present in the body include Calcium, Potassium, Iron,
Sodium and Magnesium to name a few. Iron is a constituent of
Hemoglobin which is present in blood. Macrominerals are needed in
more amounts, as compared to microminerals. Microminerals include
Copper, Zinc, Cobalt, Chromium and Fluoride. They are mostly co-
factors, and are necessary for the function of enzymes in the body, but
are needed only in minor quantities. Approximately 4% of the body’s
mass consists of minerals.
Last But Not Least
The food safety regulator’s primary responsibility is to protect the

consumer by ensuring compliance with food safety laws and regulations,
given that the public’s well-being is the ultimate objective of a national
food safety system. Producers and processors, in contrast, are in
business to make a profit and that priority may well impair their
perception of accountability to society. Therefore, it is also the food
safety regulator’s duty to remind producers and processors of their
responsibility to produce safe foods. This message can be made more
relevant by explaining to food producers and processors that the safety
of their products not only fulfils their responsibility towards society –
but may also be determinant in developing their business.
Food Additive
A food additive is defined as any substance not normally consumed as

a food by itself and one which is intentionally added to food for a
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technological purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation,
treatment, packaging, transport or storage of such food.
Food additives have acquired a social acceptance in the processing and

preservation in order to maintain the taste and quality of food products.
These additives have now got legal and scientific sanctions because,
without changing the nutritional value of the food, they keep the quality,
stability and appearance of food in good order. The perishable foods
which otherwise go waste are generally saved due to these additives
within check the microbial development and quick oxidation, thus
reducing the food wastage.
An additive is a substance not normally present in the food in question

and which is added either deliberately or incidentally in order to
improve the quality or to preserve the food. In other words, food
additives are a group of substances which are directly ingested by
humans along with food-items or food product.
Actually, naturally-occurring substances are not necessarily non-toxic,

for example- the causation of lathyrism, a serious neurological disease
due to ingestion of khesari dal (Lathyrus sativus) is well known and its
incidence in endemic form occurs in many parts of India and abroad as
well. In India, Lathyrism — which is a crippling disease accompanied
by paralysis of the leg muscle — is found to occur in Bihar, U.P. and M.P.
Outside India, it has been reported to occur in Spain, Algeria, at

Hyderabad has done a painstaking and splendid piece of work to
remove toxic factors from khesari dal and has evolved ways and means
to remove toxic factors from this seed. Lathyrogens bring about
alterations in collagen, elastin and mucopolysaccharides of connective
tissue.
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The existence of harmful fish toxins has been known for centuries.
Teraodontoxin, the active principle of puffer fish, and saxitoxin from
muscles are two of the best-known fish toxins. Vegetable cooking fat
may contain 5 to 20 ppb of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons including benzopyrene.
The whisky drinker suffers in additions to benzopyrene consumption

from the barley used in the manufacture of Scotch whisky. Most pulses,
legumes and oil seeds including soyabeans that we eat contain various
types of antitryptic factors, hemagglutinin or hemolysins and other
growth- inhibitory substances. Unless they are adequately processed
and detoxified they will be deleterious to human health.
A number of vegetables, especially the Brassica family and soyabean,

contain goitrogens. In recent years many goitrogenous compounds in
foodstuffs, for example crambe seed meal, have been detoxified by
treatment with gaseous ammonia. It is well known that tapioca contains
cyanogenic glycosides and steam treatment is necessary to remove
these compounds. Peanut meal contains aflatoxin, which is one of most
the carcinogenic compounds known today.
Recently the Central Food Technical Research Institute, Mysore, has

evolved methods of detoxification of aflatoxin containing meal by
treatment with hydrogen peroxide under alkaline conditions.
Unfortunately, this treatment may also affect the nutritive value of the
meal to some extent.
Those of us with vegetarian tendencies will be depressed to learn that

the greens we collect from the market place may add yet another burden
of carcinogens. Cabbage and spinach are especially rich in
phenanthrene and flouranthene. Seed food grains also contain variable
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quantities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with phenanthrene (20
to 100 ppb) as a major constituent.
Coffee has been known to have a mutagenic effect on male larvae of the
fruit fly as also in mammalian tissue cultures and has been reported to
be hyper-cholestremic. In the gestating rat, caffeine has been reported
to cause fetal resorption and abnormalities of various kinds. Certain
oxidized and heated fats are known to produce growth retardation,
serious pathological changes at the cellular and sub-cellular level,
interference with mitochondrial electron transport and alterations in
membrane permeability.
Gossypol, present in cottonseed meal, has a growth- retarding effect,

especially to non-ruminants subsisting on low protein diets as has been
shown by the recent work of Dr. Gopalan at the Indian Nutrition
Research Laboratories. Cycad plants grow in many parts of the world
and their leaves and seed are eaten by people and animals. These plants
contain methylisodimethanol glucosides which, when hydrolysed,
behave like their chemical relatives the alkylnitro-samines.
Let us now consider the toxicity of food additives. Table shows the list
of commonly used food additives. They are additives added to foods
with specific technological on nutritional objectives. In addition, food
also contains other adventitious chemicals, as those from pesticides,
from packaging materials and bacterial and chemical contaminants of
various types.
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Commonly Used Food Additive
In addition, food also contains other adventitious chemicals, as those

from pesticides, from packaging materials and bacterial and chemical
contaminants of various types.
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Classification of Food Additives:
The food additives may be broadly classified in two groups:
A. The incidental or indirect additives.
B. The intentional or direct additives.
However, a third group, i.e., naturally occurring additives, may result

from processing conditions, metabolic reactions and unanticipated
chemical combinations. These include safrole and related compounds
and contaminants as aflatoxins.
A. Incidental or Indirect Additives:
A food may contain minute traces of a chemical as a result of contact

with a substance used in its production, processing or packing. Since its
presence serves no useful purpose in the final food product, such a
chemical may be considered to be an incidental additive, e.g., food may
pick up material from a wrapper or a container, either by dissolving it
out or by abrasion from the container into the food. Detergents used for
cleaning dishes or food equipments could be such an incidental source.
Of greatest concern are the pesticides which are used in crop production
in order to avoid destruction by insects, nematodes, viruses, fungi or
other plants peril. Residues of some of these pesticides sometimes may
be present on fruits and vegetables even after careful washing. It is self-
evident that these chemicals are toxic to some forms of life or they
would not have their protective properties for the crop.
Just what hazard they cause to man is a fundamental question. Since

the minimum lethal dose of these chemicals for various species of
animals is well- known, the products must be used according to
specified concentrations. More difficult to determine is the effect of
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built-up in the body when foods that contain such residues are eaten
day after day for long periods of time- even a lifetime.
Toxicological studies on animals throughout their life cycles, including

the effects on reproduction and the next generation, are continuously
being conducted to minimize such hazards.
B. Intentional or Direct Additives:
Chemicals are intentionally added to foods by the processor in order to

enhance the quality of a food such as texture, colour, flavour, nutritive
value, or keeping properties to gain better consumer- acceptance.
The intentional additives frequently used can be classified depending

on their nature, composition and quality of preservation required:
1. Antioxidants
2. Emulsifiers
3. Enzymes
4. Flavouring agents
5. Colour and preservatives
6. Artificial Sweetening Agents:
(a) Saccharin
(b) Urea derivatives.
1. Antioxidants:
The warm climate, temperature and humidity are such variable factors
that they boost microbial infections to contaminate the food which, in
due course, gets oxidized. The oxidation of food material makes the food
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unfit for human consumption. The dairy products such as cheese, butter,
oils and fats etc. start stinking if exposed to air for a longer period.
To check or reduce the oxidation of these food products, chemical

antioxidants are used, of course, with following restrictions:
(a) Such chemicals must be incorporated by the foodstuff and also must
not tend any flavour of their own or the colour even during long storage.
(b) It must be fairly cheap and also active even at low concentrations.
Only a little quantity of the antioxidants should be mixed with a diluting
agent facilitating its proper and uniform mixing without affecting the
food texture.
Not more than often, the antioxidants are also mixed with those agents
which enhance their action and such substances are known as
“synergists”, though they have no or very little activity and only catalyse
the action of antioxidant e.g., citric acid.
The natural antioxidants which are used in checking the oxidation of

animal fats are oils of soyabean, rice, palm, peanut, olive, cotton seed,
coffee etc. Apart from this, certain spices and other natural products —
e.g., oxalic, succinic, citric, malic, tartaric and amino acids like cystein,
glycine and leucine or amides and proteins — are also used as
antioxidants in food preservation.
The commonly used antioxidants by food industries — butylated

hydroxy anisole (BHA), butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and propyl
gallate — been found to be the cheapest and best. The aforesaid
antioxidants are frequently used to preserve chicken fat, meats, fishes,
baked and fried food etc.
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2. Emulsifiers:
To accelerate the process of emulsification certain emulsifying agents

are used to boost the desired emulsification. The most commonly used
agents are glycerides of fatty acids and their esters, stearic acid, lecithin,
and brominated vegetable oils. These agents, however, dilute the
consistency of the products and thus, Agar, Gelatin, Pectin, Calcium,
Sodium acetate and various starches are used to thicken food products
as they possess the affinity with water.
3. Enzymes:
Most harmless and without any toxic affect — the enzymes have been
found to play an important role in food preservation and are supposed
to be the best commercially available agents. These are amylases,
proteases, lipases, pectinases etc.
It is known to all of us that amylases hydrolyses starch and this reaction

has been adopted by those engaged in the syrup production from
various types of starches. Likewise, various fruit juices are also treated
with peptide enzymes for clearing and there-by reducing the viscosity,
it also helps storage (wine and soft drinks).
The protein hydrolyzing enzymes have also been successfully picked up

in dairy products e.g., cheese manufacturing and also in the preparation
of bread and wines etc. Those who consume meat use raw papaya for
meat tenderisation while cooking on large scale to make the meat soft
and easily digestible. The animals are given intravenous injection of
proteolytic enzyme before slaughter so that the enzymes may reach
uniformly in each and every part of the body making the flesh soft and
tender.
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Since these additives are cheap and almost harmless, they are thought
to be good ones.
4. Flavouring of Food Products:
The specifically desired flavour and taste is the first and foremost
prerequisite of the food products to attract large number of consumers.
In order to improve the taste and increase or decrease the natural
flavour of food, the agents which are used are known as seasoners,
enhancers, potentiators and flavour integers.
Since long, scents and aromatic oils are being extracted from the leaves,
flowers, fruits, barks and seeds of various aromatic plants. The most
commonly used odorous plants are orange, lemon, grapes, rose, kewara,
khas, vanilla etc. Even in the common houses pickles are made — a good
number of raw spices are added to it to increase the taste and aroma.
Apart from vegetative plant materials a good number of comparatively

stronger synthetic flavour boosters have also been synthesized.
However, such chemicals are used in very small quantity (not more than
300 ppm) yet they have been found quite effective and also easier in
mixing. They are usually some acids along with sugar or certain salts
and chemicals viz., Di-sodium 5′-inosinate and Di-sodium 5′ quanylate
(intensifiers).
However, quite safe and most commonly used natural vegetable

aromatic agents are coriander, ginger, garlic, onion, clove, cardamom,
saffron, tejpatta etc. These are freely used in our kitchens and houses
without any toxic risk. Some of the fruits like mangoes, melon, banana
etc. make other substances aromatic.
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5. Colour and Preservatives:
Colours have been found to be one of the important attractants in the

finished food products. Therefore, colours and preservatives are freely
added in a variety of edibles e.g., ice cream, sweets, candy, biscuits, soft
and alcoholic drinks etc. Besides dairy, confectioneries and beverages,
even the pulse like arhar (Cajanus cajan), masoor etc. are also coloured
for an attractive food and consequently increased sale (Phool Chap Dal).
Though only a limited number of colours are approved for colouring the
food yet people utilize most randomly even the prohibited ones. The
colours which are permitted are either of plant origin or synthetic. Some
of the permitted colours are Erythrosine, Ponceau 4 R (red), Sunset
yellow, Indigo, Carmine, Fast green, Amarnth etc. The permitted
colours are either added to some of the edibles e.g., aerated drinks,
sauce, jams, syrups etc., or in good number of medicines.
However, since the colours (synthetic) are not quite safe, their doses
should be carefully watched and monitored because they cause toxicity
in animals. The excess use of some of these colours may cause diarrhea,
lowering of RBC count (Ponceau), cholesterol dis-balance, growth
retardation etc.
A higher concentration of amaranth has been reported to be

carcinogenic, reduces fertility, induces abortion and fetal deformities.
The ill-effect of most of the colours is because they do not decompose
during digestion. Therefore, colours must be used with caution and care
should be taken to restrict to the permitted ratio.
But it is most alarming that most of the sweet-meat shops use certain
non-permitted dyes e.g., mentil yellow, auromine, orange II, rhodamine
B, congo red, malachite green and methylene violet etc. which are highly
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toxic and cause irreparable harm to some of the most vital body organs
e.g., kidney, spleen, liver, heart, eyes.
6. Artificial Sweetener:
The most commonly used natural sweetening agent is sugar

(C12H22O11) and is manufactured from sugarcane, palm, sugar beet,
pineapple juice etc. In addition to sucrose, other natural sweeteners are
glucose, fructose, maltose, lactose etc. But since these sugars are costlier,
the industrialists use certain synthetic chemical sweeteners which are,
on one hand, cheaper, and, on the other hand, 100 times sweeter than
sugar. These chemical sweeteners are the compounds of amides, imides,
nitrites, oximes, ureas and nitroaniline groups. Though they are
excreted through urine they exert extra pressure on kidneys.
The most commonly used sweetening agents are:
(a) Saccharin:
This is a by-product of coal-tar distillation and was developed during

World War II (1939-45) by Germans and is chemically called o-
sulphobenzimide. It is about 700 times more sweet then natural sucrose.
Since this chemical has obtained universal acceptance it is widely used
in beverages and cold drinks, toothpastes and several such products.
Like other food- additives, saccharin has low acute toxicity in
experimental animals. However, it may produce bladder tumors in rats.
(b) Urea Derivative:
Its commercial name is Dulcine and the chemical name is p-phenetyl.

It is 300 times sweeter than sugar.
Besides, there are many more such chemicals in commercial use but
they are not as safe as saccharin. These compounds have been reported
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to be toxic and cause damage to kidney, produce liver tumour and
several more side-effects.
Food-Borne Molds and Mycotoxins (Food Contaminants):
Molds are well-known to humans for centuries in the production of

foods and have provided a number of fungal metabolites with salient
medicinal applications. On the other hand, they may produce various
other metabolites which may produce severe adverse health effect.
Important among these are aflatoxins and trichothecenes.
Other mycotoxins and subgroups are listed in Table
Actually, aflatoxins are some of the most toxic and carcinogenic

substances known.
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The comparative carcinogenic properties of aflatoxins with other well-
known carcinogens are illustrated in Table.
Other Contaminants of Food (Metals, Pesticides and Antibiotics):
Various metals, pesticides, antibiotics etc. accidently or intentionally

may contaminate the food stuffs as summarized in Table.
Testing of Food Additives:
Unlike drugs, food additives are not used for their specific biological
additives but are used for their specific technological effects and to
ensure the maintenance of the natural quality of food. With food
additives the hazard, if any, is more likely long- term rather than acute.
The problem of testing food toxicity is much more complicated than

that of testing drug toxicity. The composition of the food additives, the
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conditions and extent of usage and their biological properties — all
factors have to be taken into account in evaluating the possible hazard
or ensuring the safety in use of food additives.
Apart from chemical and physical specifications the main headings

under which information should be sought are:
1. Acute toxicity data by oral and by injection in rats, mice and one
additional species.
2. Short term studies (feeding for 90 days). In rat or mice and one
additional species — usually for a period of 10% of the life span. In this
case a 1,000-fold margin of safety on non-effective levels in animals has
been suggested in humans.
3. Long term (usually 2 years) tests which include studies on toxicity,

with histopathological data, fertility and carcinogenicity. In this case a
100- fold margin of safely has been suggested in humans over non-
effective levels in animals.
4. Metabolic effects on enzyme levels etc. Estimation of serum enzyme

concentrations undoubtedly gives an excellent indication of tissue
abnormalities and the acute effects of many hepatotoxic compounds.
Elevation in urine enzyme levels can give some indications of kidney
damage. These tests require sophisticated technologies and, apart from
animal-house facilities, a good deal of inter-disciplinary collaboration
between biochemists, physiologists, histochemists, electron
microscopists, pharmacologists, and oncologists, in addition to
analytical chemists, is necessary.
Overview of anti-nutritional factors and their removal from foods
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Anti-nutritional factors- Compounds or substances which act to reduce
nutrient intake, digestion, absorption and utilization and may produce
other adverse effects are referred to as anti-nutrients or anti-nutritional
factors.
Secondary plant metabolites, also referred to as anti-nutritional factors

(ANFs), cause depressions in growth performance and animal health
due to a variety of mechanisms including reducing protein digestibility,
binding to various nutrients or damaging the intestinal wall, thereby
lowering digestive efficiency.
Anti-nutritives can also cause toxic effects by
 Causing nutritional deficiencies.

 Interference with the functioning and utilization of nutrients.
 Antinutritives can interfere with food components before intake,
during digestion in the gastrointestinal tract, and after absorption
in the body.
Types of Antinutritives:
1. type A: substances primarily interfering with the digestion of proteins

or the absorption and utilization of amino acids-antiproteins
2. type B: substances interfering with the absorption or metabolic

utilization of minerals- antiminerals
3. type C: substances that inactivate or destroy vitamins or otherwise

increase the need for vitamins- antivitamins
Overview of Enzymes as Food processing Aids
Essential in the metabolism of all living organisms, the enzymes are

increasingly used to drive chemical reactions outside their natural
localization. In particular, the use of the biocatalysts as food additives
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and in processing raw materials has been practiced for a long time. In
fact, enzymatic preparations from the extracts of plants or animal
tissues were used well before much was known about the nature and
properties of enzymes.
Food industry is constantly seeking advanced technologies to meet the

demand of the consumers, and enzymes have long been used by the
industrial product makers as major tools to transform the raw materials
into end-products. Their clean label (GRAS, generally recognized as
safe) consideration from the legal point of view has prompted their
extensive use in food technology. When purified and added to food
preparations, several enzymes are able to improve their flavor, texture,
digestibility, and nutritional value. However, it was not until the mid of
the past century that the rapid development in protein technology
occurred, and only in the last 30 years, the use of commercial enzymes
has grown in the food industry, progressively becoming an important
aspect of the manufacturing of meat, vegetables, fruit, baked goods,
milk products, and both alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. As a
matter of fact, an increasing number of articles, mostly describing the
enhanced product yields, have been published during the last ten years,
both in food and beverage manufacturing. Moreover, since it is
desirable in different branches of food technology to change the
physical and chemical properties of protein, many previously
unexplored enzymes are currently employed to produce a variety of
foods in which the biocatalysts replace potentially carcinogenic or
otherwise harmful chemicals. This includes also new methods in which
the characteristics of natural products are altered to fit the nutritional
or technological needs changing.
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The economic benefit of using technical enzyme preparations lies in
lowered process costs, in the reduction of the environmental impact by
making use of renewable resources, and often in increasing the quality
of the products. Also, preservation makes a significant impact on the
quality of food as well of beverages. It is well known, for example, that
modern processes convert juices into concentrates that, except for
aroma, can be stored for a long time without loss in quality. Stabilizing
flavor and color is also an example of improved preservation. Finally,
the advent of biotechnology has also allowed significant refinements in
the methodologies offering unpredictable solutions to many persistent
problems and opening up exciting new possibilities. Among these,
enzymes are proposed as exemplary agents of “green” technology since
they can also be used either to treat the biological wastes or to prevent
their formation. Currently used enzymes sometimes originate in
animals and plants but most come from a range of beneficial
microorganisms. Thus, numerous purified enzymes are now being
widely used not only in food processing but also as food additives. In
this respect, it is noteworthy that the enzymes, like all proteins, can
cause reactions only when people have been sensitized through
exposure to large quantities. Therefore, since their levels in the food are
generally very low, the enzymes are highly unlikely to cause allergies.
Overview of nutraceuticals and functions foods
Nutraceuticals
The term "nutraceutical" was coined from "nutrition" and

"pharmaceutical" in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice, MD, founder and
chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM),
Cranford, NJ. DeFelice proceeded to define nutraceutical as, "a food (or
part of a food) that provides medical or health benefits, including the
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prevention and/or treatment of a disease" . When functional food aids
in the prevention and/or treatment of disease(s) and/or disorder(s)
other than anaemia, it is called a nutraceutical. It should be noted that
the term nutraceutical, as commonly used in marketing, has no
regulatory definition. Thus, nutraceuticals differ from dietary
supplements in the following aspects: (1) nutraceuticals must not only
supplement the diet but should also aid in the prevention and/or
treatment of disease and/or disorder; and (2) nutraceuticals are used as
conventional foods or as sole items of a meal or diet. Dietary
components play beneficial roles beyond basic nutrition, leading to the
development of the functional food concept and nutraceuticals. A
functional food for one consumer can act as a nutraceutical for another
consumer. Examples of nutraceuticals include fortified dairy products
(e.g., milk) and citrus fruits (e.g., orange juice).
Several naturally derived food substances have been studied in cancer

therapies. Vitamin E, selenium, vitamin D, green tea, soy, and lycopene
are examples of nutraceuticals widely studied in human health. While
many of these 'natural' compounds have been found to have high
therapeutic potential; future studies should include well-designed
clinical trials assessing combinations of these compounds to realize
possible synergies they bring into human health.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (which include the omega-3 and

omega-6 fatty acids) and phytochemicals also play an important role as
healthy dietary bioactive compounds. A balanced PUFA composition of
food influences diverse aspects of immunity and metabolism. Moreover,
interactions between PUFAs and components of the gut microbiota may
also influence their biological roles. Phytochemicals (bioactive non-
nutrient plant compounds), have raised interest in human nutrition
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because of their potential effects as antioxidants, antiestrogenics, anti-
inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anticarcinogenics. Gut
microbiota can, for example, transform and influence the bioavailability
and effects of polyphenols. Phytochemicals and their metabolic
products may also inhibit pathogenic bacteria while stimulate the
growth of beneficial bacteria, exerting prebiotic-like effects.
Interactions between functional food components, such as prebiotics,
probiotics, phytochemicals, and intestinal microbiota, have
consequences on human health.
Functions Food:
Functional foods are similar in appearance to conventional foods; the

former being consumed as part of the normal diet. In contrast to
conventional foods, functional foods, however, have demonstrated
physiological benefits and can reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond
basic nutritional functions, including maintenance of gut health [34].
When food is being cooked or prepared using "scientific intelligence"
with or without knowledge of how or why it is being used, the food is
called "functional food". Thus, functional food provides the body with
the required amount of vitamins, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.,
needed for its healthy survival.
Food Allergens:
Food allergens are typically naturally-occurring proteins in foods or

derivatives of them that cause abnormal immune responses. Prevalence
of food allergies around the world is believed to be increasing, with
more than 8% of children and 2% of adults in countries like Australia
and New Zealand having allergy to one or more foods. The most
common allergens for young children are milk and egg but, fortunately,
many children outgrow these allergies by the time they have reached 5-
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7 years of age. On the other hand, allergies such as those to seafood,
peanut and tree nut may develop later and are lifelong conditions.
Practically all foods have the capacity to cause an allergic reaction in a

person who has become sensitised to proteins in it. However, in
Australia and New Zealand there are 9 foods or food groups that cause
about 90% of all allergic reactions: peanuts; tree nuts; soy; milk, egg;
cereals; seafood; fish; and sesame.
Allergic reactions to foods vary greatly from mild gastrointestinal

discomfort, to skin rashes and potentially life threatening asthma and
anaphylaxis. Commonly many adverse reactions to food are referred to
collectively as food allergies. However, true food allergies represent
only a fraction of the diverse range of individualistic adverse reactions
to foods, that also include food intolerances.
Some consumers may also experience mild allergic symptoms to fresh

fruits and vegetables such as kiwi, apples, peaches, melons, pineapple
and papaya. This condition, known as oral allergy syndrome or pollen-
food syndrome, is normally associated with a primary allergy to pollen
(e.g. birch, ragwort or grasses) or latex. In these individuals, the
immune system reacts to the food proteins as if they were pollen and
the symptoms are generally limited to the mouth and throat.
There is currently no cure for food allergies but effective care and
emergency treatments are available. The only successful method to
manage a food allergy is avoidance of all foods containing the allergen.
Living with an allergy, either for you or someone in your family,

requires great compromise to the quality of life. It takes longer to find
products in the supermarket that are safe to eat because of the need to
study food labels and scrutinise ingredient lists, and it costs more
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because generally cheaper products and house branded foods have ‘may
contain’-like allergen statements on the label.
Despite food allergies affecting only a small proportion of the

population, risk management and mandatory product labelling for the
key food allergens are critical food safety matters for businesses in the
food industry. This is where a responsible food industry plays an
absolutely critical role.
Popular Forms of Food Allergies:
Corn Allergy, Egg Allergy, Fish Allergy, Meat Allergy, Milk Allergy,
Peanut Allergy, Shellfish Allergy, Soy Allergy, Tree Nut Allergy, Wheat
Allergy, FPIES Allergy
Importance of diet in alleviating health risks, especially non-

communicable diseases:
Diet-related non communicable diseases (NCDs) are increasing

rapidly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and constitute a
leading cause of mortality. Although a call for global action has been
resonating for years, the progress in national policy development in
LMICs has not been assessed. This review of strategies to prevent
NCDs in LMICs provides a benchmark against which policy response
can be tracked over time.
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Chapter 5: Food Microbiology & General principles of Food Hygiene
General principles of food microbiology: Food microbiology

encompasses the study of microorganisms, which have both beneficial
and deleterious effects on the quality, and safety of raw and processed
meat, poultry, and egg products. Food microbiology focuses on the
general biology of the microorganisms that are found in foods
including: their growth characteristics, identification, and pathogenesis.
Specifically, areas of interest which concern food microbiology are food
poisoning, food spoilage, food preservation, and food legislation.
Pathogens in product, or harmful microorganisms, result in major
public health problems in the United States as well as worldwide and
are the leading causes of illnesses and death.
It is important for you as a Public Health Veterinarian (PHV) to
understand some of these basics because they have an effect on the meat,
poultry, and egg products that FSIS regulates. In this module, we will
cover a brief overview of some of the basic principles of food
microbiology and explain how they apply to meat, poultry, and egg
products. In addition, we will review the FSIS microbiological sampling
programs.
OVERVIEW OF BASIC MICROBIOLOGY

Let us review, in general, the microbiology basics that you learned in
Veterinary School. As an FSIS PHV, it is important for you to
understand the dynamics (identification, physiology, pathogenesis,
survival, etc) of those pathogens of concern to the food industry and
consumers.
As you know microbiology is defined as the science that deals with the
study of microorganisms, including algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
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viruses. Specifically, bacteria are the most abundant of all organisms,
they are unicellular, are relatively small ranging in size from 0.5- to 5.0
µm, and for the most part they reproduce asexually. Although there are
bacterial species capable of causing human illness (pathogens) and food
spoilage, there are also beneficial species that are essential to good
health and the environment (examples: synthesize vitamins, digest
plant cellulose, fixing nitrogen in plant roots, etc.).
Every bacterial species have specific nutritional requirements,

temperature, humidity, etc. for energy generation and cellular
biosynthesis. The bacterial cells divide at a constant rate depending
upon the composition of the growth medium and the conditions of
incubation and under favorable conditions, a growing bacterial
population doubles at regular intervals ranging from about 15 minutes
to 1 hour. This means that if we start with 1,000 cells with a generation
time of 30 min. then after an hour we end with 4,000 cells. In the next
section of this module, the parameters affecting bacterial growth will be
discussed.
Bacteria are also known as prokaryotes because they do not possess

nuclei; i.e., their chromosome is composed of a single closed double-
stranded DNA circle. Structurally, prokaryotic cell has three
architectural regions: appendages (attachments to the cell surface) in
the form of flagella and pili (or fimbriae); a cell envelope consisting of a
capsule, cell wall and plasma or inner membrane; and a cytoplasmic
region that contains the cell genome (DNA), ribosomes and various
sorts of inclusions. Following is a brief discussion of some of these
structural components.
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Cell envelope- is made of three layers: cytoplasmic membrane (inner
layer), the cell wall (relatively rigid outer layer called peptidoglycan),
and – in some bacterial species- an outer capsule. The role of the
bacterial capsule is to keep the bacterium from drying, can serve as a
virulence factor and as an antigen for identification, mediate adherence
of cells to surface (crucial in biofilm formation), and confer protection
against engulfment and attack by antimicrobial agents of plants,
animals, and the environment. Bacteria can be placed into two basic
groups, Gram-positive or Gram-negative, based on the profiles of the
bacterial cell wall (see below).
Chromosome- where the bacterium’s genetic information is contained.
It is a crucial tool for genetic fingerprinting (will be discussed further in
this module).
Cytoplasm- is where the function for cell growth, metabolism, and
replication are carried out. It is composed of water, enzymes, nutrients,
metabolic wastes, and gases; it also contains the ribosomes,
chromosomes, and plasmids. As mentioned before, the cell envelope
encases the cytoplasm and all its components.
Flagella- are hair-like structures that serve as propellers to help
bacterium move toward nutrients and away from toxic chemicals. This
structure can be found at either or both ends or all over the bacterium
surface and serve as antigen (Hantigen) for serotyping. In addition, this
organelle is a contributor for biofilm formation.
Pili and fimbriae- many species of bacteria have these small hair-like
projections emerging from the outside cell surface. Its function is to
assist in attaching to other cells and surfaces. Specialized pili are used
for passing nuclear material between bacterial cells (conjugation).
Plasmid- short length of extra-chromosomal genetic structure (circles
or loops) which are carried by many strains of bacteria. They are not
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involved in reproduction but replicate independently of the
chromosome and are instrumental in the transmission of special
properties, such as antibiotic drug resistance, resistance to heavy metals,
and virulence factors necessary for infection of animal and human hosts.
Plasmids are extremely useful tools in the area of genetic engineering.
Ribosomes- these are organelles that translate the genetic code DNA to
amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins. They are also an
important tool in the fields of molecular biology and genetics.
Spores- produced by some species and they are resistant to hostile
conditions such as heat and drying. They serve as survival mechanisms
when environmental conditions are not suitable for growth and
replication.
The cell wall of bacteria is dynamic and extremely important for several
reasons:
1. They are an essential structure for viability; protects the cell
protoplast from mechanical damage and from osmotic rupture or lysis.
2. They are composed of unique components found nowhere else in
nature.
3. They are one of the most important sites for attack by antibiotics.
4. They provide ligands for adherence and receptor sites for drugs or
viruses.
5. They cause symptoms of disease in humans and animals.
6. They provide for immunological distinction and immunological
variation among strains of bacteria.
7. They can be modified to protect the cell against harsh environmental
conditions like heat, pH, antimicrobials, etc.
Overview of food borne pathogens

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Following is a list of pathogens and infectious agents of public health
concern. This list is not exhaustive; however, it contains most of the
food borne pathogens that affect meat, poultry, and egg products.
1. Bacteria
Gram Positive:
-Listeria monocytogenes
-Staphylococcus aureus
-Bacillus cereus
-B. anthracis
-Clostridium botulinum
-C. perfringens
Gram Negative:
-Salmonella spp
-Campylobacter spp
-Escherichia coli 0157:H7
-Yersinia enterocolitica
-Brucella spp
2. Viruses:
-Hepatitis
-Rotaviruses
3. Prions:
-new variant CJD

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4. Tapeworms:
-Taenia spp
5. Roundworms:
-Trichinella spp
6. Protozoa:
-Toxoplasma spp
-Sarcocystis spp
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reports that the most commonly
accounted food borne infections are those caused by viruses (59%),
bacteria (39%), and parasites (2%).Furthermore, this report showed
that the pathogens that caused the most illnesses were noroviruses
(58%), nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. (11%), C. perfringens (10%), and
Campylobacter spp. (9%). Looking at the hospitalization and death
estimates caused by contaminated food due to bacterial pathogens, the
leading cause of hospitalization were nontyphoidal Salmonella (35%)
and Campylobacter ssp. (15%); nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. (28%)
and L. monocytogenes (19%) caused the most deaths.
Overview of sources of microorganisms in food chain (raw materials,

water, air, equipment etc.) and microbiological quality of foods
PRIMARY SOURCES OF MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD
From the meat and poultry regulatory perspective, we will be

addressing bacteria as a main source of food contamination. Keep in
mind that there are other microorganisms like viruses, parasites, fungi,
etc., that are able to contaminate food and cause food borne illnesses in
animals and humans.
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Bacteria can be found virtually everywhere including humans and can
enter food products through different routes. The following list outlines
some of the most common ways in which microorganisms enter food
products.
Soil, water, and establishment environment: Many bacteria are carried

in soil and water, which may contaminate food. In addition, the
establishment environment is an important source of contamination
because of the daily activities and pest infestation. Listeria, Clostridium,
Salmonella, and Escherichia are good examples.
Animal feeds: This is a source of salmonellae to poultry and other farm

animals. It is a known source of Listeria monocytogenes to dairy and
meat animals when fed silage. The organisms in dry animal feed are
spread throughout the animal environment and may be expected to
occur on animal hides, hair, feathers, etc.
Animal hides: The hide is a source of bacterial contamination of the

general environment, hands of establishment employees, and skinned
carcasses. Studies have shown that this may be a primary source for E.
coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria in cattle.
Gastrointestinal tract: The intestinal biota consists of many organisms;

notable among these are pathogens such as Salmonella, Campylobacter,
E. coli O157:H7, and other microorganisms. Any or all of the
Enterobacteriaceae may be expected in feces of livestock and poultry.
Food handlers: The microbiota on the hands and outer garments of

handlers generally reflect the environment and habits of individuals
(hygiene), and the organisms in question may be those from hides,
gastrointestinal tracts, soil, water, dust, and other environmental
sources.
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Food Utensils: Saws, cutting boards, knives, grinders, mixers, etc. may
become contaminated during slaughter and processing operations and
ensure a constant level of contamination of meat-borne organisms.
Air and dust: A variety of bacteria may be found in air and dust in food-
processing operations at any one time. Listeria is an example of a Gram-
positive organism that survives in the environment.
Vegetables (plant) and vegetable products: May be a significant concern

in the processing of meat, poultry and egg products. A good example is
the processing of frozen entrees, salads, etc. containing meat and
poultry components. Many or most soil and water organisms
contaminate vegetables and fruits.
Globalization of food supply: This is a major factor of contamination

resulting in transfer of pathogenic agents between countries
(import/export) such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
infective agent and Salmonella Typhimurium DT104, among others.
Also, with the increase in international travel this imposes a risk of
introducing pathogens to this country like Foot and Mouth Disease.
Terrorist attacks: There are growing concern in the food industry that
terrorist could use pathogens to contaminate food and water supplies
in attempt to disrupt the economy, health, and lifestyle among others.
Microbial food spoilage and Food borne diseases
We live in a microbial world, and there are many opportunities for food
to become contaminated as it is produced and prepared. Many food
borne microbes are present in healthy animals (usually in their
intestines, hides, feathers, etc) raised for food. Meat and poultry
carcasses can become contaminated during slaughter by contact with
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small amounts of intestinal contents or poor dressing procedures. Also,
it has been shown scientifically that some Salmonella serotypes can
infect a hen's ovary in such a manner that the internal contents of a
normal looking egg can be contaminated with Salmonella even before
the shell is formed.
In food processing, food borne microbes can be introduced from

infected humans who handle the food, or by cross contamination from
some other raw agricultural product and/or the establishment
environment. For example, the unwashed hands of food handlers who
are themselves infected can introduce bacteria and viruses.
In the RTE processing environment exposed product that is fully

cooked can become cross contaminated if it touches raw meat or poultry
that contain pathogens or from food contact surfaces that are
contaminated.
In the kitchen, microbes can be transferred from one food to another

food by using the same knife, cutting board or other utensil to prepare
both without washing the surface or utensil in between.
The way that food is handled after it is contaminated can also make a
difference in whether or not an outbreak occurs. Many microorganisms
need to multiply to a larger number before enough are present in food
to cause disease. Given warm moist conditions and an ample supply of
nutrients, one bacterium that reproduces by dividing itself every half
hour can produce 17 million progeny in 12 hours. As a result, lightly
contaminated food left out overnight can be highly infectious by the
next day. If the food were refrigerated promptly, the bacteria would not
multiply at all or at a very slow rate.
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To inhibit bacterial growth in meat, poultry, or egg products or in food
handled by the consumer, it is important to store foods at a reduced
temperature. Refrigeration or freezing prevents virtually all bacteria
from growing but freezing preserves them in a state of suspended
animation.
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
Microorganisms can cause a variety of effects in food products including

spoilage, which primarily affects product quality, and food poisoning,
which is generally caused by pathogens. As regulators, we are most
concerned with the effects that microorganisms have on food that leads
to food borne illness, because this affects public health.
A food borne illness (or disease) is exactly what the term indicates - a
disease or illness caused by the consumption of contaminated foods or
beverages. It would seem rather obvious that a food borne microbial
pathogen, or a preformed microbial toxic product, or another poison
such as a poisonous chemical that has somehow contaminated the food
and/or beverage, leads to one of the many different food borne illnesses.
There is no one “syndrome” that is representative of food borne

illness/disease. Different diseases have many different symptoms.
However, the microbe or toxin enters the body through the
gastrointestinal tract, and often causes the first clinical signs such as
nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and diarrhea, which are common
symptoms in many food borne diseases.
More than 250 different food borne diseases have been described. Most
of these diseases are infections, caused by a variety of bacteria, viruses,
and parasites. Other diseases are poisonings, caused by harmful toxins
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or chemicals that have contaminated the food, for example, poisonous
mushrooms or heavy metal contamination.
To cause illness, the pathogen must overcome several hurdles. A simple

summary of these hurdles are as follows.
 Survive the acidic environment of the stomach.

 Attach to/colonize intestinal walls.
 Compete against the natural microbiota of the gut.
 Survive the host defense mechanisms.
 Once attached in the large intestine: elaborate toxins and
virulence factors, and cross the epithelial barrier, which then
results in the symptoms characteristic to the disease or illness.
Food Safety Management System
Food Safety Management System means the adoption of Good

Manufacturing Practices, Good Hygienic Practices, Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point and such other practices as may be specified
by regulation, for the food business.
Introduction to Food Safety
Concern for the supply of food that is safe for the consumer has
increased over the years. Rising liberalization of agro-industrial
markets and the world-wide integration of food supply chains require
new approaches and systems for assuring food safety. Food processors
and retailers are sourcing their ingredients worldwide and it can be
hard to track the region let alone the producer of the ingredient.
Retailers are buying their produce from all over the globe. International
trade in high-value food products (fresh and processed fruits and
vegetables, fish, live animals and meat, and nuts and spices) has
expanded enormously in the last twenty five years. It is in particular,
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these products for which food safety plays an important role. At present,
concern over food safety is at an all-time high. With each food ―scare‖
reported – from banned dyes in multiple products to links between
animal and human diseases – consumer concern grows. In response,
the public and the private sector have developed new process standards
and require suppliers of food products to follow them. Both, the market
and legislations in importing countries demand for comprehensive and
transparent schemes reaching "from farm to fork”.
Definition: Food Safety can be defined as the assurance that food will
not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and or eaten
according to its intended use (WHO).
All conditions and measures that are necessary during production,

processing, storage, distribution and preparation of food that when
ingested does not represent an appreciable risk to health.
GLOBAL TRENDS AND THEIR IMPACT ON FOOD SAFETY
The days of locally produced food being processed, distributed and

consumed in the same locality have significantly decreased in recent
decades. The regional, national and global food chain has required
parallel changes in food science and technology, including preservation.
At the same time, there have been social changes such as an increasing
number of meals being consumed outside the home environment and
also an ageing population. Public exposure to a food-borne pathogen
may change due to changes in processing, changes in consumption
patterns and the globalization of the food supply chain. Many risk
factors influence host (our) susceptibility to infection. These may be:
 Pathogen (microbes)-related: ingested dose, virulence
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 Host-related: age, immune status, personal hygiene, genetic

susceptibility.
 Diet-related nutritional deficiencies, ingestion of fatty or highly

buffered foods.
The globalization of the food supply is recognized as a major trend

contributing to food safety problems. Pathogenic micro-organisms are
not contained within a single country's borders. Additionally, tourism
and increased cultural interests may lead to new eating habits, such as
the consumption of 'sushi' (origin in Japan) or our very own ‗tandoori
tikka masala‘ in Western countries. The continuous increase in
international trade has been achievable partly through advances in food
manufacturing and processing technologies together with
improvements in transportation. Regional trade arrangements and the
overall impact of the Uruguay Round Agreements have reduced many
tariff and subsidy-related constraints to free trade, encouraging
increased production and export from the countries with the most cost-
effective production means. However, many exporting countries do not
have the infrastructure to ensure high levels of hygienic food
manufacture. The continuing integration and consolidation of
agriculture and food industries and the globalization of food trade are
changing the patterns of food production and distribution as well as
supply and demand. The pressure to produce food for export is very
significant in developing economics and can lead to improper
agricultural practices. The consequences may include the following:
 accidental or sporadic low level microbial contamination of a single

product, which can result in a major epidemic of food-borne illness.
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 high levels of mycotoxins, often resulting from poor storage and

handling conditions
 high pesticides residues food
 industrial contamination of food with metals and chemicals such as

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins.
Eating away from home is a major trend of recent years. Many of the
meals eaten away from home require extensive food handling and /or
are cold foods that are not cooked before consumption. Subsequently
this leads to the potential for transmission of foodborne diseases from
food handlers to consumers. Several studies have documented an
increasing lack of knowledge related to personal hygiene, the use of
clean utensils and storage of food at the correct temperature. Thus, the
changing trend has increased the importance that food be handled in a
sanitary manner. With volume processing and preparation of food,
effects of contamination are accentuated if sanitary practices are not
followed. Added mechanization and larger volume operations of food
processing and preparation have increased the need for workers in all
segments of the food industry to have an understanding of sanitary
practices and how hygienic conditions can be attained and maintained.
Yet, if workers are expected to abide by these practices, it is necessary
to impart a certain amount of appreciation of the reasoning behind the
required practices and biological basis for the reasoning.
FOOD SAFETY ISSUES
Specific food safety concerns differ markedly and include:
Additives, colours and flavors

Drug residues
Fertilizers and other growing aids
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Irradiation
Microbiological contamination
Naturally occurring food toxicants
Food supplements
Pesticides
Pollutants
Processing ,packaging and labeling
Adulteration and Misbranding
Consumers are most concerned about pesticides and additives as both

are linked in the consumer's mind to cancer. It is also interesting,
perhaps even alarming, that most consumers are not concerned about
microbiological contamination, despite solid evidence that, of all the
hazards, it is the one most likely to occur. Many homes have unsafe food
storage and preparation practices. Consumers rarely consider their own
food practices a hazard. Food industry, however, is most concerned
about the microbiological safety of its products. In addition, many
quality control checks are made to ensure that foods are free of
extraneous matter such as glass, machine fillings and insect parts. Large
food companies in many parts of the world adhere to a code of
manufacturing practice known as 'Good Manufacturing Practice
(GMP)'. This code helps to assure that products are manufactured
under conditions of proper storage and sanitation. Many also employ
an elaborate system known as 'Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
points (HACCP)' to make sure that there is no chance of contamination
or error during processing.
FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SAFETY
Food hazards are the factors, which are the biggest threat to food safety.
A hazard is defined as: a biological, chemical, or physical agent in a food,
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or condition of a food, with the potential to cause an adverse health
effect.
A. Biological hazards are living organisms, including bacteria, viruses,

fungi and parasites
B. Chemical hazards are in two categories: naturally occurring poisons

and chemicals or deleterious substances. The first group covers natural
constituents of foods that are not the result of environmental,
agricultural, industrial or other contamination. Examples are aflatoxins
and shellfish poisons. The second group covers poisonous 28 chemicals
or deleterious substances which are intentionally or unintentionally
added to foods at some point in the food chain. This group of chemicals
can include pesticides and fungicides and well as lubricants and
cleaners. C. Physical hazard is any physical material not normally found
in food which causes illness or injury. Physical hazards include glass,
wood, stones and metal which may cause illness and injury. Examples
of hazards are given in below Table:
Hazards Associated with Food
Biological Chemical Physical

Macro biological Veterinary Residues, Glass, Hair
Antibiotics
Microbiological Growth Stimulants Metal
Pathogenic Bacteria Plasticisers and Stones
*spore forming packaging migration
*Non spore forming
Chemical Residues Wood
Pesticides Plastic
Cleaning Fluids Parts of Pests
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Parasites and Protozoa Allergens Insulation Material
Viruses Toxic Metals; Lead Bone
and Cadmium
Mycotoxins Food Chemicals; Fruit Pits
preservatives,
processing aids,
polychlorinated
biphenyls, printing
inks, prohibited
substances
Food Contamination
Food contamination refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and

microorganisms in food which can cause consumer illness. A food
contaminant has been defined as any substance not intentionally added
to food, which is present in such food as a result of the production,
manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, transport or
storage of such food as a result of environmental contamination.
It is important to protect food from risk of contamination to prevent

food poisoning and the entry of foreign objects.
There are three main ways in which food can become contaminated:
(i) Microbial Contamination;
(ii) Physical Contamination;
(iii) Chemical Contamination.
What is HACCP?
The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods

(Committee) reconvened a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
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(HACCP) Working Group in 1995. The primary goal was to review the
Committee's November 1992 HACCP document, comparing it to
current HACCP guidance prepared by the Codex Committee on Food
Hygiene. Based upon its review, the Committee made the HACCP
principles more concise; revised and added definitions; included
sections on prerequisite programs, education and training, and
implementation and maintenance of the HACCP plan; revised and
provided a more detailed explanation of the application of HACCP
principles; and provided an additional decision tree for identifying
critical control points (CCPs).
The Committee again endorses HACCP as an effective and rational

means of assuring food safety from harvest to consumption. Preventing
problems from occurring is the paramount goal underlying any HACCP
system. Seven basic principles are employed in the development of
HACCP plans that meet the stated goal. These principles include hazard
analysis, CCP identification, establishing critical limits, monitoring
procedures, corrective actions, verification procedures, and record-
keeping and documentation. Under such systems, if a deviation occurs
indicating that control has been lost, the deviation is detected and
appropriate steps are taken to reestablish control in a timely manner to
assure that potentially hazardous products do not reach the consumer.
In the application of HACCP, the use of microbiological testing is

seldom an effective means of monitoring CCPs because of the time
required to obtain results. In most instances, monitoring of CCPs can
best be accomplished through the use of physical and chemical tests,
and through visual observations. Microbiological criteria do, however,
play a role in verifying that the overall HACCP system is working.
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The Committee believes that the HACCP principles should be
standardized to provide uniformity in training and applying the HACCP
system by industry and government. In accordance with the National
Academy of Sciences recommendation, the HACCP system must be
developed by each food establishment and tailored to its individual
product, processing and distribution conditions.
In keeping with the Committee's charge to provide recommendations

to its sponsoring agencies regarding microbiological food safety issues,
this document focuses on this area. The Committee recognizes that in
order to assure food safety, properly designed HACCP systems must
also consider chemical and physical hazards in addition to other
biological hazards.
For a successful HACCP program to be properly implemented,

management must be committed to a HACCP approach. A commitment
by management will indicate an awareness of the benefits and costs of
HACCP and include education and training of employees. Benefits, in
addition to enhanced assurance of food safety, are better use of
resources and timely response to problems.
The Committee designed this document to guide the food industry and
advise its sponsoring agencies in the implementation of HACCP
systems.
Important Definitions:
CCP Decision Tree: A sequence of questions to assist in determining

whether a control point is a CCP.
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Control: (a) To manage the conditions of an operation to maintain
compliance with established criteria. (b) The state where correct
procedures are being followed and criteria are being met.
Control Measure: Any action or activity that can be used to prevent,

eliminate or reduce a significant hazard.
Control Point: Any step at which biological, chemical, or physical

factors can be controlled.
Corrective Action: Procedures followed when a deviation occurs.
Criterion: A requirement on which a judgement or decision can be

based.
Critical Control Point: A step at which control can be applied and is

essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an
acceptable level.
Critical Limit: A maximum and/or minimum value to which a biological,

chemical or physical parameter must be controlled at a CCP to prevent,
eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level the occurrence of a food safety
hazard.
Deviation: Failure to meet a critical limit.
HACCP: A systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and

control of food safety hazards.
HACCP Plan: The written document which is based upon the principles
of HACCP and which delineates the procedures to be followed.
HACCP System: The result of the implementation of the HACCP Plan.
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HACCP Team: The group of people who are responsible for developing,
implementing and maintaining the HACCP system.
Hazard: A biological, chemical, or physical agent that is reasonably

likely to cause illness or injury in the absence of its control.
Hazard Analysis: The process of collecting and evaluating information

on hazards associated with the food under consideration to decide
which are significant and must be addressed in the HACCP plan.
Monitor: To conduct a planned sequence of observations or

measurements to assess whether a CCP is under control and to produce
an accurate record for future use in verification.
Prerequisite Programs: Procedures, including Good Manufacturing

Practices, that address operational conditions providing the foundation
for the HACCP system.
Severity: The seriousness of the effect(s) of a hazard.
Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food system from

primary production to final consumption.
Validation: That element of verification focused on collecting and

evaluating scientific and technical information to determine if the
HACCP plan, when properly implemented, will effectively control the
hazards.
Verification: Those activities, other than monitoring, that determine the

validity of the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according
to the plan.
HACCP Priniciples:
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HACCP is a systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and
control of food safety hazards based on the following seven principles:
Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis.
Principle 2: Determine the critical control points (CCPs).
Principle 3: Establish critical limits.
Principle 4: Establish monitoring procedures.
Principle 5: Establish corrective actions.
Principle 6: Establish verification procedures.
Principle 7: Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures.
GUIDELINES FOR APPLICATION OF HACCP PRINCIPLES
Introduction
HACCP is a management system in which food safety is addressed

through the analysis and control of biological, chemical, and physical
hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling, to
manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product.
For successful implementation of a HACCP plan, management must be
strongly committed to the HACCP concept. A firm commitment to
HACCP by top management provides company employees with a sense
of the importance of producing safe food.
HACCP is designed for use in all segments of the food industry from
growing, harvesting, processing, manufacturing, distributing, and
merchandising to preparing food for consumption. Prerequisite
programs such as current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMPs) are
an essential foundation for the development and implementation of
successful HACCP plans. Food safety systems based on the HACCP
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principles have been successfully applied in food processing plants,
retail food stores, and food service operations. The seven principles of
HACCP have been universally accepted by government agencies, trade
associations and the food industry around the world.
The following guidelines will facilitate the development and

implementation of effective HACCP plans. While the specific
application of HACCP to manufacturing facilities is emphasized here,
these guidelines should be applied as appropriate to each segment of
the food industry under consideration.
Prerequisite Programs
The production of safe food products requires that the HACCP system
be built upon a solid foundation of prerequisite programs. Examples of
common prerequisite programs are listed in Appendix A. Each segment
of the food industry must provide the conditions necessary to protect
food while it is under their control. This has traditionally been
accomplished through the application of cGMPs. These conditions and
practices are now considered to be prerequisite to the development and
implementation of effective HACCP plans. Prerequisite programs
provide the basic environmental and operating conditions that are
necessary for the production of safe, wholesome food. Many of the
conditions and practices are specified in federal, state and local
regulations and guidelines (e.g., cGMPs and Food Code). The Codex
Alimentarius General Principles of Food Hygiene describe the basic
conditions and practices expected for foods intended for international
trade. In addition to the requirements specified in regulations, industry
often adopts policies and procedures that are specific to their operations.
Many of these are proprietary. While prerequisite programs may impact
upon the safety of a food, they also are concerned with ensuring that
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foods are wholesome and suitable for consumption (Appendix A).
HACCP plans are narrower in scope, being limited to ensuring food is
safe to consume.
The existence and effectiveness of prerequisite programs should be

assessed during the design and implementation of each HACCP plan.
All prerequisite programs should be documented and regularly audited.
Prerequisite programs are established and managed separately from
the HACCP plan. Certain aspects, however, of a prerequisite program
may be incorporated into a HACCP plan. For example, many
establishments have preventive maintenance procedures for processing
equipment to avoid unexpected equipment failure and loss of
production. During the development of a HACCP plan, the HACCP
team may decide that the routine maintenance and calibration of an
oven should be included in the plan as an activity of verification. This
would further ensure that all the food in the oven is cooked to the
minimum internal temperature that is necessary for food safety.
Education and Training
The success of a HACCP system depends on educating and training

management and employees in the importance of their role in
producing safe foods. This should also include information the control
of foodborne hazards related to all stages of the food chain. It is
important to recognize that employees must first understand what
HACCP is and then learn the skills necessary to make it function
properly. Specific training activities should include working
instructions and procedures that outline the tasks of employees
monitoring each CCP.
Management must provide adequate time for thorough education and

training. Personnel must be given the materials and equipment
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necessary to perform these tasks. Effective training is an important
prerequisite to successful implementation of a HACCP plan.
Processing Practices (GAP, GHP, GCP, GLP, GMP)
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Handling Practices (GHP)

are voluntary audits that verify that fruits and vegetables are produced,
packed, handled, and stored as safely as possible to minimize risks of
microbial food safety hazards.
Before the differences between Good Clinical Practice, Good Laboratory

Practice, and Good Manufacturing Practice audits can be explained, one
must understand what the differences in these three guidelines are.
Although all are based on international standards, they vary according
to what they are designed to regulate.
Good Clinical Practice (GCsP)
GCP guidelines are universally recognized international standards on

the design and conduct of clinical trials.
They are in place to ensure the rights, safety, and well-being of people
who participate in clinical trials are protected. They describe the
responsibilities of everyone who conducts clinical trials.
Such personnel include investigators, monitors, employees of the

pharmaceutical company, and members of the ethics committees. Good
Clinical Practices cover all facets of conducting and monitoring trials in
humans. They also describe how the information from trials should be
reported and how records from trials should be retained.
Good Laboratory Practices (GLPs)
GLP laws that are intended to support appropriate practice in research

and development. They pertain to processes and conditions under
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which clinical and nonclinical research of pharmaceutical, devices, and
biologics for humans and animals should be planned and conducted.
They discuss how the studies should be monitored and reported, and
how the records from these studies should be stored.
From a nonpharmaceutical perspective, they also apply to the

development of food additives, food colorings, and electronics. They
discuss how facilities in which clinical and nonclinical studies are
conducted should be maintained. However, they do not pertain to the
manufacture of products.
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)
GMPs offers guidelines on how pharmaceutical products should be

produced. They include provisions for systems to ensure that
manufacturing processes and facilities in which pharmaceuticals,
devices, and biologicals are manufactured are properly designed,
monitored, and controlled. This ensures that pharmaceuticals, devices,
and biologics are produced according to a consistent standard that
assures their quality and appropriateness for their intended use.
Good Manufacturing Practices require pharmaceutical companies to

have processes in place that assure the adequate control of
manufacturing operations.
Such measures include the establishment of appropriate quality

management systems, obtaining appropriate raw materials,
establishing robust operating procedures, having measures for
detecting and correcting deviations in the production of a
pharmaceutical product, and maintaining reliable laboratory facilities.
By following Good Manufacturing Practices, pharmaceutical companies

can help to ensure that the products that they manufacture are of
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appropriate quality, purity, and strength. However, Good
Manufacturing Practices are designed to be flexible so that
pharmaceutical companies can decide individually how to best monitor

these manufacturing processes.
Food spoilage
Food spoilage means that the original nutritional value, texture, flavour
of the food are damaged, the food become harmful to people and
unsuitable to eat.
1. Foreign matter: Human hair, stapler, metal particles, fabric, plastic,

alkali etc. are big threats to food safety and can cause food spoilage.
Anything that is not considered as food or food substance is considered
as foreign matter.
2. Lack of proper drainage: Improper drainage leads to clogged drains

and accumulation of waste water in the processing area which attracts
pests and microorganisms and can lead to food contamination.
3. Non- food grade equipment: Use of equipment’s that are made of

non-food grade material can lead to food contamination. It is therefore
important to use food grade equipment’s and vessels in the processing
unit.
4. Improper handling: Unclean hands, wrong selection of equipment

and packing in unsuitable material could result in food safety issues.
5. Improper processing: Deviating from the Standard Operating

Protocols (SOP’s) during production can lead to major changes in the
end product. Correct temperature, Correct time and understanding the
process steps is essential to ensure food safety and quality.
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6. Residues of chemicals: Chemicals come into contact with food as crop
contaminants then later in the process of sanitizing voluntarily by our
process. The next involuntary entry of chemicals into food can be
through residues of equipment or utensil sanitation operations. The
presence of these residues can have adverse consequences on the
consumer health. It is therefore essential to restrain the entry of
chemical residues in the food production process.
7. Non-standard sanitation: Sanitation must be based on strict

guidelines of either historical data or validation. If chemicals are used
in less or more quantity or in an unverified process or method,
sanitation will fail to achieve proper results giving way for food to
become unsafe.
8. Improper raw materials: Raw material selection must be based on

strict scientific reference and frequent sampling. The raw materials
should always be sourced from certified and approved vendors.
9. Additive: Additives of any nature like essence, flavors etc. can spoil
food if not used in the right quantity. Unauthorized additive also must
not be used.
10. Water: Water is involved in food process in various stages from

washing to soaking then involved in either directly food production as
an ingredient or in some in-direct manner as steam. It is also important
for washing and sanitation operations. Potable water should conform to
the specifications of IS 10500:2012.
11. Improper storage: Storage must not only be done by FIFO (First In
First Out) or FEFO (First Expiry First Out) method but also properly
segregated and with required ventilation. Right combination of
duration, temperature ventilation and segregation defines a good
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storage. Any deviation in one of these could result in food becoming
unsafe.
12. Illness/Injury to staff: Food safety is very much dependent on the

food handler’s personal behavior and health status. A person with
cough, cold, open wound, itching and any illness which is of an irritable
nature tends to make him handle things without washing his hands
after touching the body. The most common danger to food safety is from
cough and cold and open wounds for food handlers. Procedures should
be in place and followed at all times for cases of illness and injury of the
staff.
13. Improper segregation: Appropriate segregation of RM, equipment,

tools and final product is important to ensure consumer safety.
14. Humidity: Humidity is a major cause that promotes microbial

growth, and rancidity. Appropriate humidity levels should be identified
and maintained as per the final product in the processing unit.
15. Temperature: Temperatures of processing, holding, storing,

transporting, are all important factor in food being safe.
16. Time: No raw material, or product should be held beyond designated

shelf life.
17. Non-food grade packing: Intermediate and final product should be

packed only in food grade packing material to ensure food safety.
18. Pest: Care must be taken to plant pest control devices and other
forms of controls to ensure that they are highly restricted from either
getting into product or contaminating product resulting in food safety
issues.
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19. Body fluids of rodents/pests: Contamination may be caused by body
fluids like urine, fecal matter of rodents, reptiles, pests, nocturnal
animals and birds present in the storage yard, marketing yard,
transportation etc.
20. Improper waste disposal: Waste is an outcome of process but often

present very close to the process region. If it is not disposed in a hygienic
manner it can breed pest and micro-organisms which are a threat to
food safety.
Important Questions and Answers
Q1) What is meant by Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS)?
A1) A Food Safety Management System (FSMS) is a network of

interrelated elements that combine to ensure that food does not cause
adverse human health effects. These elements include programs, plans,
policies, procedures, practices, processes, goals, objectives, methods,
controls, roles, responsibilities, relationships, documents, records, and
resources.
Q2) What are the Key Elements of FSMS?
A2) The five basic key elements are:
 Good Practices/ PRPs

 Hazard Analysis /HACCP
 Management Element / System
 Statutory and regulatory requirements
 Communication
Q3) Which Section of FSS Act, 2006 describes FSMS?
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A3) Section 16(2)(c) provides for the Mechanism for accreditation of
certification bodies for Food Safety Management Systems and Section
44 of FSS Act provides for Recognition of organisation or agency for
food safety audit and checking compliance with Food Safety
Management System required under the Act or the rules and regulation
made thereunder.
Q4) What is the Purpose of FSMS?
A4) To ensure the manufacture, storage, distribution and sale of safe

food.
Q5) Give the name of agencies which have been empanelled by FSSAI
for inspection/ auditing of FBOs?”
A5) The list of shortlisted agencies for Inspection/ Auditing of FBOs are
as under:
1. M/s. Export Inspection Council of India, Delhi
2. M/s. Indian Register Quality Systems, Mumbai
3. M/s. INDOCERT, Kerala
4. M/s. TUV SUD South Asia, Mumbai
5. M/s. Det Norske Veritas, AS, Mumbai
6. M/s. One Cert Asia Agri Certification Pvt. Ltd., Jaipur
7. M/s. National Productivity Council, Delhi
Q6) Who will assign the job to agency. Do agencies have to contact FBO
directly?
A6) There are various job as per scope of work. Inspections will be
ordered by State/ Central Licensing Authority/ DO. Auditing can also
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be ordered by respective DOs. However for annual audit/ consultancy,
training, FSMS plan etc. have to be handled by agency on the
requirement of FBO.
Q7) Whether the Food Business Operators are assigned by FSSAI in the
place where the Inspection / Certification Body is located or anywhere
in India?
A7) Food Safety Commissioner can decide about agencies for their
States/areas. FBOs are free to choose as per their requirement.
Q8) If more than 1 agency is located at the same place then who will
decide which agency will go for the FBO Inspection?
A8) The power lies with the Designated Officer. DO has to decide if he
is authorising agency or his FSOs for such inspection.
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Chapter 6: General concepts of Food Analysis and Testing
Concepts of Food Analysis
Food analysis is the discipline dealing with the development,

application and study of analytical procedures for characterizing the
properties of foods and their constituents. These analytical procedures
are used to provide information about a wide variety of different
characteristics of foods, including their composition, structure,
physicochemical properties and sensory attributes. This information is
critical to our rational understanding of the factors that determine the
properties of foods, as well as to our ability to economically produce
foods that are consistently safe, nutritious and desirable and for
consumers to make informed choices about their diet. The objective of
this course is to review the basic principles of the analytical
procedures commonly used to analyze foods and to discuss their
application to specific food components, e.g. lipids, proteins, water,
carbohydrates and minerals. The following questions will be addressed
in this introductory section: Who analyzes foods? Why do they analyze
foods? What types of properties are measured? How does one choose
an appropriate analytical technique for a particular food?
Reasons for Analyzing Foods
Foods are analyzed by scientists working in all of the major sectors of

the food industry including food manufacturers, ingredient suppliers,
analytical service laboratories, government laboratories, and
University research laboratories. The various purposes that foods are
analyzed are briefly discussed in this section.
Government Regulations and Recommendations
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Government regulations and recommendations are designed to
maintain the general quality of the food supply, to ensure the food
industry provides consumers with foods that are wholesome and safe,
to inform consumers about the nutritional composition of foods so
that they can make knowledgeable choices about their diet, to enable
fair competition amongst food companies, and to eliminate economic
fraud. There are a number of Government Departments Responsible
for regulating the composition and quality of foods, including the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Each of these
government agencies is responsible for regulating particular sectors of
the food industry and publishes documents that contain detailed
information about the regulations and recommendations pertaining to
the foods produced within those sectors. These documents can be
purchased from the government or obtained on-line from the
appropriate website.
Standards:
Government agencies have specified a number of voluntary and

mandatory standards concerning the composition, quality, inspection,
and labeling of specific food products.
Mandatory Standards:
Standards of Identity. These regulations specify the type and amounts

of ingredients that certain foods must contain if they are to be called
by a particular name on the food label. For some foods there is a
maximum or minimum concentration of a certain component that
they must contain, e.g., peanut butter must be less than 55% fat, ice-
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cream must be greater than 10% milk fat, cheddar cheese must be
greater than 50% milk fat and less than 39% moisture.
Standards of Quality. Standards of quality have been defined for

certain foods (e.g., canned fruits and vegetables) to set minimum
requirements on the color, tenderness, mass and freedom from
defects.
Standards of Fill-of-Container. These standards state how full a

container must be to avoid consumer deception, as well as specifying
how the degree of fill is measured.
Voluntary Standards:
Standards of Grade. A number of foods, including meat, dairy

products and eggs, are graded according to their quality, e.g. from
standard to excellent. For example meats can be graded as prime,
choice, select, standard etc according to their origin, tenderness,
juiciness, flavor and appearance. There are clear definitions associated
with these descriptors that products must conform to before they can
be given the appropriate label. Specification of the grade of a food
product on the label is voluntary, but many food manufacturers opt to
do this because superior grade products can be sold for a higher price.
The government has laboratories that food producers send their
products too to be tested to receive the appropriate certification. This
service is requested and paid for by the food producer.
Methods of Food Analysis
Despite efforts over the past half-century, there is still a need for
internationally harmonized methods and data. In fact, as described in
Chapter 1, the development of new methods for analysing specific
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components of the energy-yielding macronutrients has increased the
complexity and made this need greater than ever.
This chapter discusses the commonly used analytical methods for

protein, fat and carbohydrate, and makes recommendations regarding
the preferred methods for the current state of the art and available
technology. Methods that continue to be acceptable when the
preferred methods cannot be used are also noted. Analytical methods
for alcohol, which can be a significant source of energy in some diets,
polyols and organic acids were not discussed, and hence no
recommendations for methods are made.
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR PROTEINS IN FOODS
Current status:
For many years, the protein content of foods has been determined on
the basis of total nitrogen content, while the Kjeldahl (or similar)
method has been almost universally applied to determine nitrogen
content (AOAC, 2000). Nitrogen content is then multiplied by a factor
to arrive at protein content. This approach is based on two
assumptions: that dietary carbohydrates and fats do not contain
nitrogen, and that nearly all of the nitrogen in the diet is present as
amino acids in proteins. On the basis of early determinations, the
average nitrogen (N) content of proteins was found to be about 16
percent, which led to use of the calculation N x 6.25 (1/0.16 = 6.25) to
convert nitrogen content into protein content.
This use of a single factor, 6.25, is confounded by two considerations.

First, not all nitrogen in foods is found in proteins: it is also contained
in variable quantities of other compounds, such as free amino acids,
nucleotides, creatine and choline, where it is referred to as non-
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protein nitrogen (NPN). Only a small part of NPN is available for the
synthesis of (non-essential) amino acids. Second, the nitrogen content
of specific amino acids (as a percentage of weight) varies according to
the molecular weight of the amino acid and the number of nitrogen
atoms it contains (from one to four, depending on the amino acid in
question). Based on these facts, and the different amino acid
compositions of various proteins, the nitrogen content of proteins
actually varies from about 13 to 19 percent. This would equate to
nitrogen conversion factors ranging from 5.26 (1/0.19) to 7.69
(1/0.13).
In response to these considerations, Jones (1941) suggested that N x

6.25 be abandoned and replaced by N x a factor specific for the food in
question. These specific factors, now referred to as “Jones factors”,
have been widely adopted. Jones factors for the most commonly eaten
foods range from 5.18 (nuts, seeds) to 6.38 (milk). It turns out,
however, that most foods with a high proportion of nitrogen as NPN
contain relatively small amounts of total N (Merrill and Watt, 1955;
and 1973). As a result, the range of Jones factors for major sources of
protein in the diet is narrower. Jones factors for animal proteins such
as meat, milk and eggs are between 6.25 and 6.38; those for the
vegetable proteins that supply substantial quantities of protein in
cereal-/legume-based diets are generally in the range of 5.7 to 6.25.
Use of the high-end factor (6.38) relative to 6.25 increases apparent
protein content by 2 percent. Use of a specific factor of 5.7 (Sosulski
and Imafidon, 1990) rather than the general factor of 6.25 decreases
the apparent protein content by 9 percent for specific foods. In
practical terms, the range of differences between the general factor of
6.25 and Jones factors is narrower than it at first appears (about 1
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percent), especially for mixed diets. Table gives examples of the Jones
factors for a selection of foods.
Because proteins are made up of chains of amino acids joined by

peptide bonds, they can be hydrolyzed to their component amino
acids, which can then be measured by ion-exchange, gas-liquid or
high-performance liquid chromatography. The sum of the amino acids
then represents the protein content (by weight) of the food. This is
sometimes referred to as a “true protein”. The advantage of this
approach is that it requires no assumptions about, or knowledge of,
either the NPN content of the food or the relative proportions of
specific amino acids - thus removing the two problems with the use of
total N x a conversion factor. Its disadvantage is that it requires more
185
sophisticated equipment than the Kjeldahl method, and thus may be
beyond the capacity of many laboratories, especially those that carry
out only intermittent analyses. In addition, experience with the
method is important; some amino acids (e.g. the sulphur-containing
amino acids and tryptophan) are more difficult to determine than
others. Despite the complexities of amino acid analysis, in general
there has been reasonably good agreement among laboratories and
methods (King-Brink and Sebranek, 1993).
1) It is recommended that protein in foods be measured as the sum of

individual amino acid residues (the molecular weight of each amino
acid less the molecular weight of water) plus free amino acids,
whenever possible. This recommendation is made with the knowledge
that there is no official Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC)
method for amino acid determination in foods. Clearly, a standardized
method, support for collaborative research and scientific consensus
are needed in order to bring this about.
2) Related to the previous recommendation, food composition tables

should reflect protein by sum of amino acids, whenever possible.
Increasingly, amino acid determinations can be expected to become
more widely available owing to greater capabilities within government
laboratories and larger businesses in developed countries, and to the
availability of external contract laboratories that are able to carry out
amino acid analysis of foods at a reasonable cost for developing
countries and smaller businesses.
3) To facilitate the broader use of amino acid-based values for protein

by developing countries and small businesses that may lack resources,
FAO and other agencies are urged to support food analysis and to
186
disseminate updated food tables whose values for protein are based on
amino acid analyses.
4) When data on amino acids analyses are not available,

determination of protein based on total N content by Kjeldahl (AOAC,
2000) or similar method x a factor is considered acceptable.
5) A specific Jones factor for nitrogen content of the food being

analysed should be used to convert nitrogen to protein when the
specific factor is known. When the specific factor is not known, N x the
general factor 6.25 should be used. Use of the general factor for
individual foods that are major sources of protein in the diet
introduces an error in protein content that is relative to the specific
factors and ranges from -2 percent to +9 percent. Because protein
contributes an average of about 15 percent of energy in most diets, the
use of N x 6.25 should introduce errors of no more than about 1
percent in estimations of energy content from protein in most diets ([-
2 to +9 percent] x 15).
6) It is recommended that only amino acid analysis be used to

determine protein in the following:
foods used as the sole source of nourishment, such as infant formula;
foods/formulas designed specifically for special dietary conditions;

novel foods.
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR FATS IN FOOD
Current status
There is perhaps more agreement on standardized methods of analysis

for fat than for protein and carbohydrate. Most fat in the diet is in the
form of triglyceride (three fatty acids esterified to a glycerol molecule
187
backbone). There are also non-glyceride components such as sterols,
e.g. cholesterol. While there is considerable interest in the roles that
these non-glyceride components may play in metabolism, they are not
important sources of energy in the diet (FAO, 1994).
There are accepted AOAC gravimetric methods for crude fat, which
includes phospholipids and wax esters, as well as minor amounts of
non-fatty material (AOAC, 2000). Total fat can be expressed as
triglyceride equivalents determined as the sum of individual fatty
acids and expressed as triglycerides (FAO, 1994). This method is
satisfactory for the determination of fat in a wide variety of foods.
Recommendations
1) For energy purposes, it is recommended that fats be analysed as

fatty acids and expressed as triglyceride equivalents, as this approach
excludes waxes and the phosphate content of phospholipids, neither of
which can be used for energy (James, Body and Smith, 1986).
2) A gravimetric method, although less desirable, is acceptable for

energy evaluation purposes (AOAC, 2000).
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR CARBOHYDRATES IN FOODS
Current status:
FAO/WHO held an expert consultation on carbohydrate in 1997. The

report of this meeting (FAO, 1998) presents a detailed description of
the various types of carbohydrates and a review of methods used for
analysis, which is summarized conceptually in the following
paragraphs. Other recommendations from the 1997 consultation, e.g.
188
the nomenclature of carbohydrates, were considered by the current
technical workshop participants.
Total carbohydrate content of foods has, for many years, been

calculated by difference, rather than analysed directly. Under this
approach, the other constituents in the food (protein, fat, water,
alcohol, ash) are determined individually, summed and subtracted
from the total weight of the food. This is referred to as total
carbohydrate by difference and is calculated by the following formula:
100 - (weight in grams [protein + fat + water + ash + alcohol] in 100 g

of food)
It should be clear that carbohydrate estimated in this fashion includes

fibre, as well as some components that are not strictly speaking
carbohydrate, e.g. organic acids (Merrill and Watt, 1973). Total
carbohydrate can also be calculated from the sum of the weights of
individual carbohydrates and fibre after each has been directly
analysed.
Available carbohydrate represents that fraction of carbohydrate that

can be digested by human enzymes, is absorbed and enters into
intermediary metabolism. (It does not include dietary fibre, which can
be a source of energy only after fermentation - see the following
subsections.) Available carbohydrate can be arrived at in two different
ways: it can be estimated by difference, or analysed directly.[6] To
calculate available carbohydrate by difference, the amount of dietary
fibre is analysed and subtracted from total carbohydrate, thus:
100 - (weight in grams [protein + fat + water + ash + alcohol + dietary

fibre] in 100 g of food)
189
This yields the estimated weight of available carbohydrate, but gives
no indication of the composition of the various saccharides comprising
available carbohydrate. Alternatively, available carbohydrate can be
derived by summing the analysed weights of individual available
carbohydrates. In either case, available carbohydrate can be expressed
as the weight of the carbohydrate or as monosaccharide equivalents.
For a summary of all these methods.
Dietary fibre is a physiological and nutritional concept relating to

those carbohydrate components of foods that are not digested in the
small intestine. Dietary fibre passes undigested from the small
intestine into the colon, where it may be fermented by bacteria (the
microflora), the end result being variable quantities of short-chain
fatty acids and several gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen and
methane. Short-chain fatty acids are an important direct source of
energy for the colonic mucosa; they are also absorbed and enter into
intermediary metabolism (Cummings, 1981).
Overview of modern analytical techniques
Spices and condiments are added to foods in small amounts but they
make important contribution to the sensory qualities due to presence
of volatile and fixed oils. Standards for Spices and Condiments are laid
down under Food Safety and Standards
(Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulations, 2011.
Preparation of sample
Grind laboratory sample as quickly as possible in a grinding mill to

pass sieve with 1 mm diameter aperture. Avoid undue heating of
apparatus during grinding. Mix carefully to avoid stratification
(layering). Store in a dry stoppered container.
190
Determination of Extraneous Matter and other Refractions in Whole
spices
Thoroughly mix the sample and weigh 100 – 200 gm depending on

the nature of the material (10 – 20 gm in case of small sized spices),
note down the exact weight and spread in an enameled tray. Separate
extraneous matter and other refractions by hand.
Weigh each fraction and calculate percentage.
Determination of Moisture
(Dean and Stark Toluene Distillation Method)
Principle
The amount of water is determined by distilling the material with an

organic liquid not miscible with water and collecting the distillate in a
graduated tube.
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS
Reagents
Toluene - Saturate with small quantity of water and distill. Use the
distillate for determination of moisture
Apparatus
Moisture Distillation Apparatus - consists of a 500 ml short neck

round bottomed flask heated using a heating mantle and provided
with a reflux condenser discharging into a trap connected to the flask.
The trap serves to collect and measure the condensed water and to
return the condensed solvent to the flask (See figures below) and a
copper wire long enough to extend throughout the condenser with one
end twisted into a spiral. The diameter of the spiral should be such
191
that it fits snugly within the graduated portion of the receiver and yet
it can be moved up and down.
Procedure:
Clean the entire apparatus with chromic acid cleaning solution to

minimize adherence of water droplets to the sides of the condenser
and the receiver. Rinse thoroughly with water and dry completely
before use. Weigh to the nearest 0.01 gm about 20-40 gm of prepared
sample (or enough to yield 2 -5 ml H2O in the trap)and note down the
exact weight. Transfer to the distilling flask with toluene. Add enough
toluene to cover test portion completely (about 75 ml). Fill receiving
tube with toluene pouring it through top of the condenser until it
begins to overflow into the distillation flask. Insert loose cotton plug in
top of the condenser to prevent condensation of atmospheric moisture
in the tube. Add a few pumice stones to avoid bumping. Bring to boil
and distill slowly about 2 drops per second ( about 100 drops per
minute) until most of water distills over, then increase rate of
distillation to 4 drops per second. Continue distilling until 2
consecutive readings 15 minutes apart show no change. Dislodge any
water held up in the condensed with wire loop. Rinse condenser
carefully with 5 ml toluene. Continue distillation 3-5 minutes, cool
receiver to room temperature allowing it to stand in air or cooling it in
water. Solvent and water layers should now be clear, if not, let stand
until clearing occurs. Read volume of water estimating to nearest 0.1
ml and calculate percentage
Mass Spectrometry in food analysis
The determination of organic trace compounds in food analysis is of

major importance for food quality and food safety aspects. Both the
separation of the analyte from potential inferences in the food matrix,
192
as well as the qualitative and quantitative determination of the target
compound, are vital steps in analytical food chemistry.


Definition
Liquid Chromatography (LC, here High Performance LC – HPLC) is a

physical separation technique for trace analysis. It is based on the
interaction of an analyte with a stationary phase (column with
particles) and a mobile phase (liquid eluent or a mixture of eluents).
Mass Spectrometry (MS) is the analytical tool to measure the
composition of a sample. The MS generates useful information about
the molecular weight and the structure of analytes and helps in the
elucidation of unknown compounds.
The combination, LC/MS, LC-MS is a powerful technique, because of

its very high sensitivity (up to the ppt range) and specificity. In the
area of organic trace analysis, MS is used for many applications, but in
contrast to GC/MS (Gas Chromatography, coupled with Mass
Spectrometry), it is dedicated to the analysis of samples that contain
non-volatile analytical targets, typically with a mass between 200 –
193
800u, that are thermally labile, exhibit high polarity or have a high
molecular mass.
Working principle
In principle, a LC/MS device has to perform the four working steps,

including:
 Chromatographic separation of the analytes by a separation

column
 Ionisation of the analyte
 Isolation of the ions and
 Identification of the ions
In general, it is not trivial to interface a HPLC system with a mass

spectrometer, since the difficulty is to transform a solute into a gas
phase ion. The challenge is to get rid of the solvent while maintaining
adequate vacuum level in the mass spectrometer and to generate the
gas phase ions. Therefore, components eluting from the
chromatographic column are introduced to the mass spectrometer via
a specialised interface.
The two most widely used ionisation interface systems, atmospheric

pressure chemical ionisation (APCI) and electrospray ionisation (ESI)
are chosen depending on the physico-chemical properties of the
analytes (i.e. polarity and acidity). Ionisation takes place at
atmospheric pressure and both are considered to be a soft ionisation
method, i.e. the mass spectrum provides mainly the molecular weight
information, unless fragmentation techniques are used.
Since compounds partly co-elute from the chromatographic system,

the clear assignment of the individual fragments can not be
accomplished using only LC-MS, where only molecular ion masses are
194
available. To overcome this problem, tandem mass spectrometry
(MS/MS), which involves multiple steps of mass selection or analysis,
is nowadays mainly used (LC/MS/MS or LC/MSn). These systems are
able to determinate residues in the lower ppt range. For the
qualification of organic molecules, a different technical MS setup is
necessary. One possible approach for qualification is the usage of a MS
which generates ions, leading them to a linear ion trap and then
storing them in a radio-frequency-field. Thereafter, different technical
possibilities enable the qualification of the ions and therefore, of the
unknown compound.
Applications
Since its introduction in routine analysis about ten years ago, LC/MS
has been established in most areas of analytical chemistry, e.g. quality
control, fundamental and applied research and governmental control.
The following examples provide a brief overview:
a) Pharmacy
 Pharmacokinetic studies of pharmaceuticals, e.g. drug

degradation processes
 Drug development, e.g. metabolite identification or impurity
identification
b) Molecular Biology
 Proteomics, e.g. large-scale study of proteins, particularly their

structures and functions
 Metabolomics, e.g. determination of metabolic intermediates,
hormones and other signalling molecules
c) Environment
195
 Wastewater, e.g. endocrine compounds

 Soil, e.g. organometallics
d) Food
 Ingredients, e.g. amino acids, lipids

 Contaminants, e.g. multi-residue analysis of pesticides, seafood
toxins, veterinary residues, determination of colourants,
acrylamide, analysis of microcystins
 Natural products, e.g. terpens, steroids
Introduction to field laboratory methods
Laboratory tests may provide the definitive basis for the measurement
of outcome variables in field trials, either directly by demonstration of
the presence of the pathogenic agent under study or indirectly by
demonstration of a host reaction or of biochemical changes due to the
pathogen. They may also provide evidence of the mechanism of action
of the intervention, for example, directly by measuring the drug or
metabolic by-products or indirectly by measuring an immune response
to a vaccine. In addition, they may be used to detect or confirm the
presence of adverse reactions and prior exposure to an agent or to
antimicrobials.
Rigorous laboratory process is crucial to the generation of good-quality

data and may be important to ensure the safety of trial participants.
Laboratories participating in trials are expected to adopt the Good
Clinical and Laboratory Practice (GCLP) guidelines, which govern the
conduct of clinical trials globally (Stevens, 2003; World Health
Organization, 2009). GCLP provides a framework covering the
spectrum of laboratory studies, from planning to analysis and storage
of specimens and archiving of data. The WHO publication documents a
196
set of minimum requirements for laboratory involvement in clinical
trials, including the use of standard operating procedures (SOPs),
monitoring, quality control (QC), and external quality assurance (QA)
arrangements (World Health Organization, 2009).
The organization and operation of a field laboratory for the support of

a field trial are different from those of a routine medical laboratory and
have become more demanding in recent years. Laboratory accreditation
may be necessary when laboratory data are required for the process of
product licensure. In field trials, the emphasis is often on the collection
and processing of large numbers of samples, on which only a few
specific tests will be performed. Aliquots of samples are usually
required, so that different aliquots can be used for different tests, for
storage as backup specimens, and for shipment for further analysis.
Storage of specimens with computerized records, including electronic
monitoring and bar coding, has been introduced, even in field
laboratories in rural settings.
General aspects of the setting up and running of a field laboratory are

discussed in this chapter. Other literature should be consulted for
information on specific laboratory tests and specific laboratory
methods. Useful general texts containing relevant information for the
operation of a field laboratory and for collecting specimens include
Cheesbrough (1987), World Health Organization (2003), and World
Health Organization (2009).
Sample collection
Accurate laboratory results depend on proper collection, processing,

and handling of samples. The method of collection, timing, and
handling of samples will be determined by the purpose of the trial and
specified in the trial protocol. Careful attention must be given to the
197
quantity and quality of samples, aseptic precautions, and prompt
transport of samples and their processing and storage in the laboratory.
Advances in technology and analytical chemistry have led to the
development and use of direct testing in the field, using point of care
(POC) diagnostics, and rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) have been
introduced in some areas.
Types of specimen
The kinds of specimen that are commonly collected in field trials

include:
 specimens from humans, including blood, stool, urine, sputum,

skin snips, and other tissue biopsies, and swabs or smears
collected from skin or mucosal surfaces
 entomological specimens for studies of vectors, and animal or
malacological specimens for studies of intermediate hosts
 food, water, and environmental samples.
Quality Assurance & Quality Control
Although the term "quality assurance" may seem self explanatory, it is

often confused and used interchangeably with another term, "quality
control." Garfield (8) defines quality control as "a planned system of
activities whose purpose is to provide a quality product. " In the case
of a food control laboratory, this quality product would be a valid
analytical result. He defines quality assurance as "a planned system of
activities whose purpose is to provide assurance that the quality
control program is actually effective." Garfield uses the term "quality
assurance" to encompass both definitions.
Somewhat different terms and definitions are used by Taylor (6,9),

who states that the objective of a quality assurance programme is to
198
reduce errors to acceptable levels and provide assurance that the data
have a high probability of being of an acceptable quality. Further, two
individual concepts are involved: "Quality control," which Taylor
defines as "the mechanism established to control errors," and "quality
assessment," which he defines as "the mechanism to verify that the
system is operating within acceptable limits."
Yet another term is "quality system," defined by a task force of the

International Laboratory Accreditation Conference (7) as "the
organization structure, responsibilities, activities, resources, and
events that together provide organized procedures and methods of
implementation to insure the capability of the organization to meet
quality requirements." The task force states that the quality system
encompasses all elements of quality control and quality assurance.
Quality control, then, may be considered the combination of systems,

procedures, activities, instructions, and management reviews that
control and improve the quality of work performed. Quality assurance,
however, is the system of activities that gives management confidence
that the quality control systems are in place and are effective in
producing analytical results of the highest quality.
Advantages of a quality assurance programme
A quality assurance programme that is working properly has several

advantages. First, it provides a tracking record to ensure sample
integrity, with documentation to verify that laboratory instruments are
functioning properly and that laboratory data were generated
according to approved written protocols. Such documentation is
especially important in regulatory laboratories where analytical
findings must withstand the scrutiny of legal proceedings.
199
A second advantage is a savings of analytical time and costs. Although
the quality assurance programme may initially seem to reduce a
laboratory's productivity, it may actually save analytical time and costs
over a long period, since analyses would tend to be done correctly the
first time.
A third advantage of a quality assurance programme is its aid in

identifying training needs of analysts. This training would not be
restricted to new employees; it would also apply to present employees
whose performance may be deficient or needs updating.
A fourth advantage would be an increase in analyst confidence derived

from knowing that results are reliable. This increased confidence, in
turn, would lead to improved morale and performance.
Other advantages of a quality assurance programme include:
 Ensuring errors are minimised or eliminated. It is impossible to

eliminate all errors but it is possible to ensure that very, very few
serious errors are made without discovery before the results are
transmitted outside the laboratory.
 Ensuring forensic credibility. There is usually a strong legal
tradition about the test applied to evidence in court. The criteria
for the development of scientifically valid evidence are just as
rigid but this does not necessarily mean that the evidence will
comply with court rules or be understandable to a court. For
example, if the legal test is 'beyond reasonable doubt', the court
may have difficulty in equating this to statistical information
about probability.
 Ensuring, in the event of enquiry or dispute, that management
has confidence in the results produced. This confidence derives
200
from the body of evidence that gradually accumulates about the
performance of the laboratory in the range of analyses it carries
out.
 Ensuring, in the event of enquiry, dispute or error that records
are available to resolve the issue. Records should be kept for a
considerable length of time. Six years is often chosen.
 Providing a review of deficiencies, errors and complaints so that
remedial action can be systematic and lead to intrinsic
improvement.
 Ensuring resource utilisation is optimal. This often a slow
process, but as more information accumulates about analytical
performance within the laboratory, it becomes easier to evaluate
the effectiveness with which the resources of the laboratory are
being used. For example, it is easier to ensure that reagents are
available and still within a 'use-by' date.
 Providing results of sufficient certainty for use in databases for
the purposes of food control, public health, nutrition and other
food-related local, national or international policies. These
databases form an extremely valuable resource for monitoring
food products over a period of time. This leads to identification
of changes in products over time and the ability to compare
analytical results very easily. If databases do not contain reliable
information, false conclusions may very easily be drawn.
201
Food Standards Acronyms & Abbreviations
ADR-Adverse drug reaction

AFDO-Association of Food and Drug Officials
AMRH-African Medicines Regulatory Harmonization
Anvisa-National Health Surveillance Agency (Brazil)
AOAC-Association of Official Analytic Communities
APEC-Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
APEDA-Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Authority
API-Active pharmaceutical ingredient
ASEAN-Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AUIBAR-African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources
BIO-Biotechnology Industry Organization
CDC-Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDSCO-Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (India)
CFSAN-Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
COE-Centers of Excellence
CPSI-Center for Science in the Public Interest
CRADA-Cooperative Research and Development Agreement
DHS-Department of Homeland Security
DNA-Deoxyribonucleic acid
DOE-Department of Energy
DOJ-Department of Justice
EQM-European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines andHealthcare
EFSA-European Food Safety Authority
EIC-Export Inspection Council of India
EMA-European Medicines Agency
EPA-Environmental Protection Agency
EU-European Union
EURASFF-European Union’s Rapid Alert Systems for Food and Feed
202
FAO-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FBI-Federal Bureau of Investigation
FDA-Food and Drug Administration
FIAE-Food Industry Association Executives
FICCI-Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
FSMA-FDA Food Safety Modernization Act
FSSAI-Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
G20-The Group of 20
GAO-Government Accountability Office
GAP-Good Agricultural Practices
GHTF-Global Harmonization Task Force
GIZ-Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (Society for
International Cooperation)
GMP-Good Manufacturing Practices
GPhA-Generic Pharmaceutical Association
HACCP-Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
HIV-human immunodeficiency virus
HPV-human papillomavirus
HS-Harmonized System Codes
IAEA-International Atomic Energy Agency
IANPHI-International Association of National Public Health Institutes
IBA-International Biopharmaceutical Association
ICDRA-International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities
ICH-International Conference on Harmonisation of Tecnical
Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use
ICMSF-nternational Commission on Microbiological Specifications for
Food
IICA-Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture
IPPC-International Plant Protection Convention
203
ISO-International Organisation for Standardization
MCC-Medicines Control Council of South Africa
MDMAMedical Device Manufacturers Association
MRA-Medicines Regulatory Authority
NEPAD-New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NMRA-National Medicines Regulatory Authority
OECD-Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OIE-World Organisation for Animal Health
PAHO-Pan American Health Organization
PhRMA-Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America
PREDCT-Predictive Risk-based Evaluation for Dynamic Import
Compliance Targeting
SEAICRN-Southeast Asia Infectious Disease Clinical Research Network
SFDA-State Food and Drug Administration (China)
SIT-sterile insect technique
SPPA-Strategic Partnership Program Agroterrorism
SPS-Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
SPS-Strengthening Pharmaceutical Systems
SRA-Stringent Regulatory Authority
TBT-Technical Barriers to Trade
TRIPS-Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
UN-United Nations
UNICEF-United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIDO-United Nations Industrial Development Organization
USAID-United States Agency for International Development
USDA-United States Department of Agriculture
USP-United States Pharmacopeia
USTR-United States Trade Representative
WHO-World Health Organization
204
WTO-World Trade Organization
FSSAI Question Bank PDF 2019 Available

(Collection of MCQs, Short Q&A, Long
Q&A)- Click Here
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FOOD SAFETY OFFICER & TECHNICAL OFFICER GUIDE 2019

Contents of this book (Functional Knowledge Test)

Chapter 1 (Page 3 to 47): Indian and International Food Laws

Chapter 2 (Page 48 to 100): FSSAI - Role, Functions, Initiatives

Chapter 3 (Page 101 to 122): Principles of Food Preservation,

Chapter 5 (Page 147 to 178): Food Microbiology & General

Chapter 6 (Page 179 to 200): General concepts of Food Analysis

Food Safety and Standards Act of India, 2006: Provision, definitions

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is an

The authority also has 8 regional offices located in Delhi, Guwahati,

FSSAI Abbreviation- Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

FSSAI Headquarter- New Delhi

FSSAI Chairperson- Rita Teotia

FSSAI Chief Executive Officer (CEO)- Pawan Kumar Agarwal

Formation Date of FSSAI- August 2011

FSSAI Laboratories- 172 FSSAI Notified Laboratories, 19 Referral

The Purple Book contains food standards and practices to be followed

Highlights of the Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006

The safety of food is vital to all consumers and food businesses.

• Although food safety legislation affects everyone in the country, it is

Salient Features of the Act:

New provisions under the act

Regulation of food imported in the country

Food Safety Officer

Joint Food Safety Commissioner

Food Safety Officer

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development

Chairman- Shri Paban K. Borthakur

Head Office- New Delhi

Regional Offices- Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Hyderabad and

In accordance with the Agricultural and Processed Food Products

 Development of industries relating to the scheduled products for

 Registration of persons as exporters of the scheduled products on

BIS (The Bureau of Indian Standards)

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), empowered by the Bureau of

Director General- Smt Surina Rajan

Additional Director General- Shri C.B. Singh

Head Office- New Delhi

Regional Offices- Kolkata (Eastern), Chennai (Southern), Mumbai

Regulatory requirements and procedure for Certification

While the scheme itself is voluntary in nature, the Indian Government

In this connection, the Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and

• Infant formula (IS14433)

The Export Inspection Council (EIC) was set up by the Government of

Chairman- Shri Santosh Kumar Sarangi

Head Office- New Delhi

EIC is an advisory body to the Central Government, which is

 Notify commodities which will be subject to quality control and/

Export Inspection Council, either directly or through Export Inspection

Certification of quality of export commodities through installation of

Certification of quality of food items for export through installation of

Issue of Certificates of origin to exporters under various preferential

 Certification of quality of export commodities through installation

MPEDA (The Marine Products Export Development Authority)

The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) was set

Head Office- Kochi

Regional Offices- Kochi, Kolkata, Chennai, Vizag, Mumbai, Veraval