Chapter 3

Transformer

Click here to watch the electrical transformer animation video

http://rmz4567.blogspot.my/2013/02/electrical-engineering.html

1
1.1 Introduction to Transformer.

Transformer is a device that changes ac electrical

power at one voltage level to ac electric power at
another voltage level through the action of magnetic
field.

Figure 1.1: Block Diagrams of Transformer.

2
1.2 Applications of Transformer.
Why do we need transformer?

The Power Grid 3

1.2 Applications of Transformer.
Why do we need transformer?

The Transmission Tower

The Power Grid

(a) Step Up.
In modern power system, electrical power is generated at
voltage of 12kV to 25kV.
Transformer will step up the voltage to between 110kV to
1000kV for transmission over long distance at very low lost.
4
1.2 Applications of Transformer.
Why do we need transformer?

The Substation

The Power Grid

The Utility poles
(b) Step Down.
The transformer will stepped down the voltage to the 12kV
to 34.5kV range for local Distribution.
In homes, offices and factories stepped down to 240V. 5
1.3 Types and Constructions of
Transformer.

Power transformers are constructed on two types of
cores;
(i) Core form.
(ii) Shell form.

A ) C o re ty p e B ) S h ell ty p e

Figure 1.2: Core Form and Shell Form.

6
Cont’d…

A ) C o re ty p e B ) S h ell ty p e

Core form.

The core form construction consists of a simple rectangular laminated
piece of steel with the transform winding wrapped around the two sides of
the rectangle.
Shell form.

The shell form construction consists of a three-legged laminated core with
the winding wrapped around the center leg.

7
Cont’d…

A Simple Transformer.

Construction.

Transformer consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a
common ferromagnetic core. The coils are usually not directly
connected.

The common magnetic flux present within the coils connects the coils.

There are two windings;
(i) Primary winding (input winding); the winding that is connected to
the power source.
(ii) Secondary winding (output winding); the winding connected to the
loads. 8
Cont’d…

Operation.

When AC voltage is applied to the primary winding of the
transformer, an AC current will result i1 or i2 (current at load).

The AC primary current i1 set up time varying magnetic flux φ in
the core. The flux links the secondary winding of the transformer.

9
Cont’d…

Operation.

From the Faraday law, the emf will be induced in the secondary
winding. This is known as transformer action.

The current i2 will flow in the secondary winding and electric power
will be transfer to the load.

The direction of the current in the secondary winding is determined
by Len’z law. The secondary current’s direction is such that the flux
produced by this current opposes the change in the original flux with
respect to time. 10
1.4 General Theory of Transformer
Operation.
FARADAY’S LAW
If current produces a
magnetic field, why can't a
magnetic field produce a
current ?

In 1831 two people, Michael Faraday in

the UK and Joseph Henry in the US
performed experiments that clearly
Michael Faraday
demonstrated that a changing magnetic
field produces an induced EMF (voltage)
that would produce a current if the circuit
was complete.
11
• When the switch was closed, a momentary deflection was
noticed in the galvanometer after which the current returned
to zero.
• When the switch was opened, the galvanometer deflected
again momentarily, in the other direction. Current was not
detected in the secondary circuit when the switch was left
closed.

12
 An e.m.f. is made to happen (or induced) in a
conductor (like a piece of metal) whenever it
'cuts' magnetic field lines by moving across
them. This does not work when it is stationary. If
the conductor is part of a complete circuit a
current is also produced.

• Faraday found that the induced e.m.f. increases if

(i) the speed of motion of the magnet or coil increases.
(ii) the number of turns on the coil is made larger.
(iii) the strength of the magnet is increased.

13
 Faraday’s Law
∆φ • E = Electromotive force (emf)
E=N •
•
Φ = Flux
N = Number of turn
∆t • t = time

• Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire

will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No
matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be
generated.
• The change could be produced by changing the magnetic
field strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the
coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating
the coil relative to the magnet, etc.
14
• Inserting a magnet into a coil
also produces an induced
voltage or current.

• The faster speed of insertion/

retraction, the higher the induced
voltage.

15
 Figure 1.4: Basic Transformer
Components.

According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

electromagnetic force (emf’s) are induced in N1 and N2 due to a
time rate of change of φM,
dλ dΦ dφ dφ
e=± = ±N e1 = N 1 ; e2 = N 2
dt dt dt dt
Where,
(1.1)
e = instantaneous voltage induced by magnetic field (emf),
λ = number of flux linkages between the magnetic field and the
electric circuit.
φ = effective flux 16
Cont’d…

Lenz’s Law states that the direction of e1 is such to produce a

current that opposes the flux changes.

If the winding resistance is neglected, then equation (1.1) become;

dφ
v1 ≅ e1 = N 1( ); dφ (1.2)
dt v2 ≅ e2 = N 2( )
dt

Taking the voltage ratio in equation (1.2) results in,

(1.3)
N 1 e1
=
N 2 e2

17
Cont’d…

Neglecting losses means that the instantaneous power is the same

on both sides of the transformer;

e1i1 = e 2i 2 (1.4)

Combining all the above equation we get the equation (1.5) where a
is the turn ratio of the transformer.
N 1 v1 i 2 (1.5)
a= = =
N 2 v 2 i1
a > 1  Step down transformer
a < 1  Step up transformer
a = 1  Isolation Transformer
18
Cont’d…

According to Lenz’a Law, the direction of e is oppose the

flux changes, and the flux varies sinusoidally such that
φ = φmax sin ωt
(1.6)
φmax

Substitute eqn(1.6) into eqn(1.2)

dφ d
e=N = N (φ max sin 2πft )
dt dt (1.7)

The rms value of the induce voltage is;

ωNφ max 2πf
E= = Nφ max = 4.44 fNφ max (1.8)
2 2
19
 Losses in transformer
(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses
• Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the
material used for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known
as core losses or iron losses.
• Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization
in the transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron,
frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density.Hysteresis lost is caused
by the energy used in orienting the magnetic domains of the material along the field.
The lost depends on the material used.
• Eddy current loss in transformer: is basically loss due to the induced current in the
magnetic material. To reduce this lost, the magnetic circuit is usually made of a
stack of thin laminations. In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding
which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with
other conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result
in induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current
is called as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated
in the form of heat.
. 20
Cont’d…

(II) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the
primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in
primary and secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and
secondary winding respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the
current, and current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the
load

21
1.5 The Ideal Transformer.

An Ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input
winding and an output winding.

Zero resistance result in zero voltage drops between
the terminal voltages and induced voltages

Figure below shows the relationship of input voltage
and output voltage of the ideal transformer.

An Ideal Transformer and the Schematic Symbols. 22

Cont’d…

The relationship between voltage and the number of

turns.
Np , number of turns of wire on its primary side.
Ns , number of turns of wire on its secondary side.
Vp(t), voltage applied to the primary side.
Vs(t), voltage applied to the secondary side.

v p (t ) Np
= =a
v s (t ) Ns
where a is defined to be the turns ratio of the
transformer. 23
Cont’d…

The relationship between current into the primary side,
Ip(t), of transformer versus the secondary side, Is(t), of
the transformer;

N p I p (t ) = N s I s (t ) I p (t ) 1
=
I s (t ) a

In term of phasor quantities;
-Note that Vp and Vs are in the same phase angle. Ip and
Is are in the same phase angle too.
- the turn ratio, a, of the ideal transformer affects the
magnitude only but not the their angle.

Vp Ip 1
=a =
Vs Is a 24
Cont’d…

The dot convention appearing at one end of each winding tell the
polarity of the voltage and current on the secondary side of the
transformer.

If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding
with respect to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be
positive at the dotted end also. Voltage polarities are the same with
respect to the doted on each side of the core.

If the primary current of the transformer flow into the dotted end
of the primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the
dotted end of the secondary winding.

25
Example 1: Transformer.
How many turns must the primary and the secondary windings of a 220
V-110 V, 60 Hz ideal transformer have if the core flux is not allowed to
exceed 5mWb?
Solution:
For an ideal transformer with no losses,
E1 ≈ V1 = 220V
E 2 ≈ V2 = 110V
Re arranging the emf equation (eq.1.8), we have
E1
N1 =
4.44 * f * φmax
220
= −3
= 166turns.
(4.44)(60)(5 X 10 )
110
N2 = −3
= 83turns.
(4.44)(60)(5 X 10 ) 26
Characteristics Of Ideal Transformer
•100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like
hysteresis loss, eddy current loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal
transformer is exactly equal to the input power. Hence, 100% efficiency
•Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well
as secondary winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils
are purely inductive in nature.
•Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf
required for flux establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less
magnetizing current is required to magnetize the transformer core.
•No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get
linked with secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that
entire amount of flux get linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage
flux).
•.

27
1.5.1 Power in an Ideal Transformer.

Power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is given
by ;
Pin = V p I p cos θ p
where, θp is the angle between the primary voltage and the primary
current.

The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its
loads is given by the equation;

Pout = Vs I s cos θ s
where, θs is the angle between the secondary voltage and the
secondary current.

Voltage and current angles are unaffected by an ideal transformer ,
θp – θs = θ. Τhe primary and secondary windings of an ideal
transformer have the same power factor.

28
1.5.1 Power in an Ideal Transformer.
• "Active" power, P is power that does • Purely capacitive circuits supply reactive
actual work - e.g: creating heat, lifting loads, power with the current waveform leading the
etc. voltage waveform by 90 degrees, while
purely inductive circuits absorb reactive
power with the current waveform lagging the
• "Reactive power" , Q is power where voltage waveform by 90 degrees.
the current is out of phase with the voltage,
and the "Volts x amps" doesn't do any real
The ratio of active power to apparent
work. Current that charges a capacitor, for power in a circuit is called the power
example or current that creates the factor.
magnetic field around a coil for another.

• "Apparent power“, S is the

mathematical combination of these two.

29
 Power factor
Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the
sign of the phase angle of current with respect to voltage. Voltage is
designated as the base to which current angle is compared, meaning
that we think of current as either "leading" or "lagging" voltage. Where
the waveforms are purely sinusoidal, the power factor is the cosine of
the phase angle (φ) between the current and voltage sinusoid
waveforms.
Example:
The active power is 700 W and the phase angle between voltage and
current is 45.6°. The power factor is cos(45.6°) = 0.700. The apparent
power is then: 700 W / cos(45.6°) = 1000 VA.

For instance, a power factor of 68 percent (0.68) means that only 68

percent of the total current supplied is actually doing work; the remaining
32 percent is reactive and has to be made up by the utility.

30
Cont’d…

Real Power, P

The power out of a transformer;

Pout = Vs I s cos θ
- apply Vs= Vp/a and Is= aIp into the above equation gives,

Vp
Pout = (aI p ) cos θ
a
Pout = V p I p cos θ = Pin

- The output power of an ideal transformer is equal to the input

power.

31
Cont’d…

Reactive Power, Q

The reactive power, Q, and the apparent power, S;

Qin = V p I p sin θ = Vs I s sin θ = Qout

Sin = V p I p = Vs I s = S out

In term of phasor quantities;

-Note that Vp and Vs are in the same phase angle. Ip and Is are in the
same phase angle too.
- the turn ratio, a, of the ideal transformer affects the magnitude only
but not the their angle.

32
Example 2: Ideal Transformer.
Consider an ideal, single-phase 2400V-240V transformer. The primary is
connected to a 2200V source and the secondary is connected to an
impedance of 2 Ω < 36.9ο, find,

(a) The secondary output current and voltage.

(b) The primary input current.

(c) The load impedance as seen from the primary side.

(d) The input and output apparent power.

(e) The output power factor.

33
Example 2: Ideal Transformer.
Consider an ideal, single-phase 2400V-240V transformer. The primary is
connected to a 2200V source and the secondary is connected to an
impedance of 2 Ω < 36.9ο, find,

Solution:

34
Cont’d…Example 2

35
Real Transformer
 Real Transformer Φm

Leakage flux in the real

transformer
Φs_leakage

Φp_leakage

Winding resistance & magnetic leakage

R1 X1 I1 X2 R2 I 2

V1 E1 E2 V2

R1 & R2 : resistances of primary & secondary windings respectively.

X1 & X2 : leakage reactances of primary & secondary windings respectively.
1.6 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real
Transformer.

Figure below is an exact model of a transformer.

Model of a Real Transformer

To analyze the transformer it is necessary to convert the

entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage level
(a) The Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Windings.
(b) The Transformer Model Referred to its Secondary Windings.
38

Symbols used for the Exact Equivalent Circuit

39

To analyze the transformer it is necessary to convert the
entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage level.

(a) The Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Windings.

Impedance transformation through a Transformer

VL V2 ' VP aV2 V
ZL = = ZL = = = a2 2 = a2ZL
IL I2 IP I2 a I2
40
The Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Approximate Transformer Model Referred to the Primary Side.

The equivalent impedance for the circuit is;

41

To analyze the transformer it is necessary to convert the
entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage level.
(b) The Transformer Model Referred to its Secondary Windings.

42
 Approximate Circuit Model of a Transformer Referred to the Secondary.

The equivalent impedance for the circuit is;

43
 Example 3: Equivalent circuit
A 50kVA, 1100/220 V, 50 Hz transformer has a primary winding resistance
of 0.125Ω and leakage reactance of 0.625Ω. The secondary winding has
corresponding values of 0.005Ω and 0.025Ω respectively. The
magnetizing reactance Xm, =98 Ω and core loss resistance, Rc=350 Ω
referrd to the primary. Draw the approximate equivalent circuits to the
transformer, referred to (a) the primary and (b) the secondary. Show the
numerical values of the circuit parameters

45
1.7 Open Circuit and Short Circuit.
- Determination of transformer parameter by measurement
Open Circuit Test.

Provides magnetizing reactance and core loss resistance

Obtain components are connected in parallel

The open circuit test is conducted by applying rated voltage at rated
frequency to one of the windings, with the other windings open circuited.

The input power and current are measured.

For reasons of safety and convenience, the measurements are made on the
low-voltage (LV) side of the transformer.
Cont’d…

Equivalent Circuit of the Open-Circuit Test.

The secondary / high voltage (HV) side is open, the input

current is equal to the no load current or exciting current (I0),
and is quite small.

The input power is almost equal to the core loss at rated voltage
and frequency.
Cont’d…
Open circuit test evaluation
Short Circuit Test.

The short-circuit test is used to determine the equivalent series
resistance and reactance.

Provides combined leakage reactance and winding resistance

One winding is shorted at its terminals, and the other winding is connected
through proper meters to a variable, low-voltage, high-current source of
rated frequency.

The source voltage is increased until the current into the transformer
reaches rated value. To avoid unnecessary high currents, the short-circuit
measurements are made on the high-voltage side of the transformer.
Cont’d…

Equivalent Circuit of the Short-Circuit Test.

2 Vsc
Psc = I Req _ HV
sc Z eq _ HV =
I sc
Psc
Req _ HV = 2 2
X eq _ HV = Z eq _ HV − Req _ HV
2
I sc
Example open/short circuit

51
Example Open Circuit Test

52
Example Open Circuit Test

53
Example Open Circuit Test

54
1.8 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency.

Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the
terminal voltage of the transformer with respect to loading.
Therefore the voltage regulation is defined as:

Vs ,nl − Vs , fl “the change in secondary

VR = × 100% voltage when rated load at a
Vs , fl specified power is removed”.

At no load, Vs = Vp/a and the voltage regulation can also be

express as;
Vp
− Vs , fl
VR = a ×100%
Vs , fl

55
Cont’d…

Example of Transformer Voltage Regulation.

56
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• Output Voltage of Transformer Varies with Load
• Due to Voltage Drop on Series Impedance of Transformer
Equivalent Model
• Full Load Regulation Parameter, compares output no-load
Voltage with its Full Load Voltage:
V S , N .L . − V S ,F .L .
V.R. = × 100 %
V S ,F .L .
• At no load VS= VP / a thus :
(V P / a ) − V F . L .
V.R.= × 100 %
V F .L .

• For Ideal Transformer V.R.=0

 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• The transformer phasor diagram
• To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer:
The voltage drops should be determined
• In below a Transformer equivalent circuit referred to
the secondary side shown:
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• since current which flow in magnetizing branch is small
can be ignored
• Assuming secondary phasor voltage as reference VS with
an angle of 0◦
• Writing the KVL equation:
V P
= V S + R eq I S + jX eq I S
a
• From this equation the phasor diagram can be shown:
• At lagging power factor:
Example : Transformer Voltage Regulation.

60
Cont’d…Example 3

61
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• If power factor is unity, VS is lower than VP so
V.R. > 0
• V.R. is smaller for lagging P.F.
• With a leading P.F., VS is larger VP  V.R.<0
• P.F. =1


• P.F. leading

 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
Table Summarize possible Value for V.R. vs Load P.F.:

Lagging P.F. VP/ a > VS V.R. > 0

Unity P.F. VP / a > VS V.R. >0 (smaller)
Leading P.F. VS > VP/ a V.R. < 0

• Since transformer usually operate at lagging P.F., a

simplified method is introduced
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Simplified Voltage Regulation Calculation
• For lagging loads: the vertical components
related to voltage drop on Req & Xeq partially
cancel each other angle of VP/a very small
Cont’d…

Transformer Efficiency, efficiency of a transformer is defined

as follows;
Output Power P2
η= =
input Power P1

For Non-Ideal transformer, the output power is less than the

input power because of losses.

These losses are the winding or I2R loss (copper losses) and
the core loss (hysteresis and eddy-current losses).

65
Cont’d…

Thus, in terms of the total losses, Plosses, the above equation

may be expressed as;
P1 − Plosses P2 P2
η= = =
P1 P2 + Plosses P2 + Pcopper + Pcore

The winding or copper loss is load dependent, whereas the

core loss is constant and almost independent of the load on
the transformer.

66
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• Transformer Efficiency (as applied to motors, generators and motors)

Pout Pout
η = x100 % η = x 100 %
Pin Pout + Ploss
• Losses in Transformer:
1- Copper I²R losses
2- Core Hysteresis losses
3- Core Eddy current losses
• Transformer efficiency may be determined as follows:

VS I S cos θ
η= x100%
PCu + Pcore + VS I S cos θ
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• Example:
• A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transformer tested to determine
1- its excitation branch components, 2- its series
impedances, and 3- its voltage regulation
• Following data taken from the primary side of the transformer:
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test
VOC=2300 V VSC=47 V
IOC=0.21A ISC=6 A

POC= 50 W PSC= 160 W

 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to H.V. side
(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to L. V. side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PF,
1.0 PF, and at 0.8 leading PF
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging
SOLUTION:
Open circuit impedance angle is:
−1 POC −1 50
θOC = cos = cos = 84o
VOC I OC 2300 × 0.21
Excitation admittance is:
I OC 0 .21
YE = ∠ − 84 o = ∠ − 84 o = 9 . 13 × 10 − 5 ∠ − 84 o
V OC 2300
= 0 .0000095 − j 0 .0000908 Ω
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• Impedance of excitation branch referred to primary:
1
RC = = 105 k Ω
0 . 0000095
1
X M = = 11 k Ω
0 . 0000908
• Short Circuit Impedance angle:
PSC 160
θ SC = cos −1 = cos −1 = 55.4o
VSC I SC 47 × 6

• Equivalent series Impedance:

VSC 47
Z SE = ∠θ SC = ∠55 .4 o Ω = 7.833∠55.4 o =
I SC 6
Req=4.45 Ω, Xeq=6.45 Ω
4.45 + j 6.45Ω
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• The equivalent circuits shown below:
•
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (b) To find eq. cct. Referred to L.V. side,
impedances divided by a²=NP/NS=10
RC=1050 Ω , XM=110 Ω
Req=0.0445 Ω , Xeq=0.0645 Ω
• (c) full load current on secondary side:
IS,rated=Srated/ VS,rated=15000/230 =65.2 A
To determine V.R., VP/ a is needed
VP/a = VS + Req IS + j Xeq IS , and:
IS=65.2/_-36.9◦ A , at PF=0.8 lagging
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• Therefore:
VP / a = 230 ∠0 o + (0.0445 )(65 .2∠ − 36 .9 o ) + j 0.0645 × 65 .2∠ − 36 .9 o
= 230 ∠ 0 o + 2.9∠ − 36 .9 o + 4.21∠53 .1
= 230 + 2.32 − j1.74 + 2.52 + j 3.36
= 234 .84 + j1.62 = 234 .85 ∠0.4 o V

V.R.=(234.85-230)/230 x 100 %=2.1 % for 0.8 lagging

• At PF=0.8 leading  IS=65.2/_36.9◦ A
o o o
VP / a = 230 ∠ 0 + ( 0 . 0445 )( 65 . 2 ∠ 36 . 9 ) + j 0 . 0645 × 65 . 2 ∠ 36 . 9
= 230 ∠ 0 o + 2.9∠36 .9 o + 4.21∠126 .9
= 230 + 2.32 + j1.74 − 2.52 + j 3.36
= 229 .8 + j 5.10 = 229 .85 ∠1.27 o V
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
• V.R. = (229.85-230)/230 x 100%= -0.062%
• At PF=1.0 , IS= 65.2 /_0◦ A
• VP/a= 230 ∠ 0 o + ( 0 . 0445 )( 65 . 2 ∠ 0 o ) + j ( 0 . 0645 )( 65 . 2 ∠ 0 o )
= 230 ∠ 0 o + 2 . 9 ∠ 0 o + 4 . 21 ∠ 90 o = 230 + 2 . 9 + j 4 . 21
= 232 . 9 + j 4 . 21 = 232 . 94 ∠ 1 . 04 o V
• V.R. = (232.94-230)/230 x 100% = 1.28 % for PF=1
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Example: Phasor Diagrams …
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (e) Efficiency of Transformer:
- Copper losses:
PCu=(IS)²Req =(65.2)² (0.0445)=189 W
- Core losses:
PCore= (VP/a)² / RC= (234.85)² / 1050=52.5 W
output power:
Pout=VSIS cosθ=230x65.2xcos36.9◦=12000 W
η= VSIS cosθ / [PCu+PCore+VSIS cosθ] x 100%=
12000/ [189+52.5+12000] = 98.03 %
 Another Voltage Regulation
Explaination

• Enl = no-load output voltage

– Measure with a voltmeter when no load is connected
to the transformer
• Vrated = voltmeter reading at the output
terminals when the transformer is supplying the
rated apparent power
• These voltages are all either High-side or
Low-side voltages!

77
 Voltage Regulation (continued)

• Measurements are not always easy to make,

so use the equivalent circuit.

78
When the breaker is open, no current flows in Req,LS ,
jXeq,LS , or ZLOAD,LS , therefore
Vout = VLS = E’LS = Enl
79
With rated load on the secondary, E’LS = ILSZeq,LS + VLS
ILS = rated low-side current at a specified power factor
VLS = rated low-side voltage
Zeq,LS = equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the low-side
E’LS = no-load low-side

80
Example: Voltage Regulation 2
• The equivalent low-side parameters of a 250kVA, 4160 – 480V, 60 Hz
transformer are Req,LS = 0.00920 Ω and Xeq,LS = 0.0433 Ω. The transformer
is operated in the step-down mode and is delivering rated current at rated
voltage to a 0.840 power-factor lagging load. Determine

 the no-load voltage

 The actual input voltage on the high-side
 The high-side current
 The input impedance
 The voltage regulation
 The voltage regulation if the power factor of the load is 0.840 leading

81
 250, 000kVA
I LS = = 520.83 A
480V
−1
θ = cos (0.840) = 32.86° ⇒ −32.86°(lagging )
VLS = 480∠0°V
I LS = 520.83∠ − 32.86° A

82
Low-Side Output

ECE 441 83
 '
ELS = I LS Req , LS + I LS jX eq , LS + VLS
'
ELS = 520.83∠ − 32.86°(0.0092) + 520.83∠ − 32.86°( j 0.0433) + 480∠0°
'
ELS = 4.79∠ − 32.86° + 22.55∠57.14° + 480∠0°
'
ELS = 4.024 − j 2.599 + 12.235 + j18.94 + 480 + j 0
'
ELS = 496.53∠1.886°V
84
 '
E HS VHS 4160
a= '
≈ = = 8.667
E LS VLS 480
' '
VT = EHS = aELS = 8.667(496.53∠1.886°)
VT = 4303.4∠1.886°V
ECE 441 85
 The high-side current

I LS 520.83∠ − 32.86°
I HS = =
a 8.667
I HS = 60.09∠ − 32.86° A

The input impedance

'VT 4304.4∠1.886°
Z =
in =
I HS 60.09∠ − 32.86°
Z in' = 71.62∠34.74°Ω

86
 The voltage regulation

Enl − Vrated 496.53 − 480

reg = = = 0.0344 ⇒ 3.44%
Vrated 480

ECE 441 87
Voltage Regulation if the power factor is 0.840 leading

I LS = 520.83∠ + 32.86°
.............
'
ELS = 472.28∠2.61°
Enl − Vrated 472.28 − 480
reg = = = −0.0161 ⇒ −1.61%
Vrated 480

Regulation is negative because of a voltage rise in

the transformer due to resonant effects.

88
 The “tip-to-tail” phasor diagram for the 0.840 power
factor lagging load.

I LS Req , LS = 520.83∠ − 32.86°(0.0092) = 4.79∠ − 32.86°V

I LS X eq , LS = 520.83∠ − 32.86°( j 0.0433) = 22.6∠57.14°V

89
Component Phasors

90
Tip-to-Tail Addition

91