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New Generation Fungicides in Disease Management of Horticultural Crops

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 Research Review
I
Indian Horticulture Journal; 7(1): 01-07, January-March (2017)
H
J ©Indian Society of Advanced Horticulture
ISSN: 2249-6823
DI: 389-16-IHJ-0510-01

New Generation Fungicides in Disease Management of Horticultural Crops

Sajad Un Nabi, Waseem H Raja, *Mohammad Saleem Dar, Shoaib Nissar Kirmani and Mohammad
Mudasir Magray
ICAR-Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Rangreth - 190 007 Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
*Division of Plant Pathology, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar - 191 121 Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
e-mail: sajadnabi21@gmail.com

Received: 05 October 2016; Revised accepted: 04 January 2017

ABSTRACT
In the modern, intensified agriculture, the efficient management of plant diseases is essential. At present the most
reliable means of doing this is by the use of fungicides. Fungicides are the toxic substances which either kill or
check the growth of the fungi. During the last two decades, fungicide research has produced a diverse range of
fungicidal products with novel modes of action which had a significant impact on plant disease control. The need
for new and innovative fungicides is driven, among other factors, by resistance management, regulatory hurdles,
and increasing customer expectations. Compounds having a novel mode of action are of course of special interest,
since they play a key role in resistance management strategies, but equally important are new fungicides with
enhanced characteristics such as systemicity, curativity, and longevity of disease control. The technical feature of
new generation fungicides are target specific action and safer to non target sites. Over the past few years,
however, several truly novel compounds have been launched commercially and have reached an advanced stage
of development, which include phenylpyrroles, anilinopyrimidines, strobilurin analogues etc with effects on
respiration, cell membrane components, protein synthesis, signal transduction and cell mitosis. Many of the
important plant diseases, which were not controlled satisfactorily by the previous traditional fungicides, can now
be well managed by the new compounds which are mostly systemic in nature. In view the risk of resistance
development with most of the systemic, site specific compounds, there is a need to develop more classes of
fungicide with novel target sites.

Key words: New generation, Fungicides, Respiration, Strobilurins, Plant disease, Novel

I ndia is an agrarian country where more than 65% of

population is directly or indirectly dependent upon
agriculture and allied activities for their sustenance and
2009). In order to minimize the losses caused by the plant
diseases, it is necessary to devise strategies to overcome
these problems. Plant diseases are caused by a diverse group
survival. Modern high input intensive agriculture has of micro-organisms which include fungi, bacteria, viruses,
resulted in loss of biodiversity, outbreaks of diseases, which viroids and phytoplasma. Largest number of plant diseases
has led to stagnation of agricultural production and is caused by fungi, and the most common and economical
productivity (Kumar 2014). The crop losses due to pests, chemical tools for the fungal plant disease control are
diseases and weeds are approximately assessed to be fungicides (Dehne 2007). The history of using chemical
ranging between 10 to 30% of crop productions. On an fungicides in agriculture started for control of plant diseases
average, crop loss of 20%, causes loss of ₹ 1, 40,000 crore, since 19th century, when B. Prevost discovered the
annually, which is colossal (Kumar and Gupta 2012). Even effectiveness of copper for the control of seed borne bunt
if we will be able to save 50% by using plant protection disease in wheat. Since then, fungicides have been used in
measures, it will add annually ₹ 70,000 core additional agriculture to protect crops against the losses caused by
income to our farmers. Various types of direct and indirect plant diseases and are recognized as an essential element in
losses caused by plant diseases, which resulted in reduced crop protection programmes (Thind 2011). Fungicides
quality, quantity of crop produce, increased cost of having a novel mode of action (preferably with low
production, threat to animal health and environment and less resistance risk) are of course of special interest, since they
remunerative alternatives adopted (Kumar and Saxena play a key role in disease control in modern, adapted

01
 Nabi et al. 2017 Indian Horticulture Journal 7(1)
population of plant pathogens, and also in resistance guidelines to sustain their efficacy levels (Kumar and Gupta
management strategies, but equally important are new 2012).
fungicides with enhanced characteristics such as well-
established mode of action, systemicity, curativity, and Table 1 FRAC classification of new generation fungicides
longevity in disease control (Chao 2011). The high cost of Mode of Active ingredient
Target site of action
product development, which is driven by the extensive action common name
studies required on efficacy, safety to humans, environment, Respiration Complex I: NADH Diflumetorim
other organisms and production optimization etc. is on the oxidoreductase inhibitors
one hand a burden to industry. On the other hand, this high Complex II: Succinate Boscalid
investment and the science required to bring successfully dehydrogenase Fluopyram
new plant protection products to market and at the same Flutolanil
time guarantee the safety to consumers. It has led to new Fluxapyroxad
advances and innovation in fungicide invention which Penthiopyrad
includes high action against plant diseases at very low use. Complex III: cytochrome Azoxystrobin
There is a need for new fungicides because; around 70% of bc1 (ubiquinol oxidase) Famoxodone
the global fungicide market by value is represented by high at Quinone outside site Fenamidone
to medium resistance risk fungicides (Gullino 2000). On the (cyt b gene) Fluoxastrobin
other hand it can clearly be assured that a greater diversity Kresoximmethyl
of modes of action is needed to help the growers to manage Picoxystrobin
the threat of resistance. In addition, there is a clear need for Pyraclostrobin
regulatory authorities to maintain the continued availability Complex III: cytochrome Ametoctradin
of existing modes of action in the market (Leadbeater 2015). bc1 (ubiquinone
reductase) at Quinone
New generation fungicides outside site, stigmatellin
The process of fungicides discovery has undergone a binding subsite
noteworthy change over the period of time. After the era of Complex III: cytochrome Cyazofamid
broad spectrum multisite and site specific systemic bc1 (ubiquinone
fungicides, several novel action fungicides of different reductase) at Quinone
chemical classes have been developed in the past two inside site
decades. These are more eco- friendly as these are used at Inhibitors of oxidative Fentin hydroxide
much lower doses as compared to the earlier compounds. phosphorylation, ATP
Most important among these are the strobilurins (QoIs), synthase
derived from Strobilurus tenacellus, a wild mushroom Protein Methionine biosynthesis Cyprodinil
(Kumar and Gupta 2012). Other important fungicides synthesis (proposed) (cgs gene) Pyrimethanil
introduced for the control of diverse diseases in the last Signal MAP/Histidinekinase in Fludioxonil
decade are Oxazolidinediones (faoxadone), transduction osmotic signal
Phenoxyquinolines, (quinoxyfen), Anilinopyrimidines transduction (os2,HOG1)
(cyprodinil, pyrimethanil), Valinamides (iprovalicarb, MAP/Histidinekinase in Iprodione
benthiocarb) Mandelamides, (mandipropamid), osmotic signal Vinclozolin
phenylpyrroles (fenpicloil, fludioxonil), MBIs transduction (os2,Daf1)
(carpropamid) Spiroketalamines (spiroxamine), Benzamides Sterol C-14demethylase in Cyproconazole
(mandipropamid), Cyanoimidazoles (cyazofamid), biosynthesis sterol biosynthesis Difenoconazole
Thiocarbamates (ethaboxam) and Amdoximes in (erg11/cyp51) Fluquinconazole
(cyflufenamid), Phenoxyquinolines (quinoxyfen), membranes Fenbuconazole
Imidazoles (fanmidone), Benzamides (fluopicolide, Flutriafol
zoxamide) representing different chemistries and mode of Ipconazole
action (Thind 2012, Kumar 2014). These recently Metconazole
introduced new generation fungicides to the market Imbenconazole
represent major advances in technology, potency against Penconazole
target diseases, selectivity, safety and rate reduction. Tebuconazole
However, they tend to have single site modes of action 3keto reductase, Fenhexamid
which makes them potentially affected by target site C4demethylation (erg27) Fenpyrazamine
resistance (Leadbeater 2012). Thus now it is very important, Mitosis and Delocalization of spectrin Fluopicolide
along with existing products and based on resistance cell division like proteins
management strategies, to proactively devise
recommendations for new fungicide classes, as well as In India a few of the lately developed new generation
maintaining existing products. Their use has to be regulated fungicides have been registered for use and many are
as per Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) currently under evaluation for different diseases like, Apple

02
 Fungicides in Disease Management of Horticultural Crops
scab etc. Some of the new generation fungicides registered fungal respiration (Herve and Themis 2010). Two widely
in India for use against important horticultural diseases used Complex II inhibitors, boscalid (2-chloro-N-(4_-
include Strobilurins (azoxystrobin, kresoxim methyl, chlorobiphenyl-2-yl) nicotinamide), flutolanil (α,α,α-
trifloxistrobin, pyrachlostribin) against powdery mildew, trifluoro-3_-isopropoxy-o-toluanilide), cause dysfunction of
downy mildew in grapevine and cucurbits Valinamides succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) in the tricarboxylic cycle
(Iprovalicarb, Benhiovalicarb) against Oomycere diseases in and mitochondrial electron transport chain, inhibiting the
grapevine, potato, tomato and cucurbits, Oxazolidinediones activity of Complex II and respiration in fungal cells
(Famoxadone) against potato late blight, Phenyl-ureas (Spiegel and Stammler 2006). Significant yield increases
(Pencycuron) against, black scurf of potato, Mandelamides were reported with the use of these fungicides, indicating
(Mandipropamid) against late blight of potato and downy their effectiveness in the control of fungal diseases (Smith et
mildew of grapevine (Kumar 2013, Thind 2007). al. 2008). The recent discovery of boscalid has produced a
substantial broadening of the biological spectrum of this
New generation fungicide classification class of compound, as it is most active against, Botrytis spp.,
The classification of fungicides as under (Table 1) is Sclerotinia spp., Sphaerotheca spp., Alternaria spp,
according to FRAC code list based on their mode of action, Colletotrichum spp. on fruit and vegetables, Erisyphe spp.,
target site and active ingredient common name pattern Podosphaera spp., Venturia spp., Mycosphaerella spp. on
forms the basis for resistance management under practical Stemphyllium on fruit (Dolores 2012, Miles 2013).
agronomic conditions (Anonymous 2010).
Complex III inhibitors
Respiratory inhibitors Strobilurins
Several new generation fungicides with different modes Strobilurin fungicides also called as β–
of action were reported to inhibit microbial respiration, methoxyacrylates are having strong market vitality and great
among them NADH oxidoreductase (Complex I) inhibitors, potential for development after triazole fungicides. Their
succinate-dehydrogenase (Complex II) inhibitors, market value accounts for about 23%-25% of the total
cytochrome bc1 and (Complex III) inhibitors, are most global fungicides, which is largest in world. In 2014, the
important ones. Whereas some fungicides affect fungal global sale value of strobilurin fungicides has reached USD
respiration at the level of the enzyme complex system and 3.8 billion, accounting for 22.9% of fungicides total
various other targets. Respiratory inhibitors with different (Anonymous 2016). These compounds are analogues of
modes of action are described below (Chao et al. 2011). strobilurin-A originally obtained from Strobilurus
tenacellus, a wild mushroom growing in temperate forests.
Complex I (NADH inhibitors) These are analogues to strobilurins –A and have broad range
Aminoalkylpyrimidines includes novel inhibitors of of disease control (Kumar and Gupta 2012). Their synthesis
Complex I in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, with a was initiated by BASF and Zeneca (nowSyngenta) to
broad spectrum activity against major diseases in prepare analogues of strobilurin-A possessing desired
ornamental crops. However, until now no commercial fungitoxicity, good light stability and systemic properties
products with the exception of Diflumetorim (5-chloro-N- without phytotoxicity. The first analogue azoxystrobin was
{1-[4(difluoromethoxy) phenyl]propyl}-6-methylpyrimidin- registered for largescale applications against various
4-ylamine) have reached the market, due to an unfavorable diseases in 1996 which was soon followed by kresoxim
cost/activity relationship and, in certain cases high toxicity methyland trifloxystrobin (Koizumi 1998). Currently, there
(Kramer et al. 2012). Diflumetorim (Pyricut) was first are more than 10 key strobilurin fungicides products in the
registered in Japan in 1997 to control powdery mildew and global market, with azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin,
rust in ornamental plants, which inhibit NADH trifloxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, kresoxim-methyl,
oxidoreductase activity leading to fungal death complex I picoxystrobin and dimoxystrobin beings the key ones. Their
catalyze the two-electron oxidation of NADH, coupled to fungicidal activity results from the inhibition of electron
the transport of four protons across the membrane. It is transfer between cytochrome b and c1 in complex III of the
mainly used for the treatment of diseases in ornamentals and mitochondrial electron transfer chain which inturn disrupts
has major fungicidal effect on powdery mildew of rose and the energy cycle within the fungus by halting ATP
white rust of chrysanthemum (Fujii et al. 1998). production (Dave 2002). Strobilurins move translaminarly
as well as systemically except kresoxim methyl and
ComplexII (Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors) trifloxystrobin which only moves translaminarly. These
The succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) are movements help to compensate for incomplete spray
highly attractive group of fungicides with regard to their coverage. These processes may be especially important in
history of use, chemical innovations, and spectrum of crops with dense or difficult canopies to spray, for example
targeted diseases. They are the most modern, broadly cucurbits (Paul 2002). Beneficial influences have been most
effective fungicide group available to farmers in their extensively studied with kresoxim methyl and
disease control programmes (Stammler et al. 2015). These pyraclostrobin. The effects include delayed senescence, an
molecules specifically bind to the ubiquinonebinding site altered co2 compensation point, reduced stomatal aperture
(Q-site) of the mitochondrial complex II, thereby inhibiting and water consumption, and a better tolerance of oxidative

03
 Nabi et al. 2017 Indian Horticulture Journal 7(1)
stress (Dave 2002). These are most important and effective Dimethylaminosulfonyl azoles exhibit a very high
against a wide range of plant pathogens and diseases fungicidal activity against Oomycetes and inhibits at the Qi
(downy mildews, powdery mildews, Phytophthora and site, of Complex III in contrast to the strobilurins, which
Alternaria blights, apple scab, Rhizoctonia infections etc.) bind at the Qo site. It includes two important new generation
caused by Oomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and fungicides, Ametoctradinand Cyazofamid. Cyazofamid (4-
Fungi Imperfecti (Jensen 1997). Several Strobilurin chloro-2-cyano-N,N-dimethyl-5-p-tolylimidazole-
fungicides commercially available are shown in (Table 2). 1sulfonamide) which was commercially introduced in 2001,
isexhibiting specific activity against diseases caused by
Table 2 Strobilurin Fungicides commercially available Phytophthora infestans on tomato and Pseudoperonospora
Active Manufacturer/ cubensis on cucumber (Shigeru 2002). Ametoctradin a new
Trade names, examples
ingredient Market Oomycete-specific fungicide which, is a potent inhibitor of
Abound™ 2.08F, Azoxystrobin Syngenta the bc1 complex in mitochondrial respiration and is a highly
Amistar™, Heritage™, selective and effective as preventive spray against late
Quadris blight and downy mildews in a wide range of vegetable
Reason™ 500SC Fenamidone Bayer crops (Xiaolei 2015). The binding mode of ametoctradin
Disarm™ 480SC, Fluoxastrobin Arysta differs from other fungicides such as cyazofamid and the
Evito™ 480SC strobilurins, which explains the lack of cross-resistance with
Sovran™ 50WG Kresoxim Cheminova strobilurins and related inhibitors, where resistance is
methy mainly caused by G143A amino acid exchange (Fehr et al.
Cabrio™ 20EG, Pyraclostrobin BASF 2016).
Headline™ 2.08EC,
Insignia™ 20WG Sterol Biosynthetic Inhibitors (SBI Group)
Compass™ 50WG, Trifloxystrobin Bayer Fungicides that inhibit targets within the fungal sterol
Flint™ 50WG, Gem™ biosynthesis, this have been the most important group of
500SC specific fungicides worldwide for more than the past three
decades. The biochemical basis of its success is that, fungi
Oxazolidinediones (Azolones) have specific sterols that differ from those in plants and
Famoxadone{5-methyl-5-(4-Phenoxyphenyl)-3- animals, thus providing the chance to develop selective
(Phenylamino)-2,4oxazolidinedione}, is a member of this inhibitors that cover a broad spectrum of plant pathogens
class of oxazolidinedione fungicides which belong to the (Chao et al. 2011). Fungal cell membranes are characterized
bc1 complex QoI family, which has broad spectrum activity in most pathogens belonging to the Ascomycetes and
for use in fruits especially in vines (Abrue 2006). It was Basidiomycetes by a common dominant sterol component,
discovered by the collaboration between DuPont and the ergosterol. More than 40 SBI fungicides have reached
Geffken research group at University of Bonn, Germany market stage is proof of the interesting properties of the
(Fu-Wang 2011). The compound inhibits the activity of inhibitors of this biosynthetic pathway. One important
ubiquinol cytochrome c oxido-reductase at complex III. It property of this group is that targets within fungal sterol
has been introduced in combination with cymoxanil biosynthesis which provide sufficient chemical room to
(KX007 – 42 SC) as a resistance management strategy and synthesize a considerable diversity of highly active
also to enhance disease control. It is used as protectant fungicides that are safe for treated plants both at
through with significant translaminar activity. It controls toxicological and environmental levels. Moreover, most
diseases like Late blight of potato and downy mildew of SBIs are among one of the few fungicide groups that
grape (Thind 2009). provide a pronounced curative and eradicative activity. The
resistance risk of SBI fungicides is generally regarded to be
Dimethylaminosulfonyl azoles low to medium (Anonymous 2010).

Table 3 Grouping of SBI fungicides in the FRAC classification

G: Sterol biosynthesis inhibitors
FRAC codes
G1 G2 G3 G4
Demethylation Amines (formerly Squalene epoxidase
Group name Hydroxyanilides
inhibitors: (DMIs) morpholines) inhibitors
SBI classes I II III IV
Target in sterol Sterol C14 _14 Reductase and _7 →
3-Keto reductase Squalene epoxidase
biosynthesis demethylase _8 isomerase
Chemistry Piperazines Morpholines Hydroxyanilides Thiocarbamates
Pyridines Piperidines Allylamines
Pyrimidines Spiroketalamines
Imidazoles
Triazoles

04
 Fungicides in Disease Management of Horticultural Crops
SBIclasses Hydroxyanilides are of great interest depending on the
The major purpose of classification is to facilitate properties of their aromatic substituent’s, and easy
resistance management at the farmers’ level. There are four degradability, hence have a very favorable toxicological
classes of SBI fungicides shown in (Table 3), but only first profile and environmental behavior. Fenhexamid a
three have practical importance in plant protection. representative of Hydroxyanilides is a specific inhibitor of
3-keto reductase in fungal sterol biosynthesis, an enzyme
SBI Class I: DMI (Demethylation inhibitors) Fungicides involved in the C-4 demethylation. It is used at dosages
The DMI fungicides are one of the most important ranging from 375 to 1000 g a.i. ha−1 in grapes, berries,
mode of action class, based on their economic importance stone-fruits, citrus, vegetables, and ornamentals against
within the SBI fungicides. Moreover, within the DMI Botrytis cinerea and the related pathogens Monilinia spp.
fungicides one chemical class – the triazoles, which and Sclerotiniasclerotiorum (Kramer et al. 2012).
dominates not only by their market share but also in the
number of compounds that have reached market level? The Signal Transduction Inhibitors
introduction of new DMI compounds continued until the The new generation fungicides affecting signal
early 2000s. The introduction of new compounds with a transduction takes place at the level of membranes and
higher intrinsic activity has allowed maintenance of the involves the function of certain proteins. Phenylpyrrole
efficacy of DMI fungicides on an economically highly fungicidal ingredient fludioxonil (4-(2,2- difluoro-1,3-
competitive level for over 30 years (Kuck 2002). Most of benzodioxol-4-yl)-1H-pyrrole-3-carbonitrile), is a
the well-known triazole-based DMI fungicides that were nonsymtemic fungicide, is known to interfere with the
launched before1990 still have a significant market signal transduction pathways of target fungi. It was
importance, although recently newer triazoleshave largely introduced in 1990 as a foliar fungicide and may have a non
taken over the leading position for horticultural disease target effect on bacteria, as this dualistic signal transduction
management. Penconazole (Topas®) was specifically mechanism is also present in prokaryotes (Mizuno 2005). It
developed for broadleaf crops and simultaneously for provides broad spectrum activity across all fungal classes
control of scab and powdery mildew in apples, powdery (except Oomycetes), especially against species of the genera
mildew and other diseases in grapes, fruits, and vegetables Aspergillus, Fusarium, Monilinia, Penicillium, and Botrytis.
(Chao et al. 2011). Fenbuconazole which is intended for use It is highly effective against B. cinerea on grapes, fruits,
as an agricultural and horticultural fungicide spray for the vegetables and ornamentals, Sclerotinia spp, Rhizoctonia
control of leaf spot, powdery mildew, and apple scab, pear and Alternaria in vegetables, turf and ornamentals. Its high
scab, and powdery mildew on apples and pears. efficacy against different molds makes it well suited for use
Fluquinconazole, a quinazoline-based triazole fungicide, as both pre and post-harvest treatments in citrus (Kim
which was introduced to market in 1992, is used as a foliar 2007).
fungicide, particularly against pome fruit diseases caused by
Venturia inaequalis, Podosphaera leucotricha, Monilinia
Cell division inhibitors
spp., Cercospora spp. etc (Russel 1992). Imibenconazolea
Two benzamide compounds viz. fluopicolide and
novel triazole fungicide has wide range of activity against
zoxamide have been developed recentlyfor use against
diseases in fruit, turf, vegetables, and ornamentals, apple
diseases caused by oomycete pathogens such as downy
and pear scab and powdery mildew. Furthermore, a good
mildews and late blight. These interfere with microtubule
performance against grape powdery mildew, grape
skeleton similar to benzimidazoles though at a different
anthracnose as well as the control of citrus and peach scab
step. These are generally used in combination with
(Chao et al. 2011).
mancozeb. Fluopicolide has recently been formulated with
SBI Class II: Amines propamocarb for better action and modifies the cellular
Spiroxamine (Spiroketalamines) is a novel ergosterol localization of a spectrin like protein (Toquin et al. 2007). It
biosynthesis inhibitor introduced in 1996 and is particularly induces delocalization of spectrin-like proteins which
effective against powdery mildew of grapevine (Dutzmann represents a new mode of action that is different to that of
et al. 1996). Apart from inhibiting Δ14 reductase, it has known anti-oomycete fungicides on the market. It affects
additional activity against Δ8,7 isomerase, squalene several stages of the life cycle of the different oomycetes
synthase and squalene cyclise. The first representative of the studied, such as the release and the motility of zoospores,
new chemical class of spiroketalamines, which was the germination of cysts, the growth of the mycelium as well
introduced in market in 1996. It is used in grapes against as the sporulation. It exhibits high activity against a broad
powdery mildew Erysiphe necatorat rates between 200 and spectrum of oomycetes such as Phytophthora infestans,
400 g a.i. ha−1, and in bananas against the Black Sigatoka Plasmopora viticola and various Phytium species (Chao et
pathogen, Mycosphaerellafijiensis at 320 g a.i. ha−1. In al. 2011).
grapes, spiroxamine is the only amine representative with a
registration in all major vine-producing countries, due to its Protein Synthesis Inhibitors
favorable plant selectivity (Chao et al. 2011). Proteins are the most important building blocks in
living organisms. They have various important biological
SBI Class III: Hydroxyanilides functions such as making up the cytoskeleton, delivering

05
 Nabi et al. 2017 Indian Horticulture Journal 7(1)
signals among cells, and catalyzing biochemical reactions novel modes of action, there are fewer chances of resistance
(Lodish 2000). Several fungicides interfere with the development or cross resistance to previous fungicides.
biosynthesis of amino acids and proteins, affecting the These are also easily degradable and pose less threat to the
biological functions of impacted organisms. environment. There is significant improvement in their
Anilinopyrimidinesare broad spectrum novel fungicides formulations and are safer to the crops. In some cases, the
having a potential use in a variety of crops. Mepanipyrim benefit gained through fungicide use is more critical to the
and pyrimethanil possess high activity against Botrytis extent that certain crops, such as apple, grapes, banana,
cinereaon grapevineand other fruits and Venturia potato, tomato etc cannot be cultivated in the absence of
inaequalison apples (Daniels et al. 1994). disease control that remains heavily dependent on the use of
fungicides. Intensive use of chemical control measures has
CONCLUSION in turn led to its own challenges, including resistance to
The use of fungicides has assumed importance over the fungicides. The sustainable use of fungicides to prolong
years in the control of more damaging plant pathogens their effectiveness and usefulness to growers is key, and the
against which host resistance is not easily available or is implementation of resistance management strategies are
unstable, particularly for polycyclic pathogens. The new essential part of this. Only if the long-term effectiveness of
compounds which have originated from different fungicides can be ensured will industry invest the money
approaches such as traditional random screening and from and resources required for their discovery and development,
natural products are expected to provide better disease especially considering the high standards of today’s
control options and are ecologically safe show good efficacy registration requirements. The Fungicide Resistance Action
at much lower doses. These require lesser treatments per Committee and its network play a vital role in the design
season compared to earlier compounds. Since they possess and support of these strategies.

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