The revolutionary type of balance — direct-reading balance — shortened conventional

measurement times to about 1/3. About 20 years after it first appeared, Shimadzu
successfully developed and commercialized the electronic balance in 1971, a development
that was to greatly reshape the history of balances.

This marked a turnabout in conventional thinking behind weighing which up till then had
involved a series of mechanical, troublesome operations. This was the very beginning of what
is taken for granted today: weighing is simply turning the balance on and placing the sample
on the pan.

By the way, electronic balances around that time were as high as about 30 cm. In the early
days they still had no microcomputer chip as well. All signals were extracted from a
mechanical unit, and digital display was performed solely by electrical circuits made up of
transistors and other components. Then, in 1978, Shimadzu started sales of the ED series of
electronic balances, the first to incorporate a microcomputer chip, which improved
measurement speed even further. From then on, Shimadzu has continued to successively
introduce more compact and lower-priced models into the market.

Even now, naturally, higher measurement accuracy and shorter measurement speeds are the
most important themes for balances. Recently, however, how handy and easy-to-operate
balances can be made is also an important factor. Various convenient features and measures
are incorporated into recent balances, including a self calibration function, built-in clock
function and the Windows®Direct function for enabling a simple PC connection. Besides
enhancing performance, Shimadzu will keep its focus on the needs of the future and will
steadily continue to develop balances that will aid and help everyone.
Learning About Electronic Balances
Tips for Daily Analysis

As of 2008, Shimadzu has been manufacturing balances for 90 years. During that period, the
most revolutionary event was electrification and the advent of the electronic balance. Due to
their easy operation and fast measurement, their use has spread very quickly.
However, there are also hidden pitfalls to their ease-of-operation and convenience that could
result in committing major mistakes.
Therefore, this page discusses the key points for ensuring electronic balances are used
correctly and more accurate and reliable measurements are obtained. The following describes
the types of error, how each type occurs, and measures to minimize error. In addition, we will
also give some recommendations for daily inspections (including adjusting sensitivity).

(1) How Electronic Balances Work

(2) Types of Error
(3) Causes and Corrective Measures for Error
(4) Inspections

Liquid Chromatography

Liquid Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometry

How Electronic Balances Work

The quickest way to understand the principle of how electronic balances work, is to first
understand how they are constructed. There are two basic types of electronic balance designs.
1. Electromagnetic balancing type
2. Electrical resistance wire type (load cell type)
These are based on completely different principles, but what they both have in common is
that neither directly measures mass. They measure the force that acts downward on the
pan. This force is converted to an electrical signal and displayed on a digital display.

As a means of measuring force, the electromagnetic balance method utilizes the

electromagnetic force generated from a magnet and coil, whereas the electrical resistance
wire method utilizes the change in resistance value of a strain gauge attached to a piece of
metal that bends in response to a force.
Note: See also the article on Electromagnetic Versus Load Cell Type Balances

So why do electronic balances display mass values when that is not what they measure? It is
because the reference standards for mass are weights, which are placed on a pan to inform the
electronic balance that a given force is equivalent to a given number of grams, which is used
for conversion. Consequently, electronic balances that do not perform this conversion
accurately cannot display accurate mass values.

Types of Error
1. Sensitivity Error
This indicates a difference between the value measured by the balance and the correct value.
Normally, this is expressed in terms of the deviation at measurement points near the balance
capacity (maximum mass measurable). As an extreme example for a balance with a 200 gram
capacity, if a 200 g weight is placed on the pan but the balance displays a value of 160 g, the
sensitivity error at 200 g is -40 g. This indicates that the deviation is distributed
proportionally as error over the entire measurement range. For example, a measurement at
100 g is half the weight of 200 g, so it would include half the error of 200 g, or -20 g.
Sensitivity error occurs based on how accurately calculations are performed when force is
converted to mass, as described above in How Electronic Balances Work. The method used
to convert force to mass is always described in instruction manuals and is referred to as
sensitivity adjustment, calibration, or span adjustment. Placing the balance in different
locations can results in variations in gravitational acceleration or variations in room
temperature that can affect conversion. Sensitivity error can increase or decrease
depending on how users adjust sensitivity.

2. Linearity Error
If the error included in balance measurement values was only the sensitivity error described
above, then error would be proportional to the load value at any given measurement point.
However, in reality that is not the case. That is because there are other types of error besides
sensitivity error. One such error is linearity error, described in this section. The relationship
between sensitivity error and linearity error is explained in Figure 1. (It shows an example of
an especially large error for illustrative purposes.)
Assuming the measurement value for a 200 g weight on a 200 g balance is indicated as 160 g
(sensitivity error of -40 g), then measurements of 100 g should include a proportional
sensitivity error component of -20 g, resulting in a measurement value of 80 g. In other
words, measurements should fall along a straight line connecting the measurement at 200 g
and the origin (the sensitivity line of the balance). The area between this balance sensitivity
line and an ideal line with zero error represents the sensitivity error component. However, in
reality, measurements sometimes do not fall along the balance sensitivity line. For example,
if the measurement value for 100 g was 50 g, then it includes an additional error of -30 in
addition to the 80 g indicated by the balance sensitivity line. This additional error component
is referred to as the linearity error.
Linearity error occurs due to the state of the balance itself or its original performance level.
(This value is indicated in the instruction manual specifications included with each balance.)
Therefore, this error level cannot be reduced by the user. Nevertheless, the sensitivity error
component can be minimized by properly adjusting the sensitivity.
Balance Error - Sensitivity and Linearity

It is important to determine the composition of error in balance measurement values. In other

words, it is important to determine what component of error is due to sensitivity error
and what component is due to linearity error. To use the balance properly, rather than
assuming the balance has malfunctioned just because the error is large, it is extremely
important to always consider whether the error is due to sensitivity error or not.

3. Repeatability
Repeatability refers to the degree to which the same measurement value is obtained when
repeatedly measuring the same thing and is an indication of precision level. It expresses the
variability of measurement values in terms of standard deviation or band width.
Repeatability depends on the status of the balance itself and original performance level, but it
also depends on how it is used (such as the containers used for measurements) and the
environment (such as effects from air flow or static electricity).

4. Eccentric Error
This error occurs due to where the item is placed on the pan. In the case of round pans, this is
expressed as the difference in measurement values obtained when an item is placed half a
radius away from the center, in 45-degree directions (front left, front right, rear right, and rear
left), compared to the measurement at the center. Eccentric error depends on the status of the
balance itself and its original performance, but can be significantly reduced by being
careful to place loads in the pan center.

Eccentric Error of Balances

Causes and Corrective Measures for Error

By understanding how error occurs and the factors that cause it, methods of minimizing error
become apparent. The following describes some of the main factors that cause error, along
with measures to minimize them.

1. Gravitational Acceleration
The biggest factor causing sensitivity error is gravitational acceleration.
Consider the following example. If a balance with sensitivity adjusted perfectly in Tokyo is
transported carefully to Kagoshima (about 1000 kilometers southwest of Tokyo) without
causing any damage, the measurement value for a 1 kg weight would change as indicated
below.

Tokyo: 1000.00 g
Kagoshima: 999.70 g

This phenomenon is due to the difference in gravitational acceleration resulting from the
difference in latitude. In other words, a sensitivity error occurs, where the balance
measurement values become smaller as you move south and larger as you move north.

Gravitational acceleration is not only affected by latitude, but also by altitude as well.
The important point here is not about how much of a sensitivity error occurs for a given
movement of the balance, or by a given change in floors of a building, rather the point is that
sensitivity should be readjusted whenever the balance is moved, even for short distances.

2. Temperature
The second biggest factor causing sensitivity error is temperature. Temperature variations in
the balance itself can cause sensitivity error.
Electronic balance specifications always specify a temperature coefficient for sensitivity.
This value indicates how much balance sensitivity error occurs for each degree change in
temperature. The following example of an analytical balance shows how much the display
value can vary.

Temperature Coefficient for Sensitivity: 2 ppm/°C

Before Temperature Change: 200.0000 g
After 5 °C Change: 200.0020 g

One of the factors that causes balance temperature to change is room temperature. If your
laboratory temperature stabilizes quickly to an appropriate temperature each morning, you
may think there is no problem with temperature, but the balance itself does not change
temperature as quickly as the room temperature.
It takes a long time for it to gradually adjust to temperature changes.

In some cases, if the balance sensitivity is adjusted after the air conditioner is switched on
and the room temperature has stabilized in the morning, it may be possible to adjust the
sensitivity at that time, but it will immediately start changing again. Eliminating room
temperature variations is best, but as a practical matter we recommend performing the most
important measurements (those that require the most precision) in the afternoon (after
the balance has thoroughly adjusted to the room temperature). Also, always remember to
adjust sensitivity immediately before measurements.
Other factors, besides room temperature, that change the balance temperature include direct
sunlight and heat generated by electronic parts within the balance. To avoid these factors,
keep the balance away from direct sunlight and, if possible, leave the balance power ON
24 hours a day.

3. Containers
Have you had the following experience? Using flasks or other such containers can cause a
drifting phenomenon, where the indicated balance value gradually changes in one direction.
This is due to the air contained in the container. For example, if the container has a lower
temperature than the weighing chamber, the air in the container is heated by the interior of
the weighing chamber, causing the air to expand and overflow from the container. Therefore,
the indicated value on the balance gradually creeps lower.

Given a container volume of 100 cm3, a change in container temperature of 2 °C is equivalent

to 0.82 mg. These conditions will cause measurement repeatability to increase (become
worse). To avoid this situation, have the container adjust to the balance temperature as much
as possible, such as by leaving the container next to the balance and not touching the
container with bare hands.

4. Air Flow
It is easy to imagine how the beam of a mechanical weighing balance could fluctuate when
exposed to external air flow. The same thing applies to electronic balances as well. The
presence of air flow can cause worse stability and repeatability or other consequences.

1) Air Flows From External Sources

There are many factors in our immediate surroundings that can cause air flow, such as air
conditioners and the movement of people, but one factor that is often overlooked is the door
to the room. If the door is a swinging type, think of it as fan that not only generates it own
wind, but also changes the room air pressure, which disturbs the stability of the air inside the
balance as well. These effects can be significantly prevented by taking measures with
respect to the facility to prevent exposing the balance to air flow and having all personnel,
including those not involved in using the balance, to cooperate together in being careful.
Also, if possible, use a sliding type door.

2) Air Flows Generated Within the Weighing Chamber

If the air inside the weighing chamber convects, the pan and item being measured will be
exposed to air flow, which will cause instability.

Convection can be caused by factors such as the rise or fall of air due to temperature
differences between items being measured and the weighing chamber or the disturbance of
air from moving items being measured in and out of the weighing chamber. To minimize
convection, it is necessary to keep in mind to let items being measured thoroughly adjust
to the balance temperature, to avoid inserting hands into the weighing chamber, to
place or remove items being measured in as short a time as possible, and to avoid
opening the weighing chamber door more than necessary. In addition, to minimize
temperature differences between inside and outside the weighing chamber, we recommend
leaving the weighing chamber door open a few millimeters when the balance is not in use.
However, no matter how careful you are, it is difficult to completely suppress convection.
Therefore, to minimize its effect, do not let items being measured protrude from the pan.
Success comes from paying attention to details, such as folding the edges of weighing paper.

5. Static Electricity
Static electricity, which appears when the air starts becoming dry, can electrically charge
powders, plastic or glass containers to cause the balance display value to be unstable and
cause repeatability to become worse. If a problem occurs only when weighing an actual
sample, but not when weighing weights, then the cause is likely static electricity.

Static electricity can be discharged to the air and eliminated by humidifying the room, but
using an ionizer is also effective. Shimadzu offers STABLO-AP ionizers.

Electronic balance error was discussed above. Hopefully, this will be helpful to those that
read it. In addition to the causes mentioned above, there are a variety of factors that can cause
errors, such as vibration and the density of the items being measured. Those will be discussed
in a future article, as opportunity allows. Next, we will give a brief introduction to daily
inspection of balances.

Daily Inspection of Balances

Inspect the following every day or before use, as described below, to confirm with minimal
operations that the analytical balance will function properly. To inspect the weighing
capacity, place a weight with a known mass on the pan to confirm that the displayed value is
within the criteria values (user-specified values). It is also necessary to decide what procedure
should be followed if the value exceeds the criteria values, such as whether to readjust the
balance until the value is within the criteria values or send the balance out for repairs. In
recent years, routine inspections have been increasingly performed at two or three inspection
points, typically including one point near the weight where the balance is normally used and
one near the weighing capacity. As indicated in Table 1, routine inspections should inspect
both performance and the general status of the electronic balance, such as checking for
contamination on the pan or in the weighing chamber and checking that the digital display
functions properly. Table 2 shows an example of a routine inspection results record.