Chapter 2

Fundamental Concepts and Terms in Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Like any other discipline, nursing research has its own language and terminology. Terms
are both used in qualitative and quantitative researches, although in some instances, the
connotation or terms are dominantly used by one or the other group. This chapter defines
some of the fundamental terms and concepts to better understand the complex ideas applied
in nursing research.

Façades and Places of Research

Peoples Role in Research

Research studies involves two sets of people: the researcher/s (those who do research);
and subject/s (those who provides information). In quantitative research, the people who are
being the studied are referred to as subjects or study participants. They may be called
respondents.

The term subject implies to the people who acted upon by the researchers whom they
are subject to research protocols, and usually is avoided by qualitative researchers. While in
qualitative research, the persons cooperating actively play rather than passive and are usually
referred to as study participants, informants or key informants. However, both qualitative and
quantitative researches participants comprise the sample (a portion of the population from
which the data is solicited for the purposes of the research).

Researchers or investigators are the person who undertakes the research (in
quantitative studies- scientist). The studies are often undertaken by several people rather than
by a single researcher. Collaborative research involves team of nurses or/in both clinical and
methodological expertise (from the different members of the health care team) are commonly
observe in addressing problems of clinical relevance.

Hence, when a study is undertaken by research team, the person directing the
investigation is referred to as the project director or principal investigator (PI) wherein two or
three researchers are collaborating equally as co-investigators. Likewise, when expertise in
specialized needed on short- term basis (e.g. statistician for statistical analysis), research may
involve one or more consultants.

In addition, when financial assistance is obtained to pay for research cost, the
organization providing the money is the funder or sponsor. Reviewers are the once who does
the critiquing on the various aspect of the study and offers feedback. Person with similar level
of experience as the researchers are called peer reviewers. Student researches are more likely
reviewed by the faculty advisors, and they sometimes get advice and support from mentors,
who not only give direct feedback but model standards of excellence in research.

Table. Terms Used in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Concept Quantitative Term Qualitative Term
Person Contributing Subject -------
Information Study Participant Study Participant
Respondent Informant, key informant
Person Undertaking the Study Researcher Researcher
Investigator Investigator
Scientist ----------
That Which Is Being --------- Phenomena
Investigated Concept Concepts
Constructs ----------
Variables ----------
System of Organizing Theory, theoretical Theory
Concepts framework, conceptual Conceptual framework,
framework, conceptual model sensitizing framework
Information Gathered Data (numerical value) Data (narrative, descriptions)
Connections Between Relationships (cause-and- Patterns of association
Concepts effect, functional)
Quality of the Evidence Reliability Dependability
Validity Credibility
Generalizability Transferability
Objectivity Conformability

Research Settings

Research can be conducted in a wide variety of locales; it may be in health care facilities,
in homes, classrooms and others. Researchers chooses where to conduct base on the nature of
problem and the type of information needed to address it.

Site is the overall location for the research; it could be the entire community (e.g.
Barangays of Urdaneta City) or an institution within the community (e.g. Hospitals in Urdaneta
City). However, researchers may engage in multisite studies because the use of multiple sites
usually offers a larger or more diverse sample of study participants (e.g. study of a new nursing
intervention, researcher wishes to implement in both public and private hospitals or in rural
and urban places.
 Settings are more specific places where data collection occurs; however, settings and
site are sometimes are the same when the information collected inclusively in a large hospital.
Hence, when the site is a larger community, the researcher must decide where the data should
be collected - it may be in primary, secondary, tertiary hospitals or in a certain Barangay
(Barangay Cabaruan, Poblacion, etc.). Because the nature of setting can influence the way
people behave or feel and how they respond to questions, thus selection of appropriate setting
is deeming necessary.

Naturalistic setting is also known as in the field, this studies takes place in people’s
home or offices. Usually qualitative researches which require an in-depth analysis are done in a
natural setting because the researchers focus on the context of participants experiences.
Fieldwork is when researchers go on field to collect information. In qualitative it takes months
or even years to complete the fieldwork or study and often involves studying participants in
multiple settings within selected site (e.g. in their home, garden, park or meeting places, etc.).

Laboratory settings when studies require highly controlled settings, which may or may
not need scientific equipment. Both human and non-human research can occur in laboratory
settings. Though, nursing researchers are often conducted in quasi-natural settings- hospitals,
clinics and other similar facilities. These are settings that are not necessarily natural to the
participants (unless the participants are the nurses or other health personnel) but, neither are
they highly contrived and controlled research laboratories.

Building Blocks of a Study

A phenomenon or Phenomena (plural) is a general result that has been observed

reliably in systematic empirical research or it is a fact s or event that can be observe and
scientifically described because they are known through the senses rather than by thoughts or
intuition. It is an establish answer to a research question. Likewise, research focuses on abstract
rather than tangible phenomena, for instance, pain, coping, grief and resilience are all
abstractions of particular aspects of human behavior and characteristics. These abstractions are
referred to as concepts or, in qualitative studies phenomena. Hence, concepts are mental
representations and are typically based on experiences.

Continually, quantitative researchers also use term construct. Similar to concept,

construct refers to an abstraction or mental representation inferred to situations or behaviors.
For example, self-care in Orem’s model of health maintenance is a construct since its thought
are intentionally and scientifically developed or constructed by the researchers for a specific
purpose. Though, construct and concept are at times used interchangeably, a construct often
refers to a more complex abstraction than a concept.

Theories and Conceptual Model

Theories

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many
cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions. In quantitative and qualitative research theories play a role. Researchers make
predictions about how phenomena will act in the real world if the theory is true. Hence,
researchers use a deductive reasoning to develop from the general theory specific prediction
that can be tested empirically. The results of the research are used to reject, modify or lend
credence to a theory. (Discussed further in Chapter 5).

Purpose of Theory in Research

1. To identify meaningful and relevant areas for study

2. To propose plausible approaches to health problems
3. To develop or refine theories
4. Define the concepts and proposed relationships between concepts
5. To interpret research findings
6. To develop clinical protocols
7. To generate diagnosis (nursing diagnosis)

Relationship between Theory and Research

1. Research without theory results in discreet information or data which does not add to
the accumulated knowledge of the discipline.
2. Theory guides the research process, forms the research questions, aids in design,
analysis and interpretation.
3. It enables the scientist to weave the facts together.
4. The relationship is direct and positive
5. The choice of a research design depends on the question asked and the current state of
theory development. (Kaiser Permanente, 2009)
6. Theory and its associated research design may be:
 Descriptive
 Correlational
 Experimental

Types of Theory

1. Descriptive Theory (Descriptive Research)

Descriptive theories are the most basic type of theory. They describe or classify specific
dimensions or characteristics of individuals, groups, situations or events by summarizing
the commonalities found in discrete observations. They state “what is.” Descriptive
 theories are needed when nothing or very little is known about the phenomenon in
questions

Two Categories of Descriptive Theory (Stevens, 1984)

a. Naming Theory. Naming theory is a description of the dimensions or characteristics
of some phenomenon. Thus, naming theory is a description of the dimension or
characteristics of some phenomena
b. Classification Theory. Classification theory is more elaborate in that it states that the
dimensions or characteristics of a given phenomenon are structurally interrelated.
The dimensions may be mutually exclusive, overlapping, hierarchical, or sequential.
Classification theories also referred to as typologies or taxonomies.
2. Explanatory Theory (Correlational Research)
Explanatory theories move beyond (relational statements)to the prediction of precise
(causative) relationships between dimensions or characteristics of a phenomenon or
differences between groups this type of theory addresses cause and effect, the “why” of
changes in a phenomenon. Explanatory theory may be developed after relational
theories have been formulated. Correlational studies used empirical method;
instruments yield in both quantitative and qualitative data. Interviews and surveys are
the two frequent used approaches. Numbers may be attached to the raw data so that
correlations coefficient can be calculated (quantitative), qualitative data are categorized,
and numbers are assigned must be assigned to categories. Statistical analyses of the
data employ various nonparametric or parametric measures of associations.
3. Predictive Theory (Experimental Research)
Predictive theory employs the empirical method of experimentation. This method
involves the manipulation of some phenomenon to determine its effect on some
dimension or characteristic of another phenomenon. Experimentation encompasses
many different designs, including preexperiments such as the pretest-posttest-no
control group design, quasi-experiments such as the Solomon Four Group and the
posttest only design. Like, correlational research, experimental research requires
quantifiable data. This is because numbers are needed to determine if an experimental
treatment makes a difference, and if so, how much of a difference.

Nursing Theory

 The term given to the body of knowledge that is used to support nursing practice. Each
discipline has a unique focus for knowledge development that directs its inquiry and
distinguishes it from other fields of study (Smith and Liehr 2008).
 A nursing theory is a set of concepts, definitions, relationships, and assumptions or
propositions derived from nursing models or from other disciplines and project a
 purposive, systematic view of phenomena by designing specific inter-relationships
among concepts for the purposes of describing, explaining, predicting, and/or
prescribing. Nursing theory aims to describe, predict and explain the phenomenon of
nursing (Chinn and Jacobs 1987).
 Theory is important because it helps us to decide what we know and what we need to
know (Parsons 2002). It helps to distinguish what should form the basis of practice by
explicitly describing nursing. This can be seen as an attempt by the nursing profession to
maintain its professional boundaries. Characteristics of theories are interrelate concepts
in such a way as to create a different way of looking at a particular phenomenon.
Theories are logical in nature, generalize, and are the bases for hypotheses that can be
tested. Theories increase the general body of knowledge within the discipline through
the research implemented to validate them. They are used by the practitioners to guide
and improve their practice.
 Theories are also consistent with other validated theories, laws, and principles but will
leave open unanswered questions that need to be investigated.
 Almost 90% of all Nursing theories have been generated in the last 20 years

Four Common Concepts in Nursing Theories that influence and determine nursing practice

1. The person (patient

2. The environment
3. Health
4. Nursing (goals, roles, functions

Classification of Nursing Theories Depending On Function (Polit and Hungler 2001)

Descriptive To identify the properties and workings of a discipline

Explanatory To examine how properties relate and thus affect the discipline
Predictive To calculate relationships between properties and how they occur

Relationships between Theory and Research in Nursing

Research Process Inquiry

Theory Product of knowledge
Science Result of the relationship between research and
theory

Theory based Nursing Research

Type of Theory Type of Research

Descriptive Descriptive/ Explanatory study
Explanatory Theory Co-relational study
Predictive Theory Experimental study

A theory makes it possible to organize the relationship among the concepts to describe, explain,
predict, and control. Theory is derived through three or four principal methods such as:

 Deductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning
 Retroductive reasoning or
 Abductive reasoning

Nursing theorists use three or four of the above methods.

 Inductively looking at nursing practice to discover theories/concepts to explain phenomena.

 Deductively looking for the compatibility of a general nursing theory with nursing practice.
 Retroductively looking for the generation of ideas for devising theory & approaches to
theoretical inquiry

Nursing Theorist and their Theories

 Erickson’s Modeling and Role Modeling Theory

 King’s Theory of Goal Attainment
 Neuman’s Systems Model
 Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory
 Orlando’s Nursing Process Discipline Theory
 Paplau’s Theory of Interpersonal Rotations
 Parse’s Human Becoming Theory
 Roger’s Theory of Unitary Human Beings
 Roy’s Adaptation Model of Nursing
 Kolcaba’s Theory of Comfort
 Watson’s Philosophy and Science of Caring
 Nightingale’s Environmental Theory
 Pender’s Health Promotion Model
 Roper-Logan-Tieney’s Model for Nursing Based on a Model of Living

Conceptual Models /Framework

A conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the composition

of concepts which are used to help people know, understand, or simulate a subject the model
represents. It is also a set of concepts. Some models are physical objects; for example, a toy
model which may be assembled, and may be made to work like the object it represents. The
term conceptual model may be used to refer to models which are formed after
a conceptualization or generalization process and are often abstractions of things in the real
world whether physical or social.  A visual presentation of variables that interrelate with one
another as perceived by the researcher before an actual empirical investigation is done to
prove its relationship.

Likewise, models are representations of the interaction among and between the concepts
showing patterns Models allow the concepts in nursing theory to be successfully applied to nursing
practice. They provide an overview of the thinking behind the theory and may demonstrate how theory
can be introduced into practice, for example, through specific methods of assessment.

Purpose of Conceptual Framework

1. To clarify concepts and propose relationships among the concepts in a study

2. To provide a context for interpreting the study findings
3. To explain observations
4. To encourage theory development that is useful in practice

Variables

In practice the term variables is used as synonym for construct or the property being
studies. It is a symbol to which numerals and values are assigned. Some variables are
dichotomous have only two values reflecting the presence or absence of a property such as
employed-unemployed; male-female, have two values generally 0 and 1. Some are discrete
which produce data that fit into categories such as demographic variables of religion. Such as
religion: 1 for muslim 2 for Christian 3 for Buddhism. Only certain value are possible for such
variables; and continues variables which may take on values within a given range or in some
cases, an infinite set such as income, temperature, age or a test score.

Research Data

Research data is defined as recorded factual material commonly retained by and accepted
in the scientific community as necessary to validate research findings; although the majority of
such data is created in digital format, all research data is included irrespective of the format in
which it is created."

1. George B. Julia , Nursing Theories- The base for professional Nursing Practice , 3rd ed. Norwalk, Appleton and
Lange.

Chinn PL and Jacobs MK (1987). Theory and nursing: A systematic approach. Mosby, St. Louis.
Fawcett J (1989). Analysis & evaluation of conceptual models of nursing, 2nd edition. F.A. Davis
Company, Philadelphia.

Parsons T (2002). Nursing Theorist and their work (5th edition). In Tomy AM and Alligood MR (Eds),
Structure of Social Action, pp250-268. Mosby Company, Missouri

Polit DF and Hungler BP (2001). Nursing Research: Principles and Methods (2nd). Lippincott, Philadelphia