Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry

Glass
MODERN
Stone-Cutting and Masonry.
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE MAKING

OF WORKING DRAWINGS.
BY
JOHN S. SIEBERT, C.E.,

AND
FREDERIC CHILD BIGGIN, B.S.,

ARCHITECT
Instructor in Architecture, Lehigh University.
FIRST E DITTO AT,

FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.

London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
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Copyright, 1896,
HY
JOHN S. SIEBERT
AND
FREDERIC C. BIGGIN.
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BROOKLYN, N. Y.
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PREFACE.
It has long been recognized that the works on stone-cut¬

ting used in this country are entirely out of date and not
abreast of the present demands.
The reasons are apparent. Those works were modelled
strictly on lines set by the French school, which dealt chiefly
with the heavy masonry of fortifications, and the intricate
stone constructions used for the immense churches and cathe-
drals, built when the Church throughout Europe was in the
zenith of its power. Times have changed. The heaviest
masonry is no protection against modern projectiles, and steel
t
S'
frames veneered with stone and brick form the walls of our
largest buildings. This is not the place to discuss the merits
of the different styles of construction, the grace of the stone
arch and the steel cantilever, or to place the beauty of a stone
carving in opposition to the hard lines of iron ornament;
suffice it to say that first cost is a very important factor in
this country, and that, stability and usefulness being equal,
the cheaper structure is generally adopted.
Intricate stonework is therefore excluded everywhere, save
on very costly structures, and a treatise dealing with such
work would be interesting and valuable only in so fat as^it
presented problems to be worked by the student in search of
exercise for his mental powers.
* • • ^
. HI
IV PKEFA CE.
It has been the aim of the authors, in this little volume,

to collect and make available for the student’s use only such
material as finds a direct application in engineering and arch¬
itectural practice in this country. Chapter I describes the
mason’s and stone-cutter’s tools, the shape and finish pro¬
duced by these, the classification of masonry according to
shape and finish, as defined by the best existing authorities,
and closes with a few general remarks on bond, dressing, etc.
Chapter II deals with stone-cutting and masonry proper,
and after a few preliminary definitions and descriptions takes
up the study of the different examples chosen. The explana¬
tions are detailed where thought necessary, but some of the
drawings are intended only as models according to which the
student should make similar ones.
The skew or oblique arch is not treated here, because it is
rarely used; the right arch with skew face, Plate VIII, or
some other simple expedient being substituted. If it be¬
comes necessary to build a true skew arch, the student should
refer to “ Traite Pratique de la Coupe des Pierres,” by Emile
Lejeune, Paris; the German works of Dr. Ringlcb; and the
American publications of Prof. Warren bearing on the subject.
The drawings should in all cases be made at least to a
scale of one fourth inch per foot, with details three times this
size; better still if both can be made double the scales men¬
tioned, although it should be borne in mind that those first
given are the ones commonly used in practice. Let the work
be executed accurately, neatly, and with strong lines, re¬
membering that nearly all office drawings are nowadays made
on tracing-linen, for blue-printing, and that fancy titles are
not in demand. The draughtsman who can make the plain
Roman letters well has a broad foundation for all styles of
lettering.
PREFACE. V
For exercises other than those given in the book the

teacher should select some good existing masonry structures,
have the class take full measurements of them, and then
make complete drawings in accorc* mce with the samples given
in these pages. Models should always be available for the
student, and the authors have in preparation a series of
models illustrating various stone-cutting problems. They
may be obtained direct from the undersigned.
The authors desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to
Mr. Bernard R. Green, superintendent and engineer of the
building for the Library of Congress; Messrs. Webster and
Shaw, engineers of the Lehigh Valley Railroad; and Messrs.
E. S. Wheeler and J. L. Callard, United States engineers on
the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, for the valuable material furnished
for use in this book.
John S. Siebert.
South Bethlehem, Pa.,

Jan. i, 1896.
'• * • .•
11
■
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Definitions and Classifications.
PAGE
Art. i. Names and Definitions of Stone-mason’s Tools . . • i
Art. 2. Stones Classified according to Finish ..... 6
Art. 3. Definitions of Parts of the Structure.10
Art. 4. Classification of Masonry . . . .... 12
CHAPTER II.
Stone-cutting and Masonry.
Art. 1. Definitions.. * . 18
Art. 2. Gothic Buttress ..«•••••• 21
Art. 3. Arches.23
Art. 4. Intersecting Arches.*..32
Art. 5. Arch-culverts.. • . . . 35
Art. 6. Railroad-bridge Masonry,.41
Art. 7. Canal-lock Masonry ........ 44
Art. 8. Architectural Stonework • . . . • . . 46
vii
MODERN STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY.
CHAPTER I.
\ *
DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS.

> i
Art. i.—Names and Descriptions of Stone-mason’s
Tools.
1. The following definitions of stone-mason’s tools and

masonry are taken from the report of the Committee of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, prepared to secure uni¬
formity of nomenclature on this subject. (See Trans. Am.
Soc. C. E., vol. V. I. pp. 297-304.)
2. The tools used at the quarry for roughly shaping the
stones for transportation and also for shaping for the lower
grades of masonry are (see Fig. 1): the Double-face Hammer,
a tool weighing from 20 to 30 pounds; the Face-hammer,
having one blunt and one cutting edge and weighing less
than the double-face hammer; the Cavil, having one blunt
and one pointed or pyramidal end and weighing from 15 to
20 pounds; the Pick somewhat resembles the pick used in
digging, is mostly used on limestone and sandstone, and is
from 15 to 24 inches long, the thickness at the eye being
about 2 inches.
The tools shown in Figs. 2-6 are used for dressing proper.
The Axe or Pean-hammer (Fig. 2) has two opposite cut-
2 MODERN STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY.
ting edges. It is used for making drafts around the arris or

edge of stones, and in reducing faces and sometimes joints
to a level. Its length is about io inches and the cutting
-^
* \•
-> 0 double face hammer ]
L
R^r
FlG. 2.
edge about 4 inches. It is used after the point and before

the patent hammer.
The Tooth-axe (Fig. 3) is like the axe, except that its
cutting edges are divided into teeth, the number of which
vary with the kind of work required. This tool is not used
in o
granite and o
gneiss cutting.
o
The Bush-hammer (Fig. 4) is a square prism of steel

whose ends are cut into a number of pyramidal points. The
DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS . 3
length of the hammer is from 4 to 8 inches, and the cutting

face from 2 to 4 inches square. The points vary in number
Fig. 3.
and in size with the work to be done. One end is some¬

times made with a cutting edge like that of an axe.
The Crandall (Fig. 5) is a malleable-iron bar about 2 feet
CD c
o_ CRANDALL
Fig. 5.
long, slightly flattened at one end. In this end is a slot, 3

inches long and f inch wide. Through this slot are passed
ten double-headed points of |~inch squared steel, 9 inches

long, which are held in place by a key.
The Patent Hammer (Fig. 6) is a double-headed tool so
formed as to hold at each end a set of wide thin chisels.
0 @
PATENT HAMMER
@ To)
Fig. 6.
HAND HAMMER )
CHISEL
<S
CC
DRILLS
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Fig. 7.
The tool is in two parts, which are held together by the bolts
which hold the chisels. This tool is used for giving a finish
to the surface of stones.
3. All of the above mentioned are two-handed, or require
DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 5
both hands of the workman to use them. The remaining

tools to be described require the use of only one hand for
each.
1 he hand hammer and mallet are used for chiselling hard
and soft stones respectively. The pitching-chisel is used to
make a well-defined edge on the face of a stone, and the
point for finishing a surface. The chisel and tooth-chisel are
used for cutting drafts or margins on the face of stones, but
the latter is used only on marbles and sandstones. The
splitting-chisel and plug are used for splitting stratified and
unstratified stone respectively.
In architectural carving a variety of chisels of different
forms are used, for most of which no specific name exists.
For extensive operations machinery replaces many of the
hand tools above described. The chief ones are the saw and
PITCHING CHISEL
r\ r\ POINT
rc
PLUGS AND FEATHERS

r\
B?
Fig. $.
planer, the latter being a machine very similar to a metal

planer. By simply changing the cutting tool a great variety
of surfaces may be formed. A certain amount of hand-work,
however, always remains to be done on nearly all stones.
6 MODERN STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY, ’
Art. 2.—Stones Classified according to Finish.
4. All stones used in building come under one of three

classes, viz. :
I. Rough stones that are used as they come from the
quarry.
II. Stones roughly squared and dressed.
III. Stones accurately squared and finely dressed.
In practice the line of separation between them is not
very distinctly marked, but one class gradually merges into
the next.
5. I. Unsquared Stones or Rubble.—This class covers
all stones which are used as they come from the quarry with¬
out other preparation than the removal of very acute angles,
and excessive projections from the general figure. The term
“ backing,” which is frequently applied to this class of stone,
is inappropriate, as it properly designates material used in a
certain relative position in a wall, whereas stones of this kind
may be used in any position.
6. II. Squared Stones.—This class covers all stones that
are roughly squared and roughly dressed on beds and joints.
The dressing is usually done with the face hammer or the
axe, or in soft stones with the tooth-axe. The distinction
between this class and the third lies in the degree of closeness
of the joints which is demanded. Where the dressing on the
joints is such that the distance between the general planes of
the surfaces of adjoining stones is one half inch or more, the
stones properly belong to this class.
Three subdivisions of this class may be made, depending
on the character of the face of the stone:
(a) Quarry-faced stones are those whose faces are left un¬
touched as they come from the quarry.
(F) Pitch-faced stones are those on which the arris is
clearly defined by a line beyond which the rock is cut away
by the pitching-chisel, so as to give edges that are approxi¬
mately true. (Fig. 20.)
if) Drafted stones are those on which the face is sur¬
rounded by a chisel-draft, the space inside the draft being
left rough. Ordinarily, however, this is done only on stones
in which the cutting of the joints is such as to exclude them
from this class.
In ordering stones of this class the specification should
always state the width of the bed and end joints which are
expected, and how far the surface of the face may project
beyond the plane of the edge. In practice the projection
varies between 1 inch and 6 inches. It should also be speci¬
fied whether or not the faces are to be drafted.
7. II. Cut Stones.—This class covers all squared stones
with smoothly dressed beds and joints. As a rule all the
edges of cut stones are drafted, and between the drafts the
stone is smoothly dressed. The face, however, is often left
rough when the constructions are massive.
Rough-pointed.—When it is necessary to remove an inch
or more from the face of a stone, it is done by the pick or
heavy points until the projections vary from J to 1 inch.
The stone is then said to be rough-pointed. This operation
precedes all others in dressing limestone and granite.
Fine-pointed.—If a smoother finish is desired, rough¬
pointing is followed by fine-pointing, which is done with a
fine point. It is only used where the finish made by it is to
be final, and never as a preparation for final finish by another
tool.
Crandalled.—This is only a speedy method of pointing,
the effect being the same as fine-pointing, except that the
dots are more regular. The variations of level are about J

inch, and the rows are made parallel. When other rows at
right angles to the first are introduced, the stone is said to be
cross-crandalled.
Fig. 9. Fig. to.
Axed or Pean-hammercd, a fid Patent-hammered.—These

two vary only in the degree of smoothness of the surface
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
which is produced. The number of blades in a patent ham¬

mer varies from 6 to 12 to the inch, and in precise specifica¬
tions the number of cuts to the inch must be stated, such as
6 cut, 8 cut, 10 cut, 12 cut. The effect of axing is to cover
the suface with chisel-marks which are made parallel as far as
possible. Axing is a final finish.
Tooth-axed.—The tooth-axe is practically a number of
points, and it leaves the surface of the stone in the same
condition as fine-pointing. It is usually, however, only a
preparation for bush-hammering, and the work is then done
without regard for effect so long as the surface of the stone
is sufficiently levelled.
\
Bush-hammered.—The roughnesses of a stone are pounded

off by the bush-hammer, and the stone is then said to be

“bushed.’ This kind of finish is dangerous on sandstone,
as experience has proved that sandstone thus treated is very
apt to scale.
In dressing limestone which is to have a bush-hammered
finish the usual sequence of operations is: 1st, rough-point¬

ing; 2d, tooth-axing; 3d, bush-hammering.
Rubbed.—In dressing sandstone and marble it is very
common to give the stone a plane surface at once by the use
of the stone-saw. Any roughnesses left by the saw are re¬
moved by rubbing with grit or sandstone. Such stones
therefore have no margins. They are frequently used in
architecture for string-courses, lintels, door-jambs, etc., and
they are also well adapted for use in facing the walls of lock-
chambers, and in other localities where a stone surface is
liable to be rubbed by vessels or other moving bodies.
Diamond Panels.—Sometimes the space between the mar¬
gins is sunk immediately adjoining them and then rises
gradually until the four planes form an apex at the middle of
the panel. Such panels are called diamond panels, and in
the case described the panel is a sunk diamond panel. When
the surface of the stone rises gradually from the inner lines of
the margins to the middle of the panel, it is called a raised
diamond panel. Both kinds of finish are common on bridge
IO MODERN STONE-CUTTING AND MASONIC V.
quoins and similar work. The details of this method of

dressing should be given in the specifications.
8. The student should take care not to confound the
above-described three classes with what is termed first-,
second-, and third-class masonry in railroad-engineering work.
Extracts from specifications defining these classes are given
in §§ 45> 53) 54-
Art. 3.—Definitions of Parts of the Structure.
9. Face, the front surface of a wall; back, the inside

surface.
Facing, the stone which forms the face or outside of the
wall. Backing, the stone which forms the back of the wall.
Filling, the interior of the wall.
Batter.—The slope of the surface of the wall. A batter
of 1 inch to 1 foot, etc., means a horizontal departure of one
inch from a vertical direction for each foot of altitude.
Course.—A horizontal layer of stone in the wall. If the
stones of each layer are of equal thickness throughout, it is
termed regular coursing; if the thicknesses are unequal, the
term random or unequal coursing is applied.
Joints.—The mortar layer between the stones. The
horizontal joints are called bed-joints or simply beds; the
vertical joints are sometimes called the builds. Usually the
horizontal joints are called beds, and the vertical ones joints.
Coping.—A projecting course of heavy stones (generally
weathered) on the top of the wall to protect it. (A coping is
weathered when it is bevelled sufficiently to throw the water
away from the face of the wall.)
Pointing.—A better quality of mortar put in the face of
the joints to help them resist the influence of the weather.
DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. fl
10. Bond.—The arrangement of stones in adjacent

courses. (See Art. 5.)
Stretcher.—A stone whose greatest dimension lies parallel
to the face of the wall.
Header.—A stone whose greatest dimension lies perpen*
dicular to the face of the wall.
Fig. 15.
Dowels.—Pins of metal or stone which enter a hole in the

upper side of one stone and also a hole in the lower side of
the stone next above. They are used to prevent lateral
motion between two stones. (Fig. 15.)
Cramps.—Metal bars having the ends turned at righ';
angles to the body of the bar, which enter holes in the upper
sides of adjacent stones. (Fig. 16.)
Quoin.—A corner-stone. A quoin is a header for one
face, and a stretcher for the other. (Fig. 17.)
L.ef C.
Art. 4.—Classification of Masonry.
II. As the term stone masonry includes properly all

classes of construction in stone which require the employ¬
ment of skilled mechanics or masons, any class of masonry
Fig. 16
may be laid dry, in lime mortar or in cement mortar, at will.

On this point specifications should always be precise.
12. Rubble Masonry.—This is composed of unsquared
stones. It is divided into: Uncoursed Rubble (Fig. 17), laid
« Fig. 17.
without any attempt at regular courses, and Coursed Rubble

(Fig. 18), levelled off at specified heights to a horizontal sur¬
face. The stone may be required to be roughly shaped with
the hammer, so as to fit approximately; it is then called

squared rubble.
Fig. 18.
13. Squared-stone Masonry.—According to the char¬

acter of the face, this is classified as Quarry-faced (Fig. 19)
or as Pitch-faced (Fig. 20). If laid in regular courses of
about the same rise throughout, it is Range-work (Fig. 21).

If laid in courses that are not continuous thioughout the
length of the wall, it is Broken Range-work (Fig. 22). If not
laid in courses at all. it is Random-work (Fig. 23), and this is

generally to be expected of this kind of masonry unless the
specifications call for Range -work. This style of masonry is
called Block in Course by the English. In quarry-faced and
pitch-faced masonry, quoins and the sides of openings are

usually hammer-dressed. This consists in removing projec¬
tions so as to secure a rough-smooth surface, and is done with
the face-hammer, the plain axe, or the tooth-axe. This work
is a necessity where door or window frames are inserted, and
it greatly improves the general effect of the wall if used wher¬
ever a corner is turned.
14. Ashlar Masonry.—This is equivalent to “cut-stone
masonry,” or masonry composed of any of the various kinds
of cut stone mentioned above.
As a rule the courses are con¬
tinuous (Fig. 24), but sometimes
they are broken by the introduc¬
tion of smaller stones of the same
kind, and then it is called Broken
Ashlar (Fig. 25). If the stones
are less than one foot in height, the term Small Ashlar is
proper. The term Rough Ashlar is sometimes given to
squared-stone masonry, either “quarry-faced” or -‘pitch-
faced,” when laid as range-work, but it is believed that it is

more logical and more expressive to call such masonry
‘‘squared range-work.” From its derivation, ashlar appar¬
ently means large square blocks, but practice seems to have
made it synonymous with “ cut stone,” and this secondary
meaning has been retained for convenience.
Dimension-stones are cut stones all of whose dimensions
have been fixed in advance. If the specifications for ashlar
Fig. 25.
masonry are so written as to prescribe the dimensions to be

used, it will not be necessary to make a new class of such
stones.
Range-work, whether of squared stones or of ashlar, is
usually backed up with rubble masonry, which in such cases is
specified as Coursed Rubble.
Whatever terms are employed in common use to various
classes of masonry, it is not safe to trust to them alone in
preparing specifications for construction, but every specifica¬
tion should contain an accurate description of the character
and quality of the work desired. Whenever practicable,
samples of such kind of cutting and masonry should be pre¬
pared beforehand, and exhibited to the persons who propose
to undertake the work.
Art. 5.—Strength of Masonry.
15. The strength of masonry will depend on the size of

the blocks, the accuracy of the dressing, the bond, and the
quality of the mortar.
16. Size of Stone.—The size of the blocks varies with
the nature of the stone and quarry.
Some stones are strong enough to be used in any size,
while others are limited by certain proportions of len gtii,
breadth, and thickness.
A common rule, for ordinary stone, is to make the
breadth at least equal to the thickness, and seldom greater
than twice this dimension, and to limit the length to within
th ree times the thickness. When the breadth or the length is
considerable in comparison with the thickness, there is danger
that the block may break if any unequal settling or unequal
pressure should take place. As to the absolute dimensions,
the thickness is generally not less than one foot nor more
than two; stones of this thickness with the relative dimen¬
sions just laid down will weigh from 1000 to 8000 lbs., allow¬
ing, on an average, 160 lbs. per cubic foot. Such a weight
requires considerable effort of both men and machinery to
set it in place.
17. Accuracy of Dressing.—Accurate dressing is essen¬
tial for first-class work. If the individual blocks fit well on
each other, the pressure is equalized, and cracking from this
cause avoided. One of the objects of the mortar between
the blocks is to equalize the pressure, and it will thus be seen
that the less attention is paid to dressing the better the
quality of the mortar should be. Many of the largest build¬
ings of antiquity were erected without the use of mortar,
but so well were the stones fitted together that the structures
f
stood until overthrown by violence. Before finally placing a

block of cut stone, a trial should be made to see that it fits
properly.
18. Bond.—In stonework of any kind it is of the utmost
importance to secure a good bond.
Headers should in all cases extend into the wall two thirds
of its thickness, and preferably entirely through the wall from
front to back. The number of headers in a given space
varies much with the class of work. Flemish bond, consist¬
ing of alternate headers and stretchers, presents the best
appearance and is probably as strong as any other plain bond.
In foundation-work there should not be less than one header
for every five square feet of surface of wall.
The vertical joints of the blocks of each course alternate
with the vertical joints of the courses above and below it, or
break joints with them. The vertical joints of one course are
not to be less than four inches on one side of those in the
next course, and the headers should rest as nearly as possible
on the middle of the stretchers in the course below. In im¬
portant work the proportion of headers, limiting sizes of
stones, joints, etc., are always specified.
The mean thickness of a rubble wall should not be less
than one sixth of the height; in the case of a dry stone wall
the thickness should never be less than two feet.
The largest
o
stones should be used for the foundation
course.
Stratified stone should be laid on its natural bed, i.e., so
that the direction of pressure comes at right angles to the
direction of the laminae.
CHAPTER II.
STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY.
Art. i.—Definitions.
19. STEREOTOMY, as applied to stone-cutting, is the art

or science which teaches how to make drawings, patterns,
bevels, etc., by which the mason may shape blocks of stone
which when fitted together form a predetermined whole.
20. The stone structures treated of in these limits may be
divided into two general classes:
1st, those having plane surfaces only; and, 2d, those hav¬
ing plane and curved surfaces. The second class may be vari¬
ously subdivided as structures with developable surfaces, with
warped surfaces, and with surfaces of double curvature.
In engineering work structures of the first class predomi¬
nate, and in architectural work those of the second. Exam¬
ples of the first class may be found in retaining-walls, wing-
walls, culverts, piers, canal-locks, buttresses, and fortifica¬
tions; and of the second class in piers, arches, vaults, domes,
towers, aqueducts, etc. Numerous engineering structures
and buildings show examples of both classes. A sharp divi¬
sion is therefore neither necessary nor desirable, and no
effort has been made in these pages to keep them separate,
except in the theoretic examples.
21. The first operation in all stone-cutting is to form the.
joints of one surface, and from these all the other bounding
6' TONE- CU T TING A ND MA SO NR 1'. 19
planes of the finished stone are derived (Fig. 26). A line is

first drawn around the stone and the joints either pitched off
to this line with the pitching-chisel, as in Fig. 20, or a chisel-
draft is sunk all around the face until the line is reached (Fig.
27). The rough projections of the central portion are then
brought to the plane of the margin by means of chisel and

crandall, and finished according to specifications.
22. Directing-instruments.—These are of three kinds.—
patterns, templets, and bevels,—and must of course all be full
size.
Patterns show the forms of plane or of developable sur¬
faces, and in the latter case are made of flexible material.
Templets give the forms of required edges or other dis¬
tinguishing lines of a surface. A pattern is used to lay out
the relative position of the edges, whereas a templet defines
any particular edge or edges.
Bevels show the diedral angles between surfaces. The
common carpenter’s square is a special form of bevel, and
the straight-edge a special form of templet.
Thus in Fig. 28 patterns would give the outline of the
faces marked A, B, and C, and a bevel or templet, or both,
might be used for D.
23. It is the place of the engineer or architect to supply
the stone-cutters with such drawings as will enable them to
make all the necessary directing-instruments. In practical
work it is therefore not customary to make such detailed

drawings as shown here for some of the simpler examples;,
but in order that the student may know to what extent to go
into detail he must himself know how to make these details

from the drawings.
The plates, which we will now discuss, fully illustrate
this point.
PLATE 1
GOTHIC BUTTRESS
FRONT ELEVATION
Scale of Patterns
Scale of Plans and
and Elevations Isometric of Stone
i-1 1 I l I * I I 1 I I I I » | »
0 1 2 3 Feet 0 1 2 Feet
PLAN AT CAP
STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY. 21
Art. 2.—Gothic Buttress.
PLATE I.
24. Plate I illustrates a simple Gothic buttress, examples

of which may be seen on the walls of many churches.
Since the corresponding points on the various figures bear
the same letters, the student should have no difficulty in
reading the drawing. For the sake of clearness a horizontal
section at the base is shown, and another just below the cap.
The stone A, of which the details are drawn, is termed a
kneclcr, and the manner in which it serves to support the
coping, or cap, is evident. The details show an isometric
view of the stone A, and patterns of the different faces.
The size of the stone in the rough is indicated by the broken
line on the isometric. In practice these patterns are made
full size and cut out of paper, cardboard, or zinc.
25. The method of working in this case would be about
as follows: Having cut the rough block of stone to a prism
of nearly the desired dimensions, as explained above (§ 21),
the face a is marked out from its pattern and brought to a
plane; and the back of the stone and the two faces marked
b worked at right angles to a.
The surfaces b are next marked, and c roughly cut into
shape; b is dressed, drafts run around the edges of c, and its
surfaces finally worked. The bottom is now easily dressed
to the proper plane, and the stone is ready to hoist into
place.
26. For a working drawing the details shown on this
plate would be omitted, because the foreman of the masons
could readily make the patterns himself from the general

drawings for such a simple case.
27. Exercises. — 1. Draw an isometric view and the nec¬
essary patterns of the stone B.
2. Draw a buttress similar to the one shown on Plate I
against a wall 3 ft. thick at the base, 13 ft. high,- batter of
face of wall 1 inch per foot, height and dimensions of base of
buttress as in illustration, batter of its front 1 inch per foot
and its sides J- inch per foot. Slope of top and water-
tables as shown. Make the necessary details for the stones
similar to A and B.
3. Take the measurements and make drawings of a but¬
tress on some building.
PLATE 2
PERSPECTIVE OF ARCH
llitlll 1 ft
PARTS
D A B=Span A F = Rise
D E= Springing Line S=Springer
V = Voussoirs D F B = lntrados
K = Central Voussoir or R H C = Spandrel
Keystone C R =Haunch
M C R = Extrados B R=Skewback
C = Crown
Art. 3.—Arches,
plate 11.
28. This plate clearly illustrates and defines the various

parts of an arch. Additional definitions are:
Soffit: the concave surface of the arch.
Back: the convex surface of the arch.
Spandrel-filling: the filling in the space CHR.
All the definitions given for one half the arch naturally
apply to the other half; thus there are two haunches, two
skew-backs, etc.
String-course: a course running the length of the arch,
parallel to DE in a right arch.
Ring-course: a course parallel to the face of the arch.
Coursing-joint: a joint between adjoining string-courses.
Also called Bed-joint.
Heading-joint: a joint between adjoining ring-courses.
Arch-sheeting: all of the arch masonry of the arch
proper, except the face-voussoirs.
The face of the arch is also called The Head, and the face-
voussoirs Ring-stones.
PLATE III.
29. On Plate III are shown methods of constructing the

principal styles of arches used in architecture and engineer¬
ing.
The style of the arch to be employed is governed by the
style of architecture employed, the purpose it is to serve, and
the local conditions. The full-centred or semicircular arch
(Fig. 1) is the strongest, but is often replaced by the segmen¬
tal (Fig. 6), owing to limited space for the rise. The elliptic
arch (Pig. 4) is generally considered the most graceful; and
the Gothic and Tudor arches (Figs. 3 and 5) are employed
chiefly in certain styles of architecture.
The Gothic or pointed arch, shown in Fig. 3, is drawn by
striking intersecting arcs from a, a as centres, with the span
as radius.
30. If the intrados is to be an oval and its rise is to be
not less than one third the span, a three-centred oval will
generally give a curve of form more pleasing to the eye than
one of a greater number of centres.
If we assume the radius of the curve at the springing-
lines, the general construction of a three-centred oval is as
follows:
On the span and rise set off at AD and EF a distance less
than the rise HE. Draw DE, bisect it by a perpendicular,
and extend this perpendicular to meet EH produced in
C. Then will C and D be two of the required centres.
An infinite number of ovals may be thus constructed for
the same span and rise, and a third condition may be imposed
PLATE 3
MASONRY ARCHES
SCALE OF FEET
S1 ONE- CU1'1 'EY a A ND MA SO AN Y. 25
if it be desired to make a determinate solution. (See

Wheeler’s “Civil Engineering,” p. 258.)
31, The four-centred Tudor arch (Fig. 5) may be con¬
structed as follows: Divide the span AD into four equal
parts, AB, BC, etc. From B and C as centres, with radius
equal to BC, describe arcs intersecting in F. Draw BF and
extend it to meet a perpendicular to AD through C. With
B as centre and radius AB describe AK, and with H as cen¬
tre and radius HK describe KE. Similarly for the other
half of the arch.
The segmental arch (Fig. 6), such as is used to span open¬
ings over doors and windows, is constructed on the equilateral
triangle ABC, having a side equal to the span.
PLATE IV.
32.The Recessed Flat Arch, or Plate-band.—This form

of arch is used where it is desirable to have the top of the
opening present a flat surface. The bearing power of this
construction is small, and any considerable weight above it is
borne by a relieving-arch or a beam. The lintels over the
doors and windows of a brick building are simple examples.
This arch should not be used for spans exceeding ten feet. •
H aving given the necessary dimensions, the front elevation
and top view are drawn. A top view is shown in place of
the usual plan in order to bring out the joints of the arch.
Thus the line f-g shows a joint on the back of the arch ; h—i
on the elevation corresponds to h—i on the top view. There
being a shoulder at i which does not appear on the elevation,
and the line i-l being in a vertical plane, the points cannot be
lettered alike without tending to confuse. The student
should draw a vertical section through the keystone, which
will materially aid him to a better understanding of the
structure.
The isometric of the stone A may be drawn as follows:
From any convenient point, as O, draw the usual co-ordinate
axes, O-a, 0-2, and O-13. Lay off 0-2 equal to the width
of the stone, equA to 12-2 on the elevation. Draw the front
of the stone, all of whose lines except 4-5 show in their true
size, and may therefore be taken from the elevation. Layoff
1 —14 and 14-15, equal to 1 — 14 and 14-8 respectively on the
top view, and draw 1 — 15. 15-16=8-9, 16-12= 15^-12,
and 12—13= 10-13. As a check O-13 should equal n—O.
PLATE 4
RECESSED FLAT ARCH
d f
PATTERNS FOR
JOINT A-B
SCALE OF FEET
II
0 m 13 o
JOINT A-C
SCALE OF FEET
ISOMETRIC OF
STONE AT A
SCALE OF FEET
S
I
0
STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY. 2J
From the points 13, 12, 16, and 15 draw the verticals as
taken from the elevation, and the drawing is readily com¬
pleted. The patterns, being numbered to correspond to the
numbering on the other figures, need no further explanation.
33. Exercises on Plate IV.— 1. Draw a vertical section
through the keystone.
2. Draw an isometric of, and all necessary patterns for,
the keystone and the stone B.
3. Draw a recessed circular or pointed arched gateway of
dimensions similar to the flat one shown; adding three or
four stone steps to the front.
PLATE V.
34. Arches in Circular Walls.—An arch in a circular

wall is a construction sometimes met in architectural and in
engineering work.
It is generally avoided, owing to the difficulty of construct¬
ing it, and the not pleasing effect of the finished structure.
There are instances, however, when it is necessary to use it,
and an explanation of a simple case is inserted here. For the
more complex cases the student is referred to Emile Lejeune’s
“ Traite Pratique de la Coupe des Pierres.”
35. Almost any form of arch may be constructed in a cir¬
cular wall. Two general divisions may be noted—the cylin¬
drical arch, and the radiant arch. The first is the ordinary
arch with cylindrical intrados and extrados, whereas in the
second the elements of intrados and extrados radiate from a
common vertical axis. The elements are, however, in every
case parallel to the springing-plane—a point which should be
carefully noted, and which will readily appear from an inspec¬
tion of Plate III. The outer and inner openings of the cylin¬
drical arch are the same in size, but in the radiant arch the
inner opening is smaller.
36. A cylindrical arch in a circular wall may be considered
as a case of two cylinders intersecting at right angles, the axis
of the one being vertical and that of the other horizontal.
We will explain how to obtain all the necessary patterns,
bevels, etc., have given plan, elevation, etc., of the arch.
37. Fig. 1 shows the elevation of a cylindrical circular arch
and a portion of the circular wall containing it. The plan
PLATE 5
CYLINDRICAL ARCH
IN A
CIRCULAR WALL
I
shows the joints as though the soffit were viewed from below,
which is done to show its joints more plainly. Let us take
some one stone, as X, and show how to derive all the patterns
necessary to work its faces.
Draw first an isometric view, as Fig. 6, in order to obtain
a better conception of its appearance. Briefly, this may be
constructed thus: Around the elevation and plan of X draw
rectangles showing the limits of the rough stone from which
to work the finished block. Draw an isometric block with
these dimensions, as f-1-3-2, etc., and on this plot the cor¬
ners of the stone—remembering that three such co-ordinates
are necessary to locate a point not in an isometric plane.
Thus the point b requires the co-ordinates f— 2 and 2-b from
Fig. 1 and 2 —p from Fig. 2; which are laid off as/-2, 2-6,
and 6-b respectively in Fig. 6.
The face A, having the curve of the wall as shown by the
lines c-p and e-p, Fig. 2, must be developed to show its true
size. The developments of one half the outer and one half
the inner faces is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Set off along the line
C-D, Fig. 3, the outer curve of the wall, by points from Fig.
2 ; erect ordinates at these points and project the proper
heights over from Fig. 1. (See Descriptive Geometry for
development of cylinder.) The pattern is now shown in its
true size at b-e-a-c-p, Fig. 3. The corresponding one for the
inner face is found on Fig. 4.
The pattern for B requires us to find the true size and
appearance of the radial joints a-c and e-b. These joints are
formed by the intersection of the planes K-L, K-M, etc.,
perpendicular to the vertical plane of projection, with the
vertical cylinder or portion of cylinder forming the wall.
They are therefore arcs of ellipses, and may be shown in their
true size by revolving parallel to one of the planes of projec-
tion or constructing- the ellipse, having given its axes. The

former method is shown here, and for clearness the corre¬
sponding stone on the left of the arch is taken. The chord
s-r, Fig. i, is used as an axis. When the ellipse is revolved
into V, the point s remains stationary, being where the axis
intersects the arc; r falls at v, a distance equal to wr, t at u>
and other points similarly, u-v shows the arc we want, and
Fig. 7 gives the construction of the pattern—the lines c-h
and a-l being obtained from Fig. 2.
To construct the pattern for C we must develop the under
surface or soffit of the arch. If the arch were in a straight
wall, its development would of course be simply a rectangular
band equal in length to the semicircumference of the circle of
radius K—a and in width to the thickness N-P. But owing
to the circular shape of the wall the development departs from
this rectangular form, as will be shown if a chord be drawn
from h to 8, Fig. 2. To develop, then, lay off, by points, on
the indefinite line //-/, Fig. 5, the length of the arch from
Fig. 1, as H-1, 1-2, etc., equal to H-c, e-i7, etc., respec¬
tively, in Fig. 1 ; draw perpendiculars at these points, and
project the points k, /, etc., over from Fig. 2. Through the
points thus found draw the curve of the developed intrados.
C shows the desired pattern. D is shown in its true size in
V'ur
x o
^.
38. At CAB, Fig. 1, is shown an arch square. It is a

bevel, the arm AC of which radiates from the centre of the
arch, and the arm AB is curved to the curve of the intrados,
as shown on the elevation.
39. The stone X may now be worked as follows: The face
bps7;/, Fig. 6, is rectangular, and needs no further explanation.
The face D at right angles to this one is also readily worked,
its pattern being shown on Fig. 2. A bevel, having the
angle acp, Fig. 1, is made, and the face £ worked by means

of it and the pattern , Fig. /. The soffit C is now worked by
means of the arch square and the pattern calk, Fig. 5, this
pattern being made of zinc, and bent to the proper curve on
the arch square. The development A, Fig. 3, bent to the
curve ap, Fig. 2, will give the pattern of A, Fig. 6, and
therefore a templet for cl?. A draft cl? having been sunk, the
face A is readily worked. The other faces are obtained
similarly.
40. Exercises.—1. Draw an isometric and construct all
necessary patterns and bevels for the keystone.
2. Replace the arch in the illustration by a three-centred
one and make the drawings.
3. Make the drawings when the face of the arch is
moulded.
MODERN STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY,
32
Art. 4.—Intersecting Arches.
PLATE VI.
41. We will now deal briefly with the surfaces formed by

the intersection of two arches.
Whenever two intersecting surfaces of the second degree
(ellipse, hyperbola, parabola) have one diameter in common,
their intersections lie in planes, and are consequently pro¬
jected on the plane of the axes as straight lines. Two cylin¬
drical arches having each the same rise (the spans mayor may
not be equal) will intersect in ellipses, and this is true whether
the intersection be right or oblique. The curves thus formed
by the intersection of two vaults are called groins, or groin
curves.
Two general divisions of intersecting arches may be noted,
forming, 1st, The Cloistered Vault, and, 2d, The Groined
Vault.
The cloistered vault (Figs. 4 and 5) is formed when the
arches meet to form a covering for a closed area, making a
vaulted ceiling for a room. The groins in this case form
valleys between the vaulting surfaces. The effect may be
seen in any room which has a coved ceiling, i.e., one in
which the walls and ceiling are connected by a curve instead
of a right angle.
The groined vault (Figs. 1,2, and 3) is formed when the
arches cross each other, forming the vaulted passage called
cross-vault (German Kreuzgang). Fig. 1 shows plainly how
the groin curves, as fbg, are formed by the intersection of the
PLATE 6
GROINED
AND
CLOISTERED VAULTS
SCALE OF FEET
i—l—I—I—l-1—I—i-1—l—I
0123450730 10
a
-S' TONE- CUT'1 TNG A ND MA SO NR V.
33
different elements, ab, db, etc. It will be seen that the o

groins
in this case project into the passage—just the opposite from
the cloistered groin. If in Fig. i the elements of the cylinder
A lay between the groins fbg and fhk and the corresponding
ones to the left, and the elements of the cylinder B lay be¬
tween the groins fbg and flm and the corresponding ones to
the rear, the passageway would be closed and the groined
vault would become a cloistered vault.
Fig. 2 shows a groined vault from below.
42. The Right Groined Vault. —Referring now to Fig.
3, let the two vaults be given as in the plan, intersecting at
right angles. The joint lines of the intrados are, as in Plate
V, shown as full lines, because they are of more importance
than those of the extrados, which latter is frequently left
unfinished. Let the right section of the one vault be a circle
of radius a-b, radius of extrados being equal to depth of
keystone plus J- diameter of arch. This increase of radius
gives a proper thickness towards the springing of the arches.
Now let us impose the conditions that corresponding points
on the two arches be the same height above the springing-
plane, and that all bed-joints be normal to the soffits.
The joints of the circular arch—call it No. 1—will of course
radiate towards the centre a of the intrados, while those of
the other arch, No. 2, will be determined as follows:
First, to find the curve of the intrados of No. 2. Project
the point b of No. 1 on the groin, in B; from B draw Be
parallel to the axis of No. 2, and layoff dc equal to eb; or
project the point as shown by the dotted construction bfgc.
Sufficient points having been thus found, the ellipse is readily
drawn.
To d raw the joints normal to the intrados we must first
draw tangents at the points just determined. Draw a tangent
34
bh in No. i and project it on the groin as BH; draw HK
parallel to the axis of No. 2, and join k and c for the new
tangent. The normal is, of course, drawn perpendicular to
this tangent, and the point m fixed by laying off its height
above the springing-plane, as shown by / in No. i. The
reason for this construction will be evident if the student
remember that the tangent to the intersection of two surfaces
lies in the intersection of the tangent planes.
PRS shows the groin revolved into H, about BOS as an
axis.
Joining the points LMO, etc., gives the groin of the
extrados.
43. Exercises.—1. Isometric and patterns of keystone
and a springing-stone.
2. Two vaults of unequal spans uniting at an angle of 6o°.
3. Details for 2.
4. Let vault No. 1 stop on the line N-3 and No. 2 on the
line P-3.
PLATE 7
6 FOOT ARCH CULVERT
AUBURN & ITHACA R. R,
3RD CLASS MASONRY
%
V*-
O
LOCATION PLAN] SHOWING ELEVATIONS

SCALE OF FEET
35
Art. 5.—Arch-culverts
PLATE VII.—6-FT. ARCH-CULVERT, AUBURN & ITHACA

R. R.
44. Complete working drawings are shown on this plate of

a small culvert built of rough masonry.
45. Third-class masonry, as used on this road, is specified
as being rubble-work (§ 12), laid with mortar in irregular
courses, and will consist of stone containing generally six
cubic feet each, so disposed as to make a firm and compact
work; and no stone in the work shall contain less than three
cubic feet, except for filling up the interstices between the
large blocks in the heart of the wall. At least one fifth of the
face shall be composed of headers extending full size four feet
into the wall, and from the back the same proportion and of
the same dimensions, so arranged that a header in the back
shall be between two headers in the 1 face. The corner-stones
shall be neatly hammer-dressed, so as to have horizontal beds
and vertical joints. Also, drafts to be cut on all covers of
masonry.
46. The stones for the faces of the arch, coping, etc., are
fully figured, and the mason is therefore able to cut them
without further detailed drawings.
The method adopted on this plate of showing one half
views is done only to economize space. It is not recom¬
mended for working drawings of this class. The little extra
time required to make the complete drawing is more than
balanced by the time saved during construction in avoiding

numberless questions and the probability of making correc¬
tions on work done.
This drawing is so well figured and lettered throughout
that the student needs only to study it carefully in order to
fully understand it.
i
e*«M n
PLATE 8
I 2 FOOT ARCH
ON THE
AUBURN & ITHACA R. R.
3 ‘OR 4 PLANKING
END ELEVATION
37
PLATE VIII.—12-FT. ARCH ON THE AUDURN & ITHACA R. R.
47. This is a good illustration of a case where the rail¬

road does not cross the stream at right angles. To save
building a larger structure than necessary recourse is had to
a skew-face arch, i.e., one in /
of a plain right arch giving

the same width of roadway /
Fig. 28.
as the skew-face arch would
come.
The extra haunching shown on the various figures is to
strengthen the arch, and the planking, held by heavy sheet
piling at the ends, serves to prevent the stream from scouring
under the arch. The wing-walls are built with an even bat¬
ter on the inside faces, while for the outside faces and back of
the parapet-walls the same effect is obtained by building
steps. This is plainly shown on the right wing-wall of the
end elevation.
The right section CD shows the dimensions of the abut¬
ment-walls and the increased depth of the sheeting towards
the springing.
The student should note that, although the end elevation
shows the arch as a semicircle, it is really a semiellipse with
diameters equal to 13 feet and 12 feet respectively.
Stones such as a on section AB and on longitudinal
section and in other places are not filled in with cross-section

lines, because it is desired to bring the cut-stone work into
prominence. The general arrangement of the drawings on
this plate is very good, the draughtsman being enabled to
readily project from plan to elevation, sections, etc.
48. I n passing it may be well to note the difference exist¬
ing between the term plan as used by the engineer and by
the architect. The first uses it in the strictly correct sense,
i.e., horizontal projection, while with the second it generally
means a horizontal section at some point; thus the plan on
this plate would be an architect’s top view.
PLATE 9
STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY . 39
PLATE IX.—DETAILS OF ARCH ON PLATE VIII.
49. Here are shown in a complete and simple manner the

necessary details for the face-voussoirs of the skew-face arch
on Plate VIII. The face is projected on a vertical plane at
right angles to the axis of the arch, thus showing a semi¬
circle instead of a semiellipse. The 18' io{" given in the
notes as the length of arch on inside face is the length of the
intrados of a right section. As the thicknesses of the arch¬
stones are measured in this plane, it is evident that if proper
measurements are given from such a plane to the outside
corners of each face-stone the face of the arch will have the
desired skew. These distances may be readily obtained from
the complete plan of soffit and back. The plan as given
shows the method, and for the sake of clearness the soffit and
back are shown separate. Fig. 29 shows both projected on
the same figure.
The dimensions given on the drawings, together with the

specifications for the kinds of masonry of which the structure
is to be built, will enable the mason to shape the stones
properly.
40
Masonry for arch-culverts is sometimes divided into first

and second class, but a general specification is as follows:
50. Arch-culvert Masonry.—The abutments are to be
built of second-class masonry (§ 54).
The beds and joints of the arch-stone are to be accurately
cut, and to be laid in courses throughout. The ring-stone
will be neatly cut, and composed of alternate long and short
bond-stones of not less than three feet and eighteen inches
respectively. The parapet and wing walls will be built simi¬
larly to the abutments, and surmounted with a well-dressed
coping, not less than fourteen inches thick and three feet
wide, to be paid for at the same rate as for arch-culvert ma¬
sonry, The outside stones to be laid in cement mortar, and
the whole wall to be thoroughly grouted, each course sepa¬
rately. The spandrel-backing (haunching) to be good rub¬
ble-work, laid in mortar, built as directed by the engineer,
and to be paid for at the same rate as third-class bridge
masonry.
In any arch-culvert or bridge the abutments, wing and
spandrel walls, and backing, or any of these, may, at the
discretion of the engineer, be built of rubble-work, similar
to that of third-class bridge masonry (§ 42), and when so
built shall be paid for at the same price as that class of
masonry.
51. Exercises on Plates VIII and IX.—1. Make an end
elevation taken at right angles to the plane of the face of
the arch.
2. Draw isometrics of, and patterns for, some of the cop¬
ing-stones of the wing and parapet walls.
3. Check the corner dimensions given for the keystone
on Plate IX, and make an isometric drawing of the stone.
PLATE 10
Art. 6.—Railroad-bridge Masonry.
PLATE X.—ABUTMENT AND PIER ON LEHIGH VALLEY

RAILROAD.
52. The drawings for this piece of work are much more
finished in appearance than the actual structures. By com¬
parison of this plate with No. 11 it will at once be seen that
although a great many dimensions are given for the abutment
and pier there are but very few dimension-stones and no de¬
tails for any cut stone. A reference to the specifications for
the kinds of masonry used (§§ 50, 53, and 54) shows plainly
that no special details are needed. The original drawings
are unusually well figured, but for the purpose of reproduc¬
tion it was found necessary to omit some. The student’s
attention is, however, called to the fact that it is always well
to give full dimensions for a working drawing if it is ex¬
pected to carry out the work in exact accordance with them.
Scaled dimensions, especially from a blue print, are apt to be
very misleading. A close study of working drawings and
noting carefully the work being done on similar structures in
the course of erection will now teach the draughtsman where
dimensions are most needed and where he can save himself
unnecessary work.
Here, as on Plate VIII, the faces of the different walls
have an even batter, while the backs are stepped.
Notice how the steps on the wing-walls radiate from the
steps on the back of the abutment. The sections A/> and
CD are taken on broken lines in order that the thickness of
42 MODERN STONE-CUTTING‘ AND MASONRY.
all of the stones supporting the bed-plates may be shown on

one section.
The ends of the pier are shaped as shown to turn aside
driftwood, ice, etc., and to prevent the forming of eddies
around the pier, which might scour at the foundation.
53. First-class Masonry will be first-class rock range-work
(g 14). The stone to be accurately squared, jointed, and
bedded, and laid in courses not less than ten inches thick, nor
exceeding twenty-four inches in thickness, regularly decreas¬
ing from bottom to top of pier or abutment. The stretchers,
shall in no case have less than sixteen inches bed for a ten-,
inch course, and for all courses above sixteen inches at least
as much bed as face; they shall generally be at least four feet
in length. The headers will be of similar size with the
stretchers, and shall hold the size in the heart of the wall
that they show on the face, and be so arranged as to occupy
one fifth of the face of the wall, and they will be similarly
disposed in the back. When the thickness of the wall neces¬
sitates it, stones not less than four feet in length will be placed
transversely in the heart of the wall, to connect the two op¬
posite sides of it. The stones for the heart of the wall need
not be jointed, but must be well fitted to their places. The
stones forming the points of piers which act as ice-breakers
shall be neatly dressed on their faces; the other face-stones
will, with the exception of the draft, be generally left with
the face as they come from the quarry, unless the projections
above the draft should exceed two inches, in which case they
shall be roughly scabbled down to that point. The coping
shall not be less than fourteen inches thick and three feet
wide, well dressed and fastened together and to lower courses
with clamps of iron, without extra charge.
54- Second-class Masonry.—This comes under squared-
STONE-CUTTING AND MA SO NR Y.
43
stone masonry (§§ 6 and 13)? though the facing is generally
a better grade of work. Extracts from specifications for this
class are given below.
It shall be range-work or in broken courses, as may best
suit the stone that is used. Face-stones to be accurately
jointed and bedded, and no stone to be less than eight inches
thick. The stretchers in the face to have beds of at least fif¬
teen inches, and in no case less bed than rise, and to be not
less than three feet long, measured in the face of the wall.
The headers shall not have less than sixteen inches length of
face, and shall extend at least three and one half feet into
the wall, and not less than one header to every seven feet of
wall, measured from centre to centre, and so arranged that a
header in a superior course shall be placed between two
headers in the course below. Backing-stones to be of large
size, have parallel beds, but beds not dressed, as in first-class
masonry. The outside stone to be set in cement mortar.
Drafts to be cut on all corners of masonry.*
* For complete specifications on all grades of railroad masonry see

“ A Treatise on Masonry Construction,” by Prof. I. O. Baker.
44 MODERN STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY .
Art. 7.—Canal-lock Masonry.
PLATE XI.—ST. MARY’S FALLS CANAL-LOCK.

ft- • » * ' ' *
55- The d rawings and specifications for this large and im¬
portant piece of masonry are very detailed and very precise.
Outside of government work such exhaustive drawings would
hardly be furnished for similar construction.
Extracts from the specifications for the cut stone say:
“The cut stone shall conform approximately in dimensions
to the bill of materials appended to these specifications, but
exact drawings of the stones will be furnished the contractor
when he needs them.”
No: joints were cut closer than f inch, and it was speci
fied that, “No joint shall vary in thickness from the dimen¬
sions specified, and the dimensions of all stones shall be such
that the centre of each vertical joint shall not vary more than
yL inch on either side of a vertical line through the centre of
the lowest corresponding joint.”
Drawings were therefore made of every course of stone in
the lock (and there were twenty-three such courses), eleva¬
tions, sections and patterns, and other details, specimens of
which are shown on Plate XI. The full-size patterns for
every stone not rectangular were cut out of zinc and furnished
the contractor by the United States engineers in charge.
56. There being a large number of such patterns (471),
some system of identification was of course necessary, and
each different pattern received a distinctive number. The
numbering on the plan and the patterns corresponding are
PLATE 11
800 FT. LOCK
AND
45
shown on this plate. An idea of the scheme followed for

identifying the cut stone for a large building, as they are re¬
ceived from the stone-cutters, maybe gained from Plates XII
and XIII.
In the lock now under consideration the finished stone, when
inspected by the United States inspector at the stone-yard, was
marked with its proper pattern number, course number, and
running number. The exact place on the wall for each stone
of the successive courses as carried up was accurately marked
for the contractor. The contractor, therefore, had only to
cut the stone to certain patterns and put it on the place
marked for it on the wall. There were over 1400 pieces of
cut stone, aggregating nearly 19,000 cubic yards, and they all
went together so nicely that it took less than ten hours’ work
for a stone-cutter to correct errors on the whole job.
57. The stones varied in size from 3^ ft. X 8 ft. X 8J- ft.
to | ft. X ft. X 8 ft., giving 238 and 6 cu. ft. respectively.
In general the dimensions were 2 ft. X 3 ft. X 6 ft. As the
stone was specified to weigh not less than 148 lbs. to the
cubic foot, the above dimensions give over 35,000 lbs. for the
largest, and over 5000 lbs. for the average weight of each
stone. These figures should give the student a good guide as
to the dimensioning of cut stone, that they may be easily
handled with the ordinary machinery.
It may be of interest to note that the cut-stone work in
this structure was furnished and laid in the walls for $28.50
\
per cu. yd., a reasonable figure for such work.

Art. 8.—Architectural Stonework.
PLATE XII.—TOWER DOOR FROM THE BUILDING FOR

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
58. The drawings on this and the next two plates are
further examples of carefully detailed work. All the face-
stones in this immense building are dimension-stones, and
details like those on Plate XI were necessary. In this case,
however, the usual practice was followed; namely, that of
furnishing the contractor for the stonework with the dimen¬
sioned drawings instead of the patterns, and letting him
make the latter himself. The inspected stone was properly
marked for ready identification, shipped to the site of the
building, and at once deposited near its final place.
59. Plate XII is a recessed entrance in a circular wall. The
clear opening, being less than four feet, is readily spanned by a
single stone and the construction of an arch as in Plate V
avoided.
60. Exercises.— 1. Draw a horizontal section through the
course G.
2. Draw isometrics of the stones d, b, and c.
3. Draw the necessary patterns ford, b, and c.
4. Draw an isometric of, and the necessary patterns for,
one of the stones in the doorway, in course E.
PLATE 12
TOWER DOOR
FROM THE
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
SCALE
PLAN ON LINE T-T
0 1 Ft.
■ X"
1 (if 7'
/ "'Tr-
^ Q SvXC0HSE
- dl
r- . S. b e7
LINTEL
COURSE
LINTEL COURSE
STOM
BRICK WORK
BELT COURSE COURSE H
COURSE G
COURSE F
S COURSE E
~o
COURSE D
COURSE C
-r-
COURSE B
COURSE A
BASE COURSE
SECTION R-R
ELEVATION
-2-3- - -2-3- -
PLAN ON LINE S-S
PLATE 13
ENTRANCE & PORTE COCHE^RE
FROM THE
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
SCALE O '7 FEET
OK
U I
PLATES XIII AND XIV.—ENTRANCE AND PORTE COCHERE

FROM BUILDING FOR LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
61. These drawings show a complex and elegant piece of

architectural masonry. It is impossible in this limited space
to give all the necessary detail drawings, but a sufficient num¬
ber are given to show the student what else would be required.
Every joint of the stones is carefully shown, so that the full-
size patterns can easily be made, and the dimensions extend¬
ing into the walls are given by numerous sections. Some of
those not shown are horizontal sections of the courses marked
R, S, T, and U on the elevation, and vertical sections at dif¬
ferent points along the railing, etc.
62. The development of the railing is obtained very sim¬
ply, thus: From the points on the plan as an origin the
length of tread No. 1 as measured on the outer curve of the
rail is laid off in the development; 2, 3, 4, etc., are similarly
laid off, and the vertical distances of the railing above the
plane of each step as obtained from the elevation marked on
the corresponding places of the development. The pattern of
each stone of the railing is now easily obtained by bending
the developed pieces to the proper curves shown on the plan.
The faces are of course left rough, so that the cutter who does
the artistic work may draw and cut the ornaments.
63. Exercises. — 1. Make details, isometric and patterns,
for one of the railing-posts.
2. How would the stone-cutter work the skew part of the
top of the railing?

PLATE 14
ENTRANCE & PORTE COCHERE

FROM THE
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
SCALE OF FEET
i
<
m
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RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrews’s Handbook for Street Railway Engineers. 3X5 inches, morocco, 1 25

Berg’s Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.4to, 5 00
Brooks’s Handbook of Street Railroad Location.i6mo. morocco, 1 50
Butts’s Civil Engineer’s Field-book.i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Crandall’s Transition Curve.i6mo, morocco, 1 50
Railway and Other Earthwork Tables.8vo, 1 50
Dawson’s “Engineering” and Electric Traction Pocket-book. «i6mo, morocco, 4 00
Dredge’s History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879).Paper, 5 00
* Drinker’s Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills,4to, half mor., 25 00
Fisher’s Table of Cubic Yards.Cardboard, 25
Godwin’s Railroad Engineers’ Field-book and Explorers’ Guide.i6mo, mor., 2 50
Howard’s Transition Curve Field-book.i6mo morocco 1 50
Hudson’s Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em¬
bankments ...8vo, 1 00
Molitor and Beard’s Manual for Resident Engineers.i6mo, 1 00
Nagle’s Field Manual for Railroad Engineers.i6mo, morocco. 3 00
Philbrick’s Field Manual for Engineers.i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Pratt and Alden’s Street-railway Road-bed.8vo, 2 00
Searles’s Field Engineering.i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Railroad Spiral.i6mo, morocco 1 50
Taylor’s Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork.8vo, 1 50
* Trautwine’s Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and
Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams.8vo, 2 00
he Field Practice of [Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads.
12mo, morocco, 2 50
* Cross-section Sheet.Paper, 25
Webb’s Railroad Construction. 2d Edition, Rewritten.i6mo. morocco, 5 00
Wellington’s Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.Small 8vo, 5 00
DRAWING.
Barr’s Kinematics of Machinery.8vo, 2 50
* Bartlett’s Mechanical Drawing.8vo, 3 00
Coolidge’s Manual of Drawing.8vo, paper, 1 00
Durley’s Kinematics of Machines.8vo, 4 00
Hill’s Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective.8vo, 2 00
Jones’s Machine Design:
Parti.—Kinematics of Machinery.8vo, 1 50
Part II.—Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.8vo, 3 00
MacCord’s Elements of Descriptive Geometry.8vo, 3 00
Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.8vo, 5 00
Mechanical Drawing.4to, 4 00
Velocity Diagrams.8vo, 1 50
* Mahan’s Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting.8vo, 1 50
Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.).8vo, 3 50
Reed’s Topographical Drawing and Sketching.4to, 5 00
8
Reid’s Course in Mechanical Drawing.8vo, 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 3 oo
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism.8vo, 3 oo
Smith’s Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.).8vo, 2 50
Warren’s Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing.. i2mo, i oo
Drafting Instruments and Operations.nmo, i 25
Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing.i2mo, i 50
Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and
Shadow.i2mo, i oo
Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry.i2mo. 1 25
Primary Geometry.i2mo, 75
Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and.Perspective. .8vo, 3 50
General Problems of Shades and Shadows.8vo, 3 oo
Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.8vo, 7 50
Problems. Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometrv.8vo, 2 50
Weisbach’s Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. vHermann an'1
Klein.) .8vo, 5 oo
Whelpley’s Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter Engraving.i2mo, 2 OO
Wilson’s Topographic Surveying.8vo, 3 50

Free-hand Perspective.8vo, 2 50
Free-hand Lettering. (In preparation.)
Woolf’s Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry.Large 8vo, 3 oo
“ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.

Anthony and Brackett’s Text-book of Physics. (Magie.).Small 8vo, 3 00
Anthony’s Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements.i2mo, 1 00
Benjamin’slHistory of Electricity.8vo, 3 00
Voltaic Cell.8vo, 3 00
Classen’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.). .8vo, 3 00
Crehore and Squier’s Polarizing Photo-chronograph.8vo, 3 00
Dawson’s “Engineering” and Electric Traction Pocket-book.. iomo, morocco, 4 00
Flather’s Dvnamometers, and the Measurement of Power.i2mo, 3 00
Gilbert’s De Magnete. (Mottelay.).8vo, 2 50
Holman’s Precision of Measurements.8vo, 2 00
Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests.Large 8vo 75
Landauer’s Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.).8vo, 3 00
Le Chateller’s High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard—Burgess. )i2mo, 3 00
Lob’s Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo, I 00
* Lyons’s Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and 11. 8vo, each,? 61 00
* Michie. Elements of Wave Motion Relating to^Sound’and Light.8vo, 4 00
Niaudet’s Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (FishDacK.).nmo, 2 50
* Parshall and Hobart’s Electric Generators.Small 4to. half morocco, 10 00
* Rosenberg’s Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee—Kinzbrunner.)... 8vo, 1 50
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie’s Electrical Machinery. (In preparation
Thurston’s Stationary Steam-engines.8vo, 2 50
* Tillman’s Elementary Lessons in Heat.8vo, 1 50
Tory and Pitcher’s Manual of Laboratory Physics.Small 8vo, 2 00
Ulke’s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.8vo, 3 00
LAW.
♦^Davis’s Elements of Law.8vo, 2 50
* Treatise on the Military Law of United States.8vo, 7 00
* Sheep, 7 50
Manual for Courts-martial.i6mo, morocco, 1 50
9
Wait’s Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence.8v0* 6 oo
Sheep, 6 50
tecture. 8vo’ 5 00
Sheep, 5 So
Law of Contracts.8v0» 3 00
Winthrop’s Abridgment of Military Law.... 2 50
MANUFACTURES.
Bernadou’s Smokeless Powder—Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose
Molecule.. 2 50
Bolland’s Iron Founder.. 2 50
“The Iron Founder,” Supplement.i2mo, 2 50
Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of^Foundry Terms Usedjn the
Practice of Moulding.. 3 00
Eissler’s Modern High Explosives. 8vo, 4 00
Effront’s Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.).8vo, 3 00
Fitzgerald’s Boston Machinist.i8mo, 1 00
Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.i8mo, 1 00
Hopkins’s Oil-chemists’ Handbook.8vo, 3 00
Leach’s The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special.Reference to State
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.i2mo, 2 00
Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures—And the Administration of Workshops,
Public and Private.8vo, 5 00
Meyer’s Modern Locomotive Construction.4to, 10 00
* Reisig’s Guide to Piece-dyeing.8vo, 25 00
Smith’s Press-working of Metals.8vo, 3 00
Wire: Its Use and Manufacture.Small 4to, 3 00
Spalding’s Hydraulic Cement.i2mo, 2 00
Spencer’s Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses.i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Handbook tor sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists... i6mo, morocco, 2 00
Thurston’s Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera¬
tion.8vo, s 00
West’s American Foundry Practice.i2mo, 2 50
Moulder’s Text-book.i2tno, 2 50
Wiechmann’s Sugar Analysis.Small 8vo, 2 50
Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover.8vo, 3 00
Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills.8vo, 2 50
MATHEMATICS.
Baker’s Elliptic Functions.8vo, 1 50

* Bass’s Elements of Differential Calculus.i2mo, 4 00
Briggs’s Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry.i2mo, 1 00
Chapman’s Elementary Course in Theory of Equations.i2mo, 1 50
Compton’s Manual of Logarithmic Computations.i2mo, 1 50
Davis’s Introduction to the Logic of Algebra.8vo, 1 50
* Dickson’s College Algebra.Large 12mo, 1 50
* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations .LargeTi2mo, 1 25
Halsted's Elements of Geometry.8vo, 1 75
Elementary Synthetic Geometry.8vo. 1 50
10
* Johnson’s Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size.paper, 1 15
100 copies for 5 00
* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8X10 inches, 25
10 copies for 2 00
Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus.Small 8vo, 1 50
Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates.nmo, 1 00
Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations.Small 8vo, 3 50
Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares.i2mo, 1 50
* Theoretical Mechanics.i2mo, 3 00
Laplace’s Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) nmo, 2 00
* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other
Tables.8vo, 3 00
Trigonometry and Tables published separately. Each, 2 00
Maurer’s Technical Mechanics. (In preparation.)
Merriman and Woodward’s Higher Mathematics.8vo, 5 00
Merriman’s Method of Least Squares.8vo, 2 00
Rice and Johnson’s Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus.Sm., 8vo, 3 00
Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one.Gmail 8vo, 2 50
Wood’s Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry.8vo, 2 00
Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical.i2mo, 1 00
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings.i2mo, 2 50

Barr’s Kinematics of Machinery.8vo, 2 50
* Bartlett’s Mechanical Drawing.8vo, 3 00
Benjamin’s Wrinkles and Recipes.i2mo, 2 00
Carpenter’s Experimental Engineering.8vo, 6 00
Heating and Ventilating Buildings.8vo, 4 00
Clerk’s Gas and Oil Engine.Small 8vo, 4 00
Coolidge’s Manual of Drawing.8vo, paper, 1 00
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing.nmo, 1 50
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.nmo, 1 50
Flather’s Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.nmo, 3 00
Rope Driving.nmo, 2 00
Gill’s Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.nmo, 1 25
Hall’s Car Lubrication. nmo, 1 00
Hutton's The Gas Engine. (In preparation.)
Part I.—Kinematics of Machinery.8vo, 1 50
Kent’s Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket-book.i6mo, morocco, 500
Kerr’s Power and Power Transmission.8vo, 2 00
MacCord’s Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.8vo, 5 00
Mechanical Drawing.4to, 4 00
Mahan’s Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.).8vo, 3 50
Poole’s Calorific Power of Fuels.8vo, 3 00
Reid’s Course in Mechanical Drawing.8vo. 2 00
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 3 00
Richards’s Compressed Air.umo, 1 50
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism.8vo, 3 00
Smith’s Press-working of Metals.- - 8vo 3 00
Thurston’s Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mil
Work.8vo, 3 00
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. nmo, 1 00
11
Warren’s Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.? vo, 7 5®
Weisbach’s Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. Herrmann—
Klein.).8vo, 5 oo
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann—Klein.). .8vo, 5 °°
Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.).8vo, 5 oo
Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover.8vo, 3 oo
Wood’s Turbines.8vo, 2 50
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition,
Reset.8vo, 7 5°
Johnson’s Materials of Construction.Large 8vo, 6 00
Keep’s Cast Iron.8vo 2 50
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics.8vo, 7 5°
Martens’s Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.).8vo, 7 50
Merriman’s Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials.8vo, 4 00
Strength of Mater'als.umo, 1 00
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.12 mo 2 00
Smith’s Wire: Its Use and Manufacture.Small 4to, 3 00
Materials of Machines.12mo, 1 00
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering.3 vols., Svo 8 00
Constituents.8vo, 2 50
Text-book of the Materials of Construction.8vo 5 00
Wood’s Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the
Preservation of Timber.8vo, 2 00
STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.

Carnot’s Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.).12mo, 1 50
Dawson’s “Engineering” and Electric Traction Pocket-book.. i6mo, mor., 4 00
Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.i8mo, 1 00
Goss’s Locomotive Sparks.8vo, 2 00
Hemenway’s Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy.i2mo, 2 00
Hutton’s Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants.8vo, 5 00
Heat and Heat-engines.8vo, 5 00
Kent’s Steam-boiler Economy..8vo, 4 00
Kneass’s Practice and Theory of the Injector.8vo. 1 50
MacCord’s Slide-valves.8vo, 2 00
Meyer’s Modern Locomotive Construction.4to, 10 00
Peabody’s Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator.12mo, 1 50
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors.8vo, 1 00
Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines.8vo, 5 00
Valve-gears for Steam-engines.8vo, 2 50
Peabody and Miller’s Steam-boilers.8vo, 4 00
Pray’s Twenty Years with the Indicator.Large 8vo, 2 50
Pupln's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors.
(Osterberg.).umo, 1 25
Reagan's Locomotives : Simple, Compound, and Electric.i2mo, 2 50
Rontgen’s Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.).8vo, 5 00
Sinclair’s Locomotive Engine Running and Management.12mo, 2 00
Smart’s Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice.i2mo, 2 50
Snow’s Steam-boiler Practice.8vo, 3 00
12
Spangler’s Valve-gears.8vo, 2 50
Notes on Thermodynamics.nmo, 1 00
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall’s Elements of Steam-engineering.8vo, 3 00
Thurston’s Handy Tables.8vo, 1 50
Manual of the Steam-engine.2 vols.. 8vo 10 00
Part I.—History, Structuce, and Theory.8vo, 6 00
Part II.—Design, Construction, and Operation.8vo, 6 00
Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and
the Prony Brake.8vo 5 00
Stationary Steam-engines.8vo, 2 50
Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice.i2mo, 1 50
Manual of Steam-boilers, Their Designs, Construction, and Operation. 8vo, 5 00
Weisbach’s Heat, Steam, a id Steam-engines. (Du Bois.).8vo, 5 00
Whitham’s Steam-engine 1 esign.8vo, 5 00
Wilson’s Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.).i6mo, 2 50
Wood’s Thermodynamics. Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines... .8vo, 4 00
MECHANICS A.ND MACHINERY.
Barr’s Kinematics ot Machinery. 8vo, 2_50

Chase’s The Art of Pattern-making.nmo, 2 50
Chordal.—Extracts from Letters.nmo, 2 00
Church’s Mechanics of Engineering.8vo 6 00
Notes and Examples in Mechanics.8vo. 2 00
Compton’s First Lessons in Metal-working.nmo, 1 50
Compton and De Groodt’s The Speed Lathe.nmo, 1 50
Cromwell’s Treatise on Toothed Gearing.nmo, 1 50
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys.nmo, 1 50
Dana’s Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for the Use of Colleges and
Schools.nmo, 1 50
Dingey’s Machinery Pattern Making.nmo, 2 00
Dredge’s Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World’s
Columbian Exposition of 1893.4to, half morocco, 5 00
Du BoU’s Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
Vol. I.—Kinematics.8vo, 3 50
Vol. II.—Statics.8vo, 4 00
Vol. III.—Kinetics.8vo, 3 50
Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I.Small 4to, 7 50
Vol. II.Small 4to, 10 00
Fitzgerald’s Boston Machinist.i6mo, 1 00
Flather’s Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power.nmo, 3 00
Rope Driving.i2mo, 2 00
Goss’s Locomotive Sparks.8vo, 2 00
Hall’s Car Lubrication.nmo, 1 00
Holly’s Art of Saw Filing.i8mo 75
* Johnson’s Theoretical Mechanics.nmo, 3 00
Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods.8vo, 2 00
Part I.—Kinematics of Machinery.8vo, 1 50
Kerr’s Power and Power Transmission.8vo, 2 00
Lanza’s Applied Mechanics.8vo, 7 5<>
MacCord’s Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism.8vo, 500
Maurer’s Technical Mechanics. (In preparation.)
13
Merriman’s Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials.8vo, 4 00
* Michie’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics.8vo, 4 00
Reagan’s Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric.umo, 2 50
Reid’s Course’in Mechanical Drawing.8vo, 2 00
Text-book of;Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 3 00
Richards’s Compressed Air.i2mo, 1 50
Robinson’s Principles of Mechanism.8vo, 3 00
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie’s Electrical Machinery. (In preparation.)
Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running andiManagement.i2mo, 2 00
Smith’s Press-working of Metals.8vo, 3 00
\ Materials of Machines.i2mo, 1 00
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall’s Elements of Steam-engineering.8vo, 3 00
Thurston’s Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill
Work.8vo, 3 00
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. i2mo, 1 00
Warren’s Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing.8vo, 7 50
Weisbach’s Kinematics \ and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann—
Klein.).8vo, 5 00
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann—Klein.).8vo, 5 00
Wood’s Elements of Analytical Mechanics.8vo, 3 00
Principles of Elementary Mechanics.nmo, 1 25
Turbines.8vo, 2 50
The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893.4to, 1 00
METALLURGY.
Egleston’s Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury:
Vol. I.—Silver. 8vo, 7 50
Vol. II.—Gold and Mercury.8vo, 7 50
** Iles’s Lead-smelting. (Postage 9 cents additional.).i2mo, 2 50
Kunhardt’s Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.8vo, 1 50
Le Chatelier’s High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard—Burgess.). i2mo, 3 00
Metcalf’s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users.i2mo, 2 00
Smith’s Materials of Machines.i2mo, 1 00
Thurston’s Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts.8vo, 8 00
Constituents.8vo, 2 50
Dike’s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining.8vo, 3 00
MINERALOGY.
Barringer’s Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50
Boyd’s Resources of Southwest Virginia.8vo, 3 00
Map of Southwest Virginia.Pocket-book form, 2 00
Brush’s Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.).8vo, 4 00
Chester’s Catalogue of Minerals.8vo, paper, 1 00
Cloth, 1 25
Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.8vo, 3 50
Dana’s System of Mineralogy.Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
First Appendix to Dana’s New “System of Mineralogy.”_Large 8vo, 1 00
Text-book of Mineralogy.8vo, 4 00
Minerals and How to Study Them.i2mo, 1 50
Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals.Large 8vo, 1 00
Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography.i2mo, 2 00
Egleston’s Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms. .8vo, 2 50
Hussak’s The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.) Small 8vo, 2 00
14
* Penfield’s Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper, o 50
Rosenbusch’s Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals.
(Iddings.).8vo, 5 00
* Tillman’s Text-book of Important Minerals and Docks.8vo, 2 00
Williams’s Manual of Lithology.8vo, 3 00
MINING.
Beard's Ventilation of Mines.i2mo, 2 50
Boyd’s Resources of Southwest Virginia.8vo, 3 00
Map of Southwest Virginia.Pocket-book form, 2 00
* Drinker’s Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills.
4to, half morocco, 25 00
Fowler’s Sewage Works Analyses.12mo, 2 00
Goodyear’s Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States.i2mo, 2 50
Ihlseng’s Manual of Mining, .8vo, 4 00
*♦ Iles’s Lead-smelting. (Postage 9c. additional.).nmo, 2 50
Kunhardt’s Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe.8vo, 1 50
O’Driscoll’s Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores.8vo, 2 00
Wilson’s Cyanide Processes.i2mo, 1 50
Chlorination Process.i2tno, 1 50
Hydraulic and Placer Mining.12mo, 2 00
Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation.12mo, 1 25
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Copeland’s Manual of Bacteriology. (In preparation.)
Folwell’s Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.;.8vo, 3 00
Water-supply Engineering.8vo, 4 00
Fuertes’s Water and Public Health.i2mo, 1 50
Water-filtration Works.12mo, 2 50
Gerhard’s Guide to Sanitary House-inspection.i6mo, 1 00
Goodrich’s Economical Disposal of Town’s Refuse.Demy 8vo, 3 50
Hazen’s Filtration of Public Water-supplies.8vo, 3 00
Kiersted’s Sewage Disposal.i2mo, 1 25
Leach’s The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Mason’s Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand¬
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten.8vo, 4 00
Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.).i2mo, 1 25
Merriman’s Elements of Sanitary Engineering.8vo, 2 00
Nichols’s Water-supply. (Considered Mainly from a Chemical and Sanitary
Standpoint.) (1883.).8v0» 2 5<>
Ogden’s Sewer Design.. 2 00
♦Price’s Handbook on Sanitation.i2mo, 1 50
Richards’s Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries.i2mo, 1 00
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary'.Science.i2mo, 1 00
Richards and Woodman’s Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand¬
point.8vo, 2 00
* Richards and Williams’s The DietarylComputer.8vo, 1 50
Rideal’s Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage.8vo, 3 50
Turneaure and Russell’s Public Water-supplies.8vo, 5 00
Whipple’s Microscopy of Drinking-water.8vo, 3 50
Woodhull’s Notesland Military Hygiene.i6mo, 1 50
15
MISCELLANEOUS
Barker’s Deep-sea Soundings.8vo, 2 00
Emmons’s Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists.Large 8vo, 1 50
Ferrel’s Popular Treatise on the Winds.•.8vo, 4 00
Haines’s American Railway Management.i2mo, 2 50
Mott’s Composition,'Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart. 1 25
Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound.i6mo, 1 00
Ricketts’s History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. Small 8vo, 3 00
Rotherham’s Empnasized New Testament.Large 8vo, 2 00
Steel’s Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.8vo, 3 50
Totten’s Important Question in Metrology.8vo, 2 50
The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893.4to, 1 00
Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small
Hospital.i2mo, 1 25
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.

Green’s Grammar of the Hebrew Language.8vo, 3 00
Elementary Hebrew Grammar.i2mo, 1 25
Hebrew Chrestomathy.8vo, 2 00
Gesenius’s Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.
(Tregelles.).Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00
Letteris’s Hebrew Bible.8vo, 2 25
16

Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry

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What tools are discussed in Chapter I?

What tools are discussed in Chapter I?

Glass

Stone-Cutting and Masonry.

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE MAKING

JOHN S. SIEBERT, C.E.,

FREDERIC CHILD BIGGIN, B.S.,

FIRST E DITTO AT,

JOHN WILEY & SONS.

It has long been recognized that the works on stone-cut¬

It has been the aim of the authors, in this little volume,

For exercises other than those given in the book the

South Bethlehem, Pa.,

Definitions and Classifications.

Stone-cutting and Masonry.

DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS.

1. The following definitions of stone-mason’s tools and

ting edges. It is used for making drafts around the arris or

edge about 4 inches. It is used after the point and before

The Bush-hammer (Fig. 4) is a square prism of steel

length of the hammer is from 4 to 8 inches, and the cutting

and in size with the work to be done. One end is some¬

long, slightly flattened at one end. In this end is a slot, 3

ten double-headed points of |~inch squared steel, 9 inches

both hands of the workman to use them. The remaining

PLUGS AND FEATHERS

planer, the latter being a machine very similar to a metal

Art. 2.—Stones Classified according to Finish.

4. All stones used in building come under one of three

dots are more regular. The variations of level are about J

Fig. 9. Fig. to.

Axed or Pean-hammercd, a fid Patent-hammered.—These

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

which is produced. The number of blades in a patent ham¬

Bush-hammered.—The roughnesses of a stone are pounded

off by the bush-hammer, and the stone is then said to be

finish the usual sequence of operations is: 1st, rough-point¬

quoins and similar work. The details of this method of

in §§ 45> 53) 54-

Art. 3.—Definitions of Parts of the Structure.

9. Face, the front surface of a wall; back, the inside

10. Bond.—The arrangement of stones in adjacent

Dowels.—Pins of metal or stone which enter a hole in the

Art. 4.—Classification of Masonry.

II. As the term stone masonry includes properly all

may be laid dry, in lime mortar or in cement mortar, at will.

without any attempt at regular courses, and Coursed Rubble

the hammer, so as to fit approximately; it is then called

13. Squared-stone Masonry.—According to the char¬

about the same rise throughout, it is Range-work (Fig. 21).

laid in courses at all. it is Random-work (Fig. 23), and this is

pitch-faced masonry, quoins and the sides of openings are

faced,” when laid as range-work, but it is believed that it is

masonry are so written as to prescribe the dimensions to be

Art. 5.—Strength of Masonry.

15. The strength of masonry will depend on the size of

stood until overthrown by violence. Before finally placing a

STONE-CUTTING AND MASONRY.