VOLVE FIELD, NORWAY: THE STUDY AREA

The field under study was discovered in 1993 in the North sea region. It is located in the central
part of North Sea and has a water depth of about 80 meters. The field was established with a Jack
up rig. The wells were drilled in the field from 2007 and by 2008 it was put on production with
the help of water injection to maintain pressure. It majorly relied on produced water reinjection
methodology for maintaining pressure. The field was developed in the phase of low oil price;
therefore special consideration was given to develop it in the most efficient method. The results
were very satisfying as well because it exceeded the predicted field life by twice. Initially it’s life
expectancy was somewhere between 3-5 years but it lasted for over 8 years before
decommissioning.

Volve produced oil from middle Jurassic Sandstone formation. The reservoir is believed to be
formed in the period of Jurassic age by the downfall of salt ridges and thus the observed shape is
also a small dome shaped structure. The true vertical depth subsea is ranges from 2750-3120, the
observed thickness is 20 meters at the crest and 100 meters at the flanks of the structure.

Recoverable reserves are estimated at 78.6 million barrels of oil and 1.5 billion cubic metres of
gas, with a daily production of 56,000 barrels of oil a day. Volve by its abandonment has
produced about 63 million barrels of oil which is too much out of its expectations. With a
recovery of about 54 percent the field was abandoned in September 2016.

Table 1; Source: Norsk Petroleum

The pore pressure of the field lies within the range of defined pressures for maximum ranges but
when we go deeper, slight overpressure is also observed. Maximum pore pressure recorded in the
field is 10.8ppg. The porosity of the reservoir ranges between 30-35 percent with a good
uniform permeability making ways for diffusive flow. Since the field uses water for pressure
maintenance, it is being inflicted and affected by severe water production from several zones.
Therefore our project revolves around the philosophy of decoding the production logging data of
the field in order to form a 3-D simulation model on software and thus analyzing the zones
giving out the maximum amount of water. Once the detection of zones is done, the next move
will be to devise some methods to bring things under control by using certain methods which in
turn will increase the recovery percentage of the field and have a positive impact on the
economics of the project.

Figure1; Geographical Location of Volve Field

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF YEARLY PRODUCTION & EXPENDITURE

Figure 2; Year wise Production

Figure 3; Year wise Expenditure

 LOGGING

Logging can be understood as the process of recording data with depth or time using basic laws
of physics. Majorly e-lines and tools are used in order to observe, evaluate, gather and transmit
the downhole information to the surface above. Logging is widely used in petroleum industry
and is a predominant part of field operations with it being carried out after almost every
individual episode of drilling, casing and during production as well. A particular sequence is
followed while logging i.e.:

1. Distinguish between reservoir (High Porosity) & non-reservoir rocks (Low Porosity).
2. For the above detected reservoir zones, distinguish between the Hydrocarbon & water
filling pores and calculate Saturation of water in order to determine the saturation of
hydrocarbon.
3. For the hydrocarbon fraction, distinguish between oil and gas. By doing so we can
estimate the gas and oil saturations.

Now, this all is needed to determine whether to go for it or abandon it i.e. whether the project is
going to be successful or in vain. Based on this analysis further development of well and
subsequently the fields are done. If a negative comes in our way then it is still an early stage and
we can abandon the project. Well Logging provides a way to measure formation properties using
instruments that are run into the borehole at the end of a wire line, the end of a drill string, or the
end of coiled tubing .Based on the method by which logging is done, different names are
suggested. Specifications and applications of all types of logging are different; some are used in
the open well bore in between the episodes of drilling whereas some of them are used in cased
holes for determining the performance of production operations.. With the advancement of
technology and requirement of time due to tough competition, even tools enabling logging while
drilling or doing mud logging are also available. In almost every field now days, big companies
like Schlumberger, Baker Hughes are providing there Logging while drilling and mud logging
services. These things have became an intergral and predominant part of oil and gas industry.
CHARACTERIZTION BASED ON OPERATIONS & TIMING

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 WIRELINE LOGGING

It is a conventional form of logging that employs a measurement tool suspended on a cable or

wire that suspends the tool and carries the data back to the surface. These logs are taken between
drilling episodes and at the end of drilling. When we talk about evaluating the formation this is
the logging technique which is most handy. It is used for the determination of lithology, for the
determination of porosity, for the determination f conductivity and resistivity and therefore
providing us with a clear picture of our formation.

WIRELINE LOGGING

LITHOLOGY POROSITY RESISTIVITY

GAMMA RAY SONIC LOG ELECTRIC LOG

SP LOG DENSITY LOG INDUCTION LOG

NEUTRON LOG LATEROLOGS

MICROLOG

MICROLATEROLOG

PROXIMITY LOG
LITHOLOGY LOGS: These logs are primarily used to determine the lithology of the reservoir
we are dealing with. Shale is taken as an indicator in determining other lithologies, permeable &
impermeable zones are also detected using these logs. There are two types of logs under this
consideration.

 Spontaneous Potential Log (SPLog): This log is used to measure the spontaneous
potential of the formation. For the existence of spontaneous potential:
1. Conductive borehole fluid.
2. Sandwich of porous & permeable zone between low porous & low permeable
zones.
3. Difference in salinity between borehole fluid & formation fluid

Spontaneous potential log is presented in track 1 of grid. It has no absolute scale but detects the
relative difference of spontaneous potential between two zones based on which we decide upon
the permeability of the formation.

Figure 4: SP LOG REPRESENTATION

Spontaneous potential log has quantitative use as well; it is used to determine the shaliness of the
formation by:

Vsh = 1- PSP/SSP

Where, Vsh =Volume of shale

PSP= SP Value in shaly sand

SSP= SP value in 100 percent shale.

 Gamma Ray Log: Gamma ray log comes under Natural radiation logs. Majority of
lithologies contains the isotopes of Potassium, Uranium, and Thorium. Shale emits higher
count of gamma rays emission as it is derived from igneous rock which has significant
gamma emitting isotopes. The order of gamma ray emissions goes like

LITHOLOGY GAMMA RAY COUNT

LIMESTONE 5-10
DOLOMITE 10-20
SANDSTONE 10-30
SHALE 80-140
MICA 250-300

Table 2; Gamma Ray counts for different lithologies

It’s working principle is based on the amplification of photons by the use of scintillation
counter. It is presented in track 1 along with SP log and Caliper log. It’s scale ranges
from 0-200 but 0-150 is usually used.
Apart from being used for lithology determination, it is also used for determining the
shale content:
IGR= (GRLOG-GRMIN)/ (GRMAX-GRMIN)
Where every term has its usual meaning. Along with this, Gamma Ray Log is also used
for cased hole correlations, depth matching etc.
 Figure 5; Gamma Ray Representation

POROSITY LOGS: Porosity Determination is very important for determination of reservoir

and non reservoir zones. Based on this determination, further evaluation like determination of the
saturation various fluids is done in subsequent steps. There are three types of logs under this
consideration:

 Sonic Log: It is a category of acoustic log, here by using velocity of an elastic wave in
the formation slowness is calculated based on which the effective porosity of the
formation is calculated.
Delta t is in microseconds & v in feet per seconds. And porosity is given by

Where every term has its usual meaning. Along with measuring the effective or connected
porosity of the formation, sonic log is used for seismic data calibration, seismic interval velocity
calculations, and synthetic seismogram development.

Figure 6; Sonic Log Representation

  Density Log: This is a radioactive log in which Caesium-137& Cobalt-60 are the sources
of radiation. By using this log we calculate the bulk density of the formation using which
we derive the value of total porosity of the formation.
Higher the bulk density, higher will be the electron density, higher will be the attenuation
and lower will be the Gamma ray count. It is presented in track 2 or 3 of the grid and
usually the value of density ranges between 1.95-2.95g/cm3.

LITHOLOGY DENSITY
Quartz 2.65
Calcite 2.71
Dolomite 2.87
Anhydrite 2.97

Table 3; Density values of formation

By using this equation, we can find out the total porosity of the formation. Along with
this it helps in detecting the overpressure zones which are detected by a reduction in
density with depth abruptly and helps in recognizing organic matter zones as well.

 Neutron Log: This is a radioactive log in which alpha particle and Beryllium reacts to
give gamma rays and these gamma rays are affected only by the amount of hydrogen
present in the formation. Higher the amount of Hydrogen present, lower will be the
observed gamma ray count i.e. higher the porosity, lower will be the count rate. The
neutron log is further subdivided into three parts:
1) Gamma Ray/Neutron Log ( GNT)
2) Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool ( SNT)
3) Compensated Neutron Log ( CNL)

This log is presented in track 2 or 3 of the grid. GNT in API units and SNT & CNL in
equivalent limestone porosity.

It is mainly used for the determination of porosity & the porosity measured by neutron is equal to
the porosity measured by the density log for oil, for gas it is 77 percent of the porosity measured
by the density log.

By using all 3 porosity logs together, secondary porosity can also be determined as the sonic
measures effective porosity whereas the density/Neutron measures total porosity.
 Figure 7; Neutron Log Representation

RESISTIVITY LOGS: Once we have determined the reservoir and non-reservoir zones, the
next step in the evaluation is to know about the fluids which are filling these pores. If the zones
are filled by water or by hydrocarbons are determined by using resistivity logs, saturation of
water is calculated and indirectly we get to know the saturation of oil. Basically the calculations
are done by the formula proposed by Archie based on his experimental work. Two laws were
given by Archie based on which the equation to evaluate the saturation of water s derived. The
resistivity of a reservoir rock depends upon the water and water based mud filtrate filling the
rock and there saturations along with the porosity of the formation.
Where, Sw = Water Saturation

Rw = Resistivity of water

Rt = True resistivity

F= Formation Factor

m= Cementation Index

There are basically 6 types of resistivity logs which include:

SIMPLE ELECTRIC LOG Used to calculate the Used in water saturation

resistivity of all zones be it calculation
flushed, shallow or deep.

INDUCTION LOGS Used to calculate the Conductivity and Resistivity

conductivity of the formation in Oil based Mud and hence
calculation of water saturation.

LATEROLOGS Used to calculate the Resistivity in water based mud

resistivity of the formation and hence calculation of water
saturation

MICROLOGS Resistivity of the mud cake Indicator of permeability,

and flushed zones detector of thin zones

MICROLATEROLOGS Resistivity of Flushed zones Measure Rxo

PROXIMITY LOGS Resistivity of flushed zones Measure Rxo

MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING & LOGGING WHILE DRILLING

Drilling activities has become more complex, with horizontal and directional increasing in
numbers, logging has also had to adapt and improve. Measurement while drilling (or MWD) is a
type of operating wells that integrates measurement tools in the drill string and provides real-
time information to assist in directing the drill.

The sensors are installed in a special downhole tool compound as part of the downhole assembly.
Within the downhole tool there is also a transmitter for sending signals to the surface by a kind
of telemetry channel. The most common type of telemetry channel currently in use is the mud
column inside the drill string. The signals are detected on the surface, decoded and processed to
provide the required information in a convenient and usable.

The great advantage of MWD is that it allows the driller and geologist to actually "see" what is
happening in real-time downhole. It therefore improves the process of decision making, because
there is a delay of a few minutes between the measurement parameters and receiving data from
downhole to the surface. MWD generally relates to the measure of the wellbore (hole)
inclination relative to the vertical direction, and also the magnetic north.

MWD tools can be semi-permanently mounted in a drill collar (removable only in maintenance
facilities) or they may be self-recoverable and wired. Tools sometimes referred to as recoverable
slim tools, can be recovered and replaced by wireline through the drill string. This usually allows
the tool to be replaced much faster in case of failure and allows the tool to recover if the string
gets stuck.

MWD tools can also provide information on the conditions of the drill. This may include:

 Drill string rotational speed

 The smoothness of the rotation
 Type and severity of any downhole vibration
 Downhole temperature
 Torque and weight on bit, measured near the drill bit
 Mudflow volume
The use of this information may allow the operator to drill the well more efficiently, and to
ensure that the tool of MWD and other downhole tools, such as a mud motor, rotary systems
adjustable and LWD tools are operated in their technical specifications to prevent failure tool.
This information is also valuable to geologists responsible for information and training which is
being drilled.

Logging While Drilling

LWD a type of well logging which comprises the logging tools in the drill string, administration,
interpretation and transmission of formation of real-time measurements to the surface.

Overcoming challenges in logging by directional drilling, LWD logging revolutionized the

concept. Placing logging tools near the drill bit at the end of the drilling apparatus, LWD is used
to connect drillers exceeding 60 degrees, which allows pushing the tool into the well possible. In
addition, by providing real-time information, using LWD drillers and engineers to make
immediate decisions about the future of a well and the drilling direction.

Provide information about porosity, resistivity, acoustic waveform, toward the orifice, and the
weight on bit, LWD transmits logging measurements at regular intervals during drilling is in
progress. Data are transmitted to the surface by pulses through the mud column (also known as
mud pulse telemetry mud) in real time.

One type of LWD, drilling current measurement (MWD) specifically refers to information used
to help direct the drill bit, such that the direction, orientation and drilling bit information.

LWD, everything has the advantage of measuring properties of a formation but sometimes risky
and expensive, before the deep drilling fluids invade. In addition, many drill holes be difficult or
impossible to measure with conventional corded tools, especially the highly deviated wells. In
these situations, the LWD measurement provides some measure of the basement is captured if
the wire line operations are not possible. LWD data in a timely manner may also be used to
thereby guide the placement such that the wellbore remains within the area of interest or in the
most productive part of a reservoir, for example in tanks vary shale.
 PRODUCTION LOGGING

After casing is set wireline surveys are often conducted to evaluate the integrity of the
completion. Basically cased hole logs can be subdivided into PRODUCTION LOGS &
MECHANICALLY INTEGRATED LOGS. Production logs are used to evaluate fluid
movement and production both in and out of casing, they have small diameter and are often run
through tubing. Mechanical Integrity logs are used to evaluate the casing and the cement around
it and are bigger in diameter. Usually the mechanical integrity logs are run before setting up the
tubing.

MAIN APPLICATIONS OF PRODUCTION LOGS:

 Locating downhole sources of undesired fluid phase production such as water entries.
This application of production logging will be used in our study of Volve field
extensively.
 Isolating mechanical problems such as leaking pipes, leaking packers & fluid movement
in cement channels behind pipe.
 Evaluating the effectiveness of workover by comparing before and after job surveys.
 In EOR, injection profiles of wells are also evaluated using production logging
techniques.

From the time of drilling a well till its abandonment, production logging has found many
applications. Depending upon the log type, these applications can be broadly categorized into
five categories.
These five categories can be understood in summary as the ways by which overall health of the
completed wells. Open hole completion is very significant when it comes to evaluate the
formation but to know about the perforations, respective contacts of different fluids, cement
setting, corrosion status and fraction of different fluids coming from each perforated zone;
Production logging plays a major part.

The table depicted on the next page gives a clear overview of the applications which production
logging process:
Type of Production Logging Tools:

I. Temperature – Logging Tool:

Temperature logs are a record of the temperature gradients in a well. A temperature log is
interpreted by looking for anomalies, or departures, from the reference gradient. This reference
might be the geothermal gradient, a log recorded before production started or a log recorded with
the well shut-in. Temperature logs have many applications, with the most common being to
identify zones producing or taking fluid, to evaluate a cement or hydraulic fracture treatment,
and to locate lost circulation zones and casing leaks. Since temperature takes time to dissipate, a
temperature log tends to reflect the behavior of a well over a longer time period than other
measurements.
The tool includes a cage, which is open to the wellbore fluid, at the tool’s bottom end. Inside the
cage is a thermistor that senses the surrounding fluid temperature. The preferred sensor is a
platinum element because the electrical resistance of the sensor varies linearly with temperature
over a wide range and is stable over time. The circuitry of the tool is designed so that the voltage
across the sensor is proportional to the sensor’s electrical resistance. The movement of formation
fluids up hole is easily detected by deviations of the borehole temperature from the geothermal
gradient.

II. Radioactive Tracer-Logging Tool:

A record of the presence of tracer material placed in or around the borehole to measure fluid
movement in injection wells. There are two traditional techniques for recording radioactive-
tracer logs: the tracer-loss measurement, in which a tracer material is added to the completion
fluid and its progress monitored with a gamma ray tool; and the velocity-shot measurement, in
which the tracer is ejected from one part of a production logging tool and its progress monitored
by one or more gamma ray detectors farther down the tool. Radioactive-tracer logs are used to
determine injection-flow profiles and detect channels or leaks.
The tool used comprises of an ejector capable of ejecting shots of radioactive tracer material into
the flow stream, usually of an injection well. It either has one or two gamma ray detectors spaced
below the ejector. By noting the position, time, and size of the tracer signal, an accurate
overview of the injection profile can be established. Special techniques are also available to
detect injected fluid channeling through the cement to undesirable zones.

III. Fluid Capacitance Logging:

This type of log is used to distinguish between the mix of hydrocarbons and water in the
wellbore fluid. The fluid-capacitance-logging tool includes an inside dielectric probe located on
the tool’s axis. The probe is surrounded by an outside housing that is open to the wellbore fluid.
Together, the probe, the housing, and the fluid constitute an electrical capacitor, the capacitance
level of which depends on the particular fluid, or fluids, within the capacitor. Circuitry within the
tool is connected to the electrical capacitor, with the result that the circuitry generates an
oscillating signal that varies inversely with the capacitance level.
Water has the greatest capacitive effect, resulting in the lowest frequency. Gas has the least
capacitive effect, resulting in the highest frequency. The frequency with oil is intermediate to
those of water and gas. However, the oil frequency is much closer to the gas frequency than to
the water frequency. Consequently, the tool distinguishes principally between water and
hydrocarbons.

IV. Unfocussed Gamma Ray Log:

While focused density logs assess wellbore fluids, the unfocused density logs look at the fluid
below the screen or in the gravel pack. Unfocused gamma-ray density logging is also sometimes
called gravel-pack density logging.
The unfocused gamma ray density logger incorporates a compacted slug of Cesium-137 near the
bottom of the device. A gamma-ray detector, located approximately 20 in. above the slug,
responds to incident gamma radiation. A counter determines the counts/min (intensity) of the
gamma rays; this information is transmitted through the logging cable to the surface, where the
count rate is plotted against depth.

V. Focused Gamma Ray Logging:

The focused gamma-ray density-logging tool incorporates a compacted slug of Cesium-137 at

the bottom of an open cage. The Cesium emits gamma rays, and a lead lens focuses gamma rays
in a narrow beam parallel to the axis of the cage. Because the cage is open, wellbore fluid is
present inside the cage, and the fluid is in the path of the focused beam. The gamma rays have an
energy level low enough that the rays are deflected by the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus
of any atom. Furthermore, the amount of backscatter (or absorption) is directly related to the
density of the electron cloud and, therefore, to the density of the wellbore fluid. Those gamma
rays that are backscattered or absorbed do not emerge from the wellbore fluid at the top of the
cage.
At the upper end of the tool cage, a gamma detector responds to the gamma rays that still remain
when the beam emerges from the wellbore fluid. A counter determines the counts/min (intensity)
of the gamma rays; this information is transmitted through the logging cable to the surface.
VI. Noise Logging:

Noise logging is a technique for measuring and analyzing acoustical noise generated downhole
by turbulent flows of liquids or gases. Noise amplitude and frequency data are recorded vs depth
to produce a log from which a downhole flow can be located and traced from source to sink. The
log will also describe the flow as single- or two-phase and will provide information for
estimating the flow rate.
The noise-logging tool "listens" passively to downhole noise, for example, from gas bubbling up
through liquid in the wellbore. Behind pipe, a channeling flow often passes through cramped
spaces and constrictions. These "tight spots" cause high velocities, sudden pressure reductions,
and significant flow turbulence. The noise tool listens to the noise associated with the turbulence.
The tool includes piezoelectric crystals (transducers) which convert the oscillating pressure of
wellbore sound to a corresponding oscillating voltage. At the surface, the oscillating voltage is
applied to a speaker, permitting the logging operator to hear the downhole sound