CONCRETE

TECHNOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT 1
CBD221

BOTSWANA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ODUETSE MANOKOLA 20170050DCE

BOIKI RABEWU 20170046DCE

TSHEPISO MOGAETSHO 20170040DCE

KEALEBOGA PHIRINYANE 20170063DCE
MPHO MODISE 20170056DCE
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Table of Contents
CONCRETE CONSTITUENTS....................................................................................................................3
PRECAUTIONS TAKEN IN CONCRETE PREPARATION PROCESS.............................................................12
FOUR TYPES OF AGGRIGATES BASED ON SHAPE AND HOW THEY INFLUENCE PROPERTIES OF
CONCRETE...........................................................................................................................................14
Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................18
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Concrete technology assignment

1
CONCRETE CONSTITUENTS

The constituents of modern concrete have increased from the basic four (Portland cement,
water, stone, and sand) to include both chemical and mineral admixtures. These admixtures
have been in use for decades, first in special circumstances, but have now been
incorporated in more and more general applications for their technical and at times
economic benefits in either or both fresh and hardened properties of concrete .[ CITATION
CTT09 \l 3081 ]

I. PORTLAND CEMENT

Figure 1 dry cement Figure 2 packaged cement

Cement when mixed with water will form a paste that hardens into a strong rigid
material. It is this paste that fills the voids between aggregate particles and binds
them all together to form concrete. This hardening process (which occurs by a
chemical reaction with water) is known as hydration.
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When water is added to cement, hydration products grow outwards around a

cement particle as it takes up water. This zone of expanding hydration products will
intersect and bind with those from other cement particles and firmly encase
aggregate particles thus ‘binding’ the concrete together.( The required amount of
cement paste is dependent upon the amount of void space that must be filled and
the total surface area that must be covered)
Cement will hydrate under water. If there is an inadequate amount of water
available hydration will stop and the concrete may be of poor quality. The process of
keeping water in concrete to facilitate full hydration is known as curing.
Until recently, the term ´cement´ was an abbreviation for Portland cement.
However, its meaning has now expanded to cover a greatly increased product range,
in which Portland cement is combined with other constituents such as fly ash, also
known as pulverised fuel ash (pfa) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS).
Pozzolans are natural or industrially produced materials that react with the lime
released from the hydration of Portland Cement. Natural pozzollans occur in
mainland Europe and other parts of the world and have been used in concrete since
Roman times. Industrial pozzolans are normally the by-products of other processes
and materials of this type include pulverised fuel ash, ground, granulated blast
furnace slag, microsilica and metakaolin. They are widely used in the United Kingdom
and elsewhere to improve the properties of concrete, usually by eliminating free lime
and converting it into stable cementitious products.[ CITATION Con17 \l 3081 ]
Cement may be marketed in bags (or sacks) but not necessarily of the same mass in
different countries, (e.g., in U.S., a sack is of 94 lb, about 42 kg, but in U.K., a bag is of
50 kg). For ready-mixed concrete production, bulk delivery by cement tankers and
pumped into plant silos is the most common practice. Hence, to avoid possible
confusion, it is best to specify the amount of cement on the basis of mass, and not in
number of bags, per unit volume.
Strength potential of cement is assessed by making mortar specimens with standard
sand at a prescribed water/cement ratio and tested after curing under water at
specified ages. ASTM and European standards specified different methods of making
and testing of the mortar specimens. Each has it own specified grading for the
standard sand, water/cement ratio, method of preparing test specimens and test
methods. The specified 28-day strength of each type of cement depends on its
composition. However, under EN 197–1, three different standard strength classes are
specified with 28-day compressive strength of 32.5 MPa, 42.5 Mpa, and 52.5 MPa.
The setting time of cement is determined using a paste of a prescribed initial
stiffness. ASTM and European standards differ in the method of selecting the
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water/cement ratio for this stage. The subsequent testing using the “Vicat” needles
is common to both. The setting of cement as a constituent of concrete may be
modified by the addition of chemical admixtures with either accelerating or retarding
effects.[ CITATION Con17 \l 3081 ]
Another physical property of Portland cement of interest to civil engineers is its
density or specific gravity. This is determined by specified methods and does not vary
much between batches from the same source of manufacture. Typical values for
specific gravity of Portland cement lie within the range of 3.1 to 3.2. However, other
cementations materials, such as fly ash, slag or silica fume, generally have lower
specific gravity values, in the range of 2.0 to

II. Aggregates

Figure 3 different aggregates with their sizes

Aggregate is commonly considered inert filler, which accounts for 60 to 80 percent of

the volume and 70 to 85 percent of the weight of concrete. Although aggregate is
considered inert filler, it is a necessary component that defines the concrete’s
thermal and elastic properties and dimensional stability.
Traditionally, aggregates are derived from natural sources in the form of river gravel
or crushed rocks and river sand. In concrete the major constituent in terms of
volume is Aggregate. In essence concrete is like an artificial rock, consisting of
aggregate materials bound together by hydrated cement.
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Aggregate is very important for many concrete properties, including; workability;

shrinkage; thermal expansion; compressive and tensile strength. Aggregate is
conventionally subdivided into two sizes, coarse and fine

In general, aggregates in concrete have been grouped according to their sizes into
fine and coarse aggregates. The separation is based on materials passing or
retained on the nominally 5 mm (ASTM No. 4) sieve. It is common to refer to fine
aggregate as sand and coarse aggregate as stone.

Aggregate is classified as two different types;

1. Coarse
2. Fine

 Fine aggregates

The mechanical properties of the mortar matrix according to the type and
content of fine aggregates are investigated. The results reveal that the use of
sand with a smaller diameter or a smaller sand–cement ratio can reduce the
fracture toughness without significant reduction of the compressive strength
and the elastic modulus.

Finer aggregates (such as sand) fill in the spaces left between the large pieces
and to “lock” the larger pieces together. This reduces the amount of cement
paste required and decreases the amount of shrinkage that could occur.

Aggregate in concrete is structural filler, but its role is more important than
what that simple statement implies. Aggregate occupies most of the volume
of the concrete. It is the stuff that the cement paste coats and binds together.
The composition, shape, and size of the aggregate all have significant impact
on the workability, durability, strength, weight, and shrinkage of the
concrete. Aggregate can also influence the appearance of the cast surface,
which is an especially important consideration in concrete countertop mixes.

Sand and gravel in concrete serve several purposes. Because they act as a
filler, they also add more volume to the concrete. More volume means less
air and a stronger product.

 course aggregate
Crushed Stone is the coarsest aggregate. A mixture of all sorts of aggregates,
it is appropriate as a base for concrete in projects that do not require precise
aggregate-to-cement ratios.
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Gravel,  also called graded stone, is another coarse aggregate suitable for
concrete mixes.

coarse gravel refers to any particle that exceeds 0.19 inches but usually, falls
between 3/8 of an inch and 1 ½ inches in diameter. When considering specific
materials, weights, and densities, aggregates come in many varieties within
these two categories. Varying in size, shape, and material, each is appropriate
for certain types of project.

Because cement is such a costly ingredient, another way to save money when
mixing concrete is to purchase the largest aggregate size that is appropriate
for the project. Coarser aggregate reduces the void spaces between particles
and requires less cement and water in the final concrete mixture. This
mixture is ideal to maximize cost-efficiency and to prevent shrinkage and
cracking due to high water content.

Superior quality aggregate should be hard, durable, and washed of harmful

chemicals, clay or silt, or any other contaminants that affect the density or
porousness of the final concrete mixture. Be aware of the types of minerals
that make up the aggregate, as some wear and polish at a faster rate.

Avoid aggregates that are susceptible to breaking, and are made from softer
or more porous materials, or contains particles with low resistance to
weathering.

 Crushed aggregate, on the other hand, is manufactured; suppliers crush

larger stones like boulders, quarry rock, or gravel that is too coarse. Some
suppliers will recycle old concrete by crushing it into granular pieces, which in
turn can be used in new concrete.

After suppliers collect the materials, they finalize the product by crushing and
washing the aggregate to ensure it meets quality standards. Washing the
material reduces impurities and chemicals that impair concrete’s durability.
Aggregates are then secularly stored to prevent degradation.
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III. WATER
Water is needed for the hydration of cement but not all is used up for this
purpose. Part of this added water is to provide workability during mixing and
for placing. This latter usage can be reduced by the introduction of chemical
admixtures, e.g., plasticisers. Where possible, potable water is used. Other
sources may contain impurities that introduce undesirable effects on
properties of fresh and hardened concrete.
NB;Seawater should not be used as mixing water for reinforced concrete due
to the presence of chloride and its effect on corrosion of steel
reinforcement.

IV. ADMIXTURES
Chemical admixtures are the ingredients in concrete other than portland
cement, water, and aggregate that are added to the mix immediately before
or during mixing
Concrete admixtures are added to change the properties of concrete to make
it function as required and are used to modify properties of both fresh and
hardened concrete.
Concrete additives are added to the mixture of water cement and aggregate
in small quantities to increase the durability of the concrete, to fix concrete
behaviour and to control setting or hardening. They can either be liquid or
powdered additives. Concrete additives have various functions depending on
what the contractor wants to achieve. There are two main types of concrete
additives which are chemical and mineral.
 Chemical additives reduce the cost of construction, modify properties of
hardened concrete, ensure quality of concrete during
mixing/transporting/placing/curing, and overcome certain emergencies during
concrete operations.
 Mineral additives make mixtures more economical, reduce permeability,
increase strength, and influence other concrete properties. Mineral
admixtures affect the nature of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or
pozzolanic activity. Pozzolans are cementitious materials and include natural
pozzolans (such as the volcanic ash used in Roman concrete), fly ash and silica
fume. They can be used with Portland cement, or blended cement either
individually or in combinations.
These additives are supplied in ready-to-use liquid form and are added to the
concrete at the plant or at the jobsite. Successful use of additives depends on
the use of appropriate methods of batching and concreting. The additives can
be added at the manufacturing point, or at the job site.
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a) Water Reducing and Retarding Admixtures

Retarding water-reducing admixtures are chemicals that slow down the initial
reaction between cement and water by reducing the rate of water
penetration to the cement and slowing down the growth of the hydration
products. The concrete therefore stays workable longer than it would
otherwise. The length of time during which a concrete remains workable
depends on its temperature, consistence class, and water-cement ratio, and
on the amount of retarder used. Although the occasions justifying the use of
retarders in the UK and US are limited, these admixtures may be helpful when
one or more of the following conditions apply:
 In warm weather, when the ambient temperature is higher than about 20 oC,
to prevent early stiffening (going-off) and loss of workability, which would
otherwise make placing and finishing difficult.
 When a large pour of concrete will take several hours and must be considered
without already placed concrete hardening before subsequent concrete is
merged with it (i.e. without a cold joint).
 When the complexity of slip-forming demands a slow rate of rise.
 When there is a delay of half an hour or more between mixing and placing –
for example, when ready mixed concrete is being used and when there may
be traffic delays and/or long hauls. This can be seriously aggravated during hot
weather, especially if the concrete has a high cement content.
The amount of retardation can be varied – usually up to about four to six
hours – by altering the dosage, but longer delays can be obtained for special
purposes.
While the early strength of concrete is reduced by using a retarder, which may
affect formwork striking times, the 7 and 28 day strength are not likely to be
significantly affected.
Retarded concrete needs careful proportioning to minimize bleeding due to
the longer period during which the concrete remains fresh.
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b)Air-Entraining Admixtures
Air-entraining admixtures facilitate the development of a stable air-void
system within concrete that increases the durability of the concrete. These
admixtures impart air entrainment that results in:
 Increased resistance to deterioration from cyclic freezing and
thawing 
 Improved workability and cohesiveness of concrete placement
 Reduced segregation and bleeding
 Their function is to stabilize the air present within the void system
of the mixture and water as well air infolded and mechanically
enveloped during mixing.

c) Accelerating Admixtures
Accelerating admixtures can be used to increase either the rate of
stiffening or setting of the concrete or the rate of hardening and early
strength gain to allow earlier formwork striking and demoulding. Most
accelerators achieve one rather than both of these functions.
Hardening accelerators are most effective at low temperature.
Accelerators can be used with super plasticisers where early age strength
is required, especially at lower temperatures.
Prime use of set accelerators is to control the setting time of floor slabs in
cold weather as extended setting time delays finishing and power-
trowelling. They are also used to reduce the risk of damage to concrete by
freezing when concreting in cold weather and to allow the earlier removal
of formwork.
Accelerators containing calcium chloride are restricted to unreinforced
concrete due to the increased risk of reinforcement corrosion.
Accelerators based on calcium formate have been used in the UK with no
reported harmful effects since the mid-1960s and thiocyanates since the
1970s.[ CITATION Con17 \l 3081 ].
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d)Shrinkage Reducing 

These additives are used in floor slabs, bridge decks, and buildings where
curling and cracks need to be significantly reduced. They provide the
durability while maintaining the beautiful nature of the structure.

Concrete shrinks occur where there is not adequate water. The shrinks
cause internal stresses that may culminate to cracks. The shrinkage
additives work to ensure that this does not happen.

e)Inhibits Corrosion 

These additives are used where there is a presence of chloride salts. These
chloride ions may corrode with steel reinforcements resulting to rusts. The
areas that need this additive most include bridges, parking garages, and
marine structures.
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PRECAUTIONS TAKEN IN CONCRETE

PREPARATION PROCESS

 The aggregate should be hard and durable

 The aggregates shall be properly grade in size.

 The cement should be of sufficient quantity to produces required
strength and water-tightness.
The water shall be free from organic material or any deleterious
minerals.
 The quantity of water should be such that it produces the needed
consistency.
 Mixing should be done thoroughly so as to produce homogeneity
 During transportation of concrete there should be no segregation of or
separation of materials in concrete take place.
 Concrete delivered at the point of placing should be uniform & have
proper consistency.
 The concrete should not be thrown from a height to avoid segregation.

 It should be deposited in even horizontal layer of uniform thickness.

Concrete should fill every part in these forms.
 When the placing operation is suspended for some time, groves must
be made in the finished work joining of future work.
 In easy of R.C.C slab, placing of concrete should be started from end
and done width wise.
 The old concrete surface must be made rough, cleaned and cement
grouted before placing fresh concrete over it.
 The finished work should be cured properly for specified time. 
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Precautions during Hand Mixing of Concrete

1. The Hand Mixing procedures have to be carried out only for small concrete
works. Large works will ask for large quantity of concrete at a time, for which
we must use either a machine mixer or ready mix concrete.
2. The hand mixing must be employed only for works that will give adequate
interval time for mixing between the works. This means we must not mix large
quantities very earlier for a work that is going to start later.
3. The mixing procedure has to be conducted on a water tight platform. This
platform has to be impervious. This can be either a concrete platform or a
brick floor.
4. The floor must have the space to take one bag of cement at a time and their
respective materials (water + aggregate).
5. Initially, the measured quantities of cement and fine aggregate are mixed
properly over the watertight platform. The mixing is continued till a uniform
mixture is obtained.
6. The coarse aggregate has to be placed over this bed of uniform mixture. An
inappropriate order of addition of material must not be followed.
7. The addition of water must be done in intervals and not in a single stretch.
8. The whole mixing must be done neatly and uniformly without a hurry.
A good and clean showel should be used for the mixing procedure
9. During hand mixing, it is recommended to avoid large buckets for
measurement. Use of large buckets will end up having a large heap that is
difficult to be mixed by hand. In some cases, the large heap is divided into
two large heaps and performed individually. This can be only carried out
by one will proper skill and experience.
10. Every time after the use, the worming space have to be clean and made
free from any debris.
11. The main issue faced in hand mixing is the addition of too much water
that required. This must be avoided.
12. The workers carrying out the concrete mixing are asked to use masks so as
not to inhale the powder, which can cause serious issues as time passes.
13. For inside concrete works, avoid the hand mixing procedure in the outside
or direct sun. This increase in temperature will evaporate the water
content, hence making the mixture dry.
14. Over mixing of the concrete mixture have to be avoided. Once the
required amount of mixing is performed, keep it idol and mixing in small
quantities during the time of placing.
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FOUR TYPES OF AGGRIGATES BASED ON SHAPE AND

HOW THEY INFLUENCE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

 Rounded Aggregate

The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of
seashore gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 –
33%) hence gives more workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio.
Round, smooth particles give the best workability, because they don’t have sharp
corners that tend to interfere with each other as the concrete flows.  They are not
considered for high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behaviour and weak
bond strength with cement paste.

Rounded shape has minimum surface area for the same mass than other shapes
therefore it requires minimum cement paste for bonding as compared to other shapes.
Hence, for a given aggregate-cement ratio in a concrete mix, workability will be higher, if
rounded aggregates are used as compared to others.

Figure 4 ROUNDED AGGREGATE

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 Irregular Aggregates

The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and
these are available in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may
result 35- 37% of voids. These will give lesser workability when compared to
rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly higher than rounded
aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete. [ CITATION CTT09 \l
3081 ]

 Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consist of well defined edges formed at the intersection
of roughly planar surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular
aggregates result maximum percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less
workability.
1. They give 10-20% more compressive strength due to development of stronger
aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful in high strength concrete
manufacturing.
2. By having greater surface area, the angular aggregate may show higher bond
strength than rounded aggregate.
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3. Angular aggregate exhibit a better interlocking effect in concrete, which

property makes it superior in concrete used for roads and pavements.

 Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that
aggregate it is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension
of aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky
aggregate.
These types of aggregates are not suitable for concrete mixing. These are generally
obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.
Concrete produced using flaky and elongated aggregates will be prone to
segregation, poor surface finish, high cement and sand demand. 

 Elongated Aggregates
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When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is
called elongated aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its
mean dimension.

Bibliography
C.T.TAM. (2009). Constituents and properties of concrete. University of Singapore.
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Concrete constituents. (2017). Retrieved 03 03, 2019, from

https://www.hanson.co.uk/en/ready-mixed-concrete/technical-
information/concrete-constituents
Monteiro, M. a. (1993). Concrete Structure, Properties, and Materials. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.