Streams and Rivers Lab:

An Introduction to Fluvial Geomorphology

Streams and Rivers : An Introduction to Fluvial Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the study of the Earth's landscapes and landforms,

the processes by which the landforms originated, their age, and the
nature of the materials underlying them. Fluvial geomorphology is the
study of landforms and processes associated with rivers.

The Fluvial System Model

A model is a simplified idealized representation of reality. The basic

fluvial system can be represented as a model in order to help us
understand its structure and processes. The basic fluvial system is
often considered to be a drainage basin. Drainage basins differ in size
and complexity, and are often subject to scale considerations. Often, a
small watershed is part of a tributary to a much larger drainage basin.
The following diagram of a fluvial system is an idealized representation
to help you conceptualize its structure. The diagram is presented as
three nested basins of small, medium, and large scale.
The Fluvial System Model

Courtesy of Dr. Zbigniew Zwolinski

Institute of Quaternary Research and Geoecology

Zone 1: Drainage Basin or Watershed

 principal area from which runoff flows

 principal area from which dissolved solids and sediments are derived

Zone 2: Area of Transfer

 inflow of water roughly equals outflow

 assuming stability, influxes of dissolved solids roughly equals fluxes out

Zone 3: Area of Deposition

 discharge of water into larger streams or bodies

 influxes of dissolved solids roughly equals fluxes out
 alluvial-fan and alluvial-plain environments
 estuarine and deltaic environments
 costal environments
Exercise I: Stream Drainage Patterns
PRE-LAB ACTIVITY:
Below are descriptions and illustrations of a number of classic drainage patterns. In
lab you will be asked to identify some of these features (and others) on topographic
maps, aerial photographs and remotely sensed imagery. You should review your
knowledge about drainage systems by studying these illustrations as well as those
shown in your textbook. You will be asked to answer some questions in writing on
a lab sheet that will be provided. Try also to answer the questions included here -
how many of these places can you identify?

Dendritic -- a tree-like arrangement of

small streams that join to form a larger
river. It is the type of stream one
expects to find in a region that has
adequate rainfall and no unusual
geologic features. The tiny creeks form
a dendritic pattern and the modifying
effects of any underlying geologic
structure are not apparent until the
stream gets quite large.

Where do you think this might be?

Trellis -- a squared off drainage pattern
in which streams often flow directly
toward each other from opposite
directions and then make right angle
turns when they meet. Trellis patterns
are common in places where layered
sedimentary rocks are tilted up from the
horizontal.

The rivers usually follow the layers of

less-resistant rock until they get big
enough to break through the resistant
layers. Those gaps have enormous
strategic value for transportation.

What is the name of one of the US's most

famous "gaps"? Where in the US would expect
to find this drainage pattern?
Parallel -- an elongated variant of the
dendritic pattern, in which the tributary
streams flow in the same general
direction and usually join at small
angles. Parallel drainage occurs in
areas with a regional slope, prevailing
wind, or some other factor that causes
streams to flow unusually far in one
direction before merging with another.

What type of structural geological

processes do you think produced this
landscape and the pattern of rock structure
and drainage systems observed? Where
do you think this place is located?

Parallel -- Another view of drainage

patterns produced by
structural geological processes.
Here one can see the short
parallel drainage patterns down the
"back-tilted" side of a cuesta
landform in the "Green River
Formation" area of Wyoming.

Radial -- a circular arrangement of

streams that flow outward in all
directions , away from a central high
area. Radial drainage patterns are
common in the vicinity of volcanic
cones, salt domes, granite intrusions,
and other localized uplifts.
 One of the most famous stratovolcanoes in
A type of feature that usually has a radial North America - what is its name and
drainage pattern - where do you think this where is it located?
place is located? It also would have a radial drainage.
Centripetal -- a circular arrangement of
streams, where water flows inward from
all directions toward the center of the
area. Centripetal drainage is likely in
karst topography and in deserts where
intermittent streams flow toward a
temporary salt lake or basin. The map
also show clearly some large alluvial
fans (agriculture is shown in green) -
another typical fluvial landform feature
of regions such as this.

Where do you think this place is located?

Hint - it is one of the largest basins of
interior drainage in the world?
Meanders -- a pattern of sweeping
curves and loops. Meanders are
common where terrain is flat enough to
allow a river to move sideways,
undercutting its bank on the inside of
the curve. This lateral stream
movement is responsible for a
distinctive cycle of loop formation and
enlargement, followed by abandonment
of old channels when the river takes a
shortcut across the neck between two
large meanders.

In what type of climatic region do you think

this fluvial system is found? Would this be
in the "up-stream" watershed area or in the
lower reaches--the floodplain--where
deposition is the more dominant process?
Braided -- a rope-like pattern of twisting
channels that separate and then join
again all along the stream. Stream
braiding is common in semi-arid
regions, where floods bring more
sediment into the channel than the
normal flow of the stream is capable of
carrying. A maze of sandbars and low
islands may form during periods of low
water and then be destroyed when
floodwaters carry the material farther
downstream.

This stream is chocked with alluvium it

can't transport downstream. What type of
climatic or geologic situation
might produce this situation? Where do
you think this river is located?
Another braided stream: the river flows
from a series of glaciers in a very
humid "marine west coast climate"
region.

Where do you think this river is located?

What causes the heavy milky-white
sediment in much of the stream--what is it
called?

Deltas -- are formed when the faster

moving water of a river or stream
encounters the slow moving water of a
lake or ocean. At this time the velocity
of the water decreases along with its
ability to transport sediment.

On what coast is this delta found--what

river system is it? Why is this type of river
often called an "exotic" river?

Incised Meanders -- are thought to have

formed when the sedimentary rock
strata beneath a meandering river were
uplifted during or after the Pleistocene.
The well established meandering river
then "rejuvenates" and starts "cutting"
through the recently uplifted strata
resulting in a steep walled canyon with
the turns and bends of a meandering
stream following the same path of the
earlier stream pattern.
 Karst Topography -- is
caused in areas with
underlying limestone cut by a
series of joints. Water causes
solution of the limestone
along these cracks and over
time a series of caves,
sinkholes, and disappearing
streams are formed.

Where do you think this karst

area is located in the US?

One of the most unusual karst An "disappearing stream"

landscapes in the world - they are
exiting the side of a hill in a
called Pepino or
limestone karst area of Logan
Haystack Hills - where is this place?
Canyon, Utah.
 GEOMORFOLOGIA Y FOTOGRAFIAS AEREAS 2013 MAYO 7-2013
LABORATORIO DE CUENCA FLUVIAL GEOMORFOLOGIA FLUVIAL

Para la cuenca fluvial, en especial de su parte baja, se deberá elaborar, un

ejercicio tipo, al presente en este ejemplo. Donde usted reemplazara la
información y la localidad a su cuenca. La idea es preparar una actividad de
laboratorio diseñada por usted como producto de investigación en su cuenca tipo

Note: The following exercises are done in a "sit-down" lab at Westminster College
of Salt Lake City.

Activity 2: How to Make a Topographic or Stream Profile

Background:
A topographic map represents the landscape as seen from above. Often this
perspective does not give us the information needed to adequately visualize
the land surface. We are accustomed to viewing landscapes from a
horizontal perspective. In studying various landforms it may be desirable to
construct a profile, or a cross-sectional diagram, through important areas in
order to get a better perspective from a more natural viewpoint.
Methodology:
Cut-line. A topographic profile begins with the selection of starting and
ending points. Once the points are selected they are joined with a straight
line called the cut-line.
Vertical scale. The vertical scale on a topographic map is the same as the
horizontal scale because there is no direct representation of vertical
distances on a map. With topographic profiles vertical distances are directly
visible. And, in topographic profiles, vertical scale may not be the same as
horizontal scale. In a topographic profile if the horizontal scale is smaller
than the vertical scale of the cross section there is said to be vertical
exaggeration. Vertical exaggeration is used to make the topographic profile
more visually appealing or to obtain elevation differences that are more
easily measured. In general, more exaggeration is needed in areas of low
relief and less in areas of high relief. So, what is the appropriate vertical
 exaggeration? In many instances a 5x exaggeration of vertical distance is
appropriate, where the horizontal distance would remain the same. This
means that on a 1:24,000 topographic map, where 0.5 inches equal 1000
feet, on the vertical scale on the profile 1000 feet would equal 2.5 inches.

Step-by-step Instructions:

 Lay a strip of paper along the cut-line.

 Mark on the paper the exact place where each contour, stream, and hilltop
crosses the cut-line.
 Label each mark with its elevation recorded from the contour line. If the
contours are closely spaced you may only need to label the index contours.
 Determine the maximum and minimum elevations from the data you
collected. For the maximum round up to the nearest index contour, for the
minimum round down to the nearest index contour.
 Determine the scale of the topographic map from which you collected the
data.
 Determine the contour interval. Note whether it is in feet or meters.
 Determine what vertical exaggeration you want (1x, 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, ...). If you
choose larger than 1x be sure there is enough space on your graph paper.
 Prepare a vertical scale on the graph paper by labeling horizontal lines to
correspond to the elevation of each index contour line. (Remember with a 5x
exaggeration if you are working with a 1:24,000 topographic map, where 0.5
inches equal 1000 feet, on the profile 1000 feet would equal 2.5 inches.)
 Place the paper with the labeled marks at the bottom of the profile paper
and project each contour onto the horizontal line of the same elevation.
 Connect all the points with a smooth line.
 Label the x-axis, the y-axis, and all other pertinent features.

Exercise: Topographic Profile

1. What is the scale of the Leefe, Utah-Wyoming Quadrangle?

2. What is the minimum elevation along the cut-line (rounded down to the
nearest index contour)?
3. What is the maximum elevation along the cut-line (rounded up to the
nearest index contour)?
4. What is the name of the river that the cut-line crosses?
5. What is the direction of its flow?
6. Construct a topographic profile for the cut-line identified on the Leefe, Utah-
Wyoming Quadrangle. Use a 8x vertical distance exaggeration.
7. Label the major features on your topographic profile.
8. Identify the following features on the topographic map (A-F):
 _____meander

_____oxbow lake

_____ephemeral stream

_____back swamp

_____perennial stream

_____natural levee

_____yazoo tributary

_____meander scar

9. Does this river show signs of youth, maturity, or old age?

10. Studies of meandering streams show that a relationship exists between the
width of a channel and the diameter of the meander loops, the larger the
channel width, the larger the loop. Why should this be true?

Activity 3: Landscape Evaluation

Stereo Pair 1

1. Observe the stereo pair through the stereoscope.

2. Using the acetate film as an overlay draw a line corresponding to the major
fault.
3. Locate and label one example each of the following features: cinder cone,
series of faceted spurs, basalt lava flow

Stereo Pair 2

1. Observe the stereo pair through the stereoscope.

2. Describe what you see through the stereoscope.

1. Where is the likeliest position of the Wasatch Fault?

1. Knowing that the stereo pair is located along the Wasatch Fault, name the
lake and major mountain peak.
 Lake:__________________________________Peak:_________________
_____

Stereo Pair 3

1. Observe the stereo pair through the stereoscope.

2. The area has been subject to some Earth system process. What was the
process?
3. Using the accompanying scale determine the diameter of the largest crater
(find the largest diameter).
4. What are the features called that dominate the photo? How many are in the
left photo?

Activity 4: Spatial / Locational Reference Systems

On the typical USGS 7.5-minute topographic map (1:24,000) there are up to four
locational reference systems. These are (1) longitude-latitude; (2) Universal
Transverse Mercator, or UTM; (3) township and range, or USPLS (US Public Land
Survey); and (4) state plane coordinate system. The border of each map contains
the information needed to locate any object via one of these systems. The most
common system is longitude-latitude, a global coordinate system.
Determining the longitude and latitude of an object on a 7.5-minute quadrangle is a
simple and straightforward task. The figure below illustrates the graticular network
visible on a quad. Running north-south are lines of longitude, and running east-
west are lines of latitude. From the line of latitude on the top of the map (the top
map border) to the line of latitude on the bottom of the map (the bottom map
border) is a difference of 7'30", or 7.5-minutes, of latitude. Similarly, from the left
border to the right border is a difference of 7'30", or 7.5-minutes, of longitude.
Intermediate to these index lines, the 7.5-minute quadrangle is subdivided into 3
increments each 2.5-minutes in longitude and latitude.
Figure 1: The 7.5 Minute Quadrangle
At each of the corners of the map the coordinates are identified. For example, the
coordinates for the south-west corner (lower left) are 40o37'30"N latitude (north of
the equator) 111o52'30" W longitude (west of the prime meridian). Each of the 2.5-
minute tics are abbreviated (40' is actually 40o40'00"). Because the longitude-
latitude system is not a grid based system, at the latitude of the map we are
working with the distance between 2.5-minutes of longitude will not be the same as
that of 2.5-minutes of latitude. This is due to convergence of the lines of latitude at
the north and south poles.
To determine the longitude-latitude of any feature on a 7.5-minute map there are
three simple steps:
1. Using a straight edge ruler connect the intermediate tics on your map. The
intermediate tics are represented by small black lines protruding into the map area
from the border. At the intersection of each of the tics there is a cross-hair (+)
where they intersect. Accuracy is essential when connecting the tics. Be sure you
are using the correct tic, for there are blue tics for UTM, red tics for USPLS, and
black tics protruding out into the map border for the State Plane coordinate system.
2. Determine the distance between known lines of latitude and known lines of
longitude. Figure 2 is an illustration of the lower left quadrant in Figure 1.
3. The MATH SECTION.
longitude latitude
Distance between 111o50'00"W and Distance between 40o37'30"N and
111o52'30"W = 8.3 units 40o40'00"N = 9.4 units

Distance between 111o50'00"W and Distance between 40o37'30"N and

Point Point A

A = 5.2 units = 6.6 units

5.2 6.6

------- = 0.627 ------- = 0.702

8.3 9.4

0.627 x 2.5 minutes = 1.568 0.702 x 2.5 minutes = 1.755

The distance to point A from The distance to point A from

111o50'00"W is a difference of 1.568' 40o37'30"N is a difference of 1.755' of
 of longitude. We now need to convert it latitude. We now need to convert it to
to the standard degrees, minutes, the standard degrees, minutes,
seconds. seconds.

We have 1' and 568 thousandths of a We have 1' and 755 thousandths of a
minute. To convert this to seconds we minute. To convert this to seconds we
multiply 0.568 x 60, because there are multiply 0.755 x 60, because there are
60 seconds per minute. 60 seconds per minute.

0.568 x 60 = 34" 0.755 x 60 = 45"

Now we add 1'34" to 111o50'00"W to Now we add 1'45" to 40o37'30" to get

get the longitude of point A. the longitude of point A.

111o50'00" + 1'34" = 111o51'34" 40o37'30" + 1'45" = 40o39'15"

The longitude-latitude of point A is 111o51'34"W longitude 40o39'15"N latitude.

Tips: For ease of math use a metric or engineers scale (ruler).

Always measure from the line of lowest longitude or latitude to the line of highest
longitude or latitude (from bottom to the top for latitude and from the right to the left
for longitude).
Exercise: Longitude-Latitude
Determine the longitude-latitude for the following points on the Sugar House
Quadrangle.
a) Westminster College
____o___ '____ "__ longitude
____o___ '____ "__ latitude

b) Mount Olympus
____o___ '____ "__ longitude
____o___ '____ "__ latitude

Exercise: Stream Profile

Using the Sugar House Quadrangle construct a stream profile for Parley's Creek
as it cuts across the valley. Use at least a 4x vertical distance exaggeration and
identify an appropriate exaggeration/reduction to fit on the graph paper. Identify
major cultural and physical features along the profile including the locations of any
nickpoints, tributaries, roads, etc... Remember to label the x and y axes.