Measurements of Force, Torque and Pressure: Objectives
Measurements of Force, Torque and Pressure: Objectives
Measurements of Force, Torque and Pressure: Objectives
The sensitivity depends on the construction parameters of the balance arm and is
independent of the weights being compared. The sensitivity can be improved by decreasing both
dG and WB and increasing L. A compromise however, is to be struck between the sensitivity and
stability of the balance.
5.3 UNEQUAL ARM BALANCE
An equal arm analytical balance suffers from a major disadvantage. It requires a set of
weights which are at least as heavy as the maximum weight to be measured. In order that the
heavier weights may be measured with the help of lighter weights, balances with unequal arms
are used.
The unequal arm balance uses two arms. One is called the load arm and the other is
called the power arm. The load arm is associated with load i.e., the weight force to be measured,
while power arm is associated with power i.e, the force produced by counter posing weights
required to set the balance in equilibrium.
Fig. shows a typical unequal arm balance. Mass ‘m' acts as power on the beam and exerts
a force of Fg due to gravity where Fg = m x g. This force acts as counterposing force against the
load which may be a test force Ft.
The multiplication ratio M, is indicative of weight that should be put in the pan to balance
the weight on the platform. Suppose the scale has a multiplication ratio of 1000. It means that a
weight of 1 kg put in the pan can balance a weight of 1000 kg put on the platform. Scales are
available which have multiplication ratios as high as 10,000.
If the beam scale is so divided that a movement of poise weight Wp by 1 scale division
represents a force of x kg, then a poise movement of y scale divisions should produce the same
result as a weight Wp placed on the pan at the end of the beam. Hence,
The above equation represents a relationship that determines the required scale divisions on the
beam for any poise weight Wp.
5.5 Proving Ring
This device has long been the standard for calibrating tensile testing machines and is in
general, the means by which accurate measurement of large static loads may be obtained. A
proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular cross section as shown in the Fig. which may be
subjected to tensile or compressive forces across its diameter. The force-deflection relation for a
thin ring is
16 𝐸𝐼
F=𝜋 4 𝑦
− 𝑑3
2 𝜋
where, F is the force, E is the young’s modulus, I is the moment of inertia of the section
about the centroidal axis of bending section. D is the outside diagram of the ring, y is the
deflection. The above equation is derived under the assumption that the thickness of the ring is
small compared to the radius. And also it is clear that the displacement is directly proportional to
the force.
The deflection is small and hence the usefulness of the proving ring as a calibration
device depends on the accuracy with which this small deflection is measured. This is done by
using a precision micrometer shown in the figure. In order to obtain precise measurements one
edge of the micrometer is mounted on a vibrating reed device which is plucked to obtain a
vibratory motion.
The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a noticeable damping of the
vibration is observed.
Proving rings are normally used for force measurement within the range of 1.5 KN to 1.5
MN. The maximum deflection is typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the ring.
5.6 Torque Measurement
The force, in addition to its effect along its line of action, may exert a turning effort
relative to any axis other than those intersecting the line of action as shown in Fig. Such a
turning effect is called torque or couple
Torque or couple = Fb1 - Fb3
= Fb2
The important reason for measuring torque is to obtain load information necessary for
stress or deflection analysis. The torque T may be computed by measuring the force F at a known
radius 'r' from the following relation T=Fr.
However, torque measurement is often associated with determination of mechanical power,
either power required to operate a machine or power developed by the machine. The power is
calculated from the relation.
P = 2 π NT
where N is the angular speed in revolutions per second. Torque measuring devices used
in this connection are commonly known as dynamometers.
There are basically three types of dynamometers.
1. Absorption dynamometers: They absorb the mechanical energy as torque is measured, and
hence are particularly useful for measuring power or torque developed by power sources such as
engines or electric motors.
2. Driving dynamometers: These dynamometers measure power or torque and as well provide
energy to operate the devices to be tested. They are, therefore, useful in determining performance
characteristics of devices such as pumps, compressors etc
3. Transmission dynamometers: These are passive devices placed at an appropriate location
within a machine or in between machines to sense the torque at that location. They neither add
nor subtract the transmitted energy or power and are sometimes referred to as torque meters.
The first two types can be grouped as mechanical and electrical dynamometers.
These dynamometers are of absorption type. The most device is the prony brake as
shown in Fig.
where force F is in Newtons, L is the length of lever arm in meters, N is the angular speed
in revolution per minute, and P in watts. The prony brake is inexpensive, but it is difficult to
adjust and maintain a specific load.
Limitation : The prony brake is inherently unstable. Its capacity is limited by the following
factors.
i). Due to wear of the wooden blocks, the coefficient of friction varies between the blocks and
the flywheel. This requires continuous tightening of clamp. Therefore, the system becomes
unsuitable for measurement of large powers especially when used for long periods
ii) The use of prony brake results in excessive temperature rise which results in decrease in
coefficient of friction leading to brake failure. In order to limit the temperature rise, cooling is
required. This is done by running water into the hollow channel of the flywheel.
iii) When the machine torque is not constant, the measuring arrangement is subjected to
oscillations. There may be changes in coefficient of friction and hence the reading of force F
may be difficult to take.
Hydraulic Dynamometer
The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped Bourdon tube (A); a
helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or
a set of bellows (F).
The Bridgman Gage
The resistance of fine wires changes with pressure according to the following linear
relationship. R = R1 (1 + αp)
Where R1 Resistance at 1 atmosphere (100 KN/m2) in ohms
α Pressure coefficient of resistance in ohms/100 KN M-2
p gage pressure in KN/m2.
The above said resistance change may be used for measurement of pressures as high as
100,000 atm., 10.00KN/m2. A pressure transducer based on this principle is called a Bridgman
gage. A typical gage uses a fine wire of manganin (84% Cu, 12% Mn, 4% Ni) wound in a coil
and enclosed in a suitable pressure container. The pressure coefficient of resistance for this
material is about 2.5x10-11 Pa-1. The total resistance of the wire is about 100Ω and conventional
bridge circuits are employed for measuring the change in the resistance. Such gages are
subjected to aging over a period of time, so that frequent calibration is required. However, when
properly calibrated, the gage can be used for high pressure measurement with an accuracy of
0.1%. The transient response of the gage is exceedingly good. The resistance wire itself can
respond of variations in the mega hertz range. Of course, the overall frequency response of the
pressure-measurement system would be limited to much lower values because of the acoustic
response of the transmitting fluid.
Low-Pressure measurement
In general, pressures below atmospheric may be called low pressures or vacuums. Its unit
is micron, which is one-millionth of a meter (0.001 mm) of mercury column. Very low pressures
may be defined as that pressures which are below 1 mm (1 torr) of mercury. An Ultra low
pressure is one which has pressure less than a millimicron(10-3 micron). An ultralow pressure is
one which has pressure less than a millimicron (10-3 micron). Following are the two methods of
measuring low pressure.
Direct Method: In this, direct measurement resulting in displacement caused by the action of
pressure. Devices used in this method are Bourdon tubes, flat and corrugated-diaphragms,
capsules and various forms of manometers. These devices are limited to a lowest pressure
measurement of about 10mm of mercury.
Indirect or Inferential method: In this pressure is determined through the measurement of
certain other pressure-controlled properties, such as volume, thermal conductivity etc.
The Mcleod Gage
The operation of McLeod gage is based on Boyle’s law.
Where, p1 andp2 are pressures at initial and conditions respectively, and v1 and v2 are
volumes at the corresponding conditions. By compressing a known volume of low pressure gas
to a higher pressure and measuring the resulting volume and pressure we can calculate the initial
pressure.
The McLeod gage is a modified mercury manometer as shown in the Fig. 11.2. The
movable reservoir is lowered until the mercury column drops below the opening O.
The Bulb B and capillary tube C are then at the same pressure as that of the vacuum
pressure P. The reservoir is subsequently raised until the mercury fills the bulb and rises in the
capillary tube to a point where the level in the reference capillary R is located at the zero point. If
the volume of the capillary tube per unit length is ‘a’ then the volume of the gas in the capillary
tube is Vc = ay----(1).
Where ‘y’ is the length of gas occupied in capillary tube.
If the volume of capillary tube, bulb and the tube down to the opening is VB. Assuming
isothermal Compression, the pressure of the gas in the capillary tube is
The pressure indicated by the capillary tube is
Pc - P = --------(3)
Where, we are expressing the pressure in terms of the height of the mercury column. And
combining equations (1), (2) and (3)
Usually ay << VB
To measure the resistance of the filament wire a resistance bridge circuit is used. The
usual method is to balance the bridge at some datum pressure and use the out-of-balance currents
at all other pressures as a measure of the relative pressures.
Another form of construction is shown in Fig. (b) in which the resistance wire is wrapped
around a mica strip and sandwiched between two additional mica strips. These resistance
thermometers may be used directly. But, when permanent installation with corrosion and
mechanical protection is required a well or socket may be used.
The eyepiece is then adjusted such that the filament and the source appear superimposed.
The filament may appear either hotter or colder than the unknown source as shown in the
Fig.The current through the filament is adjusted by means of rheostat.
Filament Appearance
When the current passing through the filament is too low, the filament will emit radiation
of lesser intensity than that of the source, it will thus appear dark against a bright background as
in Fig. (a). When the current is too high it will appear brighter than the background as in Fig. (b).
But when correct current is passed through the filament. The filament “disappears” into the
background as in Fig. because it is radiating at the some intensity as the source. In this way the
current indicated by the ammeter which disappears the filament may be used as the measure of
temperature. The purpose of the red filter is to obtain approximately monochromatic conditions,
while an absorption filter is used so that the filament may be operated at reduced intensity.
5.9 Strain Measurements
When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain mathematically
Strain € = δl /l where, δl = change in length of the body
l= original length of the body.
If a net change in dimension is required, then the term, total strain will be used. Since
the strain applied to most engineering materials are very small they are expressed in “micro
strain”
Strain is the quantity used for finding the stress at any point. For measuring the strain, it
is the usual practice to make measurements over shortest possible gauge lengths. This is because,
the measurement of a change in given length does not give the strain at any fixed point but rather
gives the average value over the length. The strain at various points might be different depending
upon the strain gradient along the gauge length, then the average strain will be the point strain at
the middle point of the gauge length. Since, the change in length over a small gauge length is
very small, a high magnification system is required and based upon this, the strain gauges are
classified as follows:
i) Mechanical strain gauges
ii) Optical strain gauges
iii) Electrical strain gauges
Mechanical Strain Gauges
This type of strain gauges involves mechanical means for magnification. Extensometer
employing compound levers having high magnifications was used. Fig. shows a simple
mechanical strain gauge. It consists of two gauge points which will be seated on the specimen
whose strain is to be measured. One gauge point is fixed while the second gauge paint is
connected to a magnifying lever which in turn gives the input to a dial indicator. The lever
magnifies the displacement and is indicated directly on the calibrated dial indicator. This
displacement is used to calculate the strain value. The most commonly used mechanical strain
gauges are Berry-type and Huggen berger type. The Berry extensometer as shown in the Fig. is
used for structural applications in civil engineering for long gauge lengths of up to 200 mm.
Mechanical Strain Gauge ( Berry Extensometer)
Advantages
1. It has a self contained magnification system.
2. No auxiliary equipment is needed as in the case of electrical strain gauges.
Disadvantages
1. Limited only to static tests.
2. The high inertia of the gauge makes it unsuitable for dynamic measurements and varying
strains.
3. The response of the system is slow and also there is no method of recording the readings
automatically.
4. There should be sufficient surface area on the test specimen and clearance above it in order to
accommodate the gauge together with its mountings.
OUTCOME
Students will be able to
1. Learn the concepts of force, torque, pressure, temperature measuring devices.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. With a neat sketch explain force measuring devices.
2. With a neat sketch explain torque measuring devices.
3. With a neat sketch explain pressure measuring devices.
4. With a neat sketch explain temperature measuring devices.
FURTHER READING
1. Jain R. K., 1997, Engineering Metrology, Khanna Publishers.
2. Shawne A. K., 1998, Mechanical Measurement and Instrumentation, Dhanpat
Rai and Co. (P) Ltd.
3. Hazra Chowdhury, 1995, Workshop Technology, Media Promoters and
Publishers Pvt. Ltd