Chapter-I

Transformers

Introduction:
The transformer is probably one of the most useful electrical devices ever invented. It
can change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another.
This useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of
alternating currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. Transformers have no
moving parts, rugged and durable in construction, thus requiring very little attention.
They also have a very high efficiency—as high as 99%.

1.1 Definition of Transformer:

A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It
essentially consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common
laminated magnetic core as shown in Fig.1. The winding connected to the AC source is
called primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary
winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed
is applied to the primary. Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and
secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f.
E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2
will appear across the load. If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the other
hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Fig 1 : Transformer

1.2 Working principle of Transformer:

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux Ø is set

up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and
E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is
termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.

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 Clearly,

And,

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary
and primary respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up
transformer. On the other hand, if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2 < V1) and we get a
step-down transformer. If load is connected across the secondary winding, the
secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load. Thus, a
transformer enables us to transfer AC power from one circuit to another with a change
in voltage level.

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(ii)There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary. The AC
power is
transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(iii)There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the
input
power.
(iv)The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the
input
primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

(i) An induced e.m.f is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit
changes.

(ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of

The magnetic flux linking the circuit.

Theory of an Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one that has

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 (i) no winding resistance
(ii) no leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
(iii) no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core

Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very
powerful tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical transformers
have properties that approach very close to an ideal transformer.

Fig 2 (i) Ideal Transformer (ii) Phasor

Diagram

Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary is open-circuited as shown in

Fig.2 (i). Under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance. When
an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing
current Im which lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. This alternating current Im
produces an alternating flux which is proportional to and in phase with it. The
alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f. E1 in the primary and
e.m.f. E2 in the secondary.

The primary e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V1 (Lenz’s
law). Both e.m.f.s E1 and E2 lag behind flux by 90°. However, their magnitudes
depend upon the number of primary and secondary turns. Fig. 2 (ii) shows the phasor
diagram of an ideal transformer on no load. Since flux is common to both the
windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor. As shown in Sec. 7.3, the primary
e.m.f. E1 and secondary e.m.f. E2 lag behind the flux by 90. Note that E1 and E2 are
in phase. But E1 is equal to V1 and 180° out of phase with it.

1.3 EMF Equation of Transformer:

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as

shown in Fig.2 (i). The sinusoidal flux Ø produced by the primary can be represented
as:

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 The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is

( )

( )
It is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced e.m.f. in the primary
is

The rms value of E1 on the primary side is

√ √

Or

Similarly,

But in an Ideal Transformer, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2

Voltage Transformation Ratio(K) is

1.4 Types of Transformer:

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary are wound on the
core,
transformers are of two types viz., (i) core-type transformer and (ii) shell-type
transformer.

(i) Core-type transformer. In a core-type transformer, half of the primary winding

and half of the secondary winding are placed round each limb as shown in Fig.3. This
reduces he leakage flux. It is a usual practice to place the low-voltage winding below
the high-voltage winding for mechanical considerations.

Fig 3 Fig 4

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(ii) Shell-type transformer. This method of construction involves the use of a double
magnetic circuit. Both the windings are placed round the central limb (See Fig. 4), the other
two limbs acting simply as a low-reluctance flux path.
The choice of type (whether core or shell) will not greatly affect the efficiency of the
transformer. The core type is generally more suitable for high voltage and small output
while the shell-type is generally more suitable for low voltage and high output.

1.5 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Figure 5 shows an equivalent circuit of a transformer. R1 and R2 represent the resistances
of the primary and secondary windings and X1 and X2 represent the reactance of the
primary and secondary windings, due to Leakage flux. The core losses due to hysteresis
and eddy currents are allowed for by resistance R which takes a current IC, the core loss
component of the primary current. Reactance X takes the magnetizing component Im. In a
simplified equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6 R and X are omitted since the no-load current
I0 is normally only about 3–5 per cent of the full load primary current. It is often
convenient to assume that all of the resistance and reactance as being on one side of the
transformer. Resistance R2 in Fig. 7 can be replaced.

Figure 5 Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Figure 6 Simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer

by inserting an additional resistance R’2 in the primary circuit such that the power absorbed
in R’2 when carrying the primary current is equal to that in R2 due to the secondary
current, i.e.

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The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is shown in Figure 7

Figure 7 Simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer referring to primary side

1.6 Applications of Transformer:

There are four principal applications of transformers viz.
(i) power transformers (ii) distribution transformers (iii) autotransformers
(iv) instrument transformers

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(i) Power Transformers. They are designed to operate with an almost constant load which
is equal to their rating. The maximum efficiency is designed to be at full-load. This
means that full-load winding copper losses must be equal to the core losses.

(ii) Distribution Transformers. These transformers have variable load which is usually
considerably less than the full-load rating. Therefore, these are designed to have their
maximum efficiency at between 1/2 and 3/4 of full load.

(iii) Autotransformers. An autotransformer has only one winding and is used in cases
where the ratio of transformation (K), either step-up or step down, differs little from 1.
For the same output and voltage ratio, an autotransformer requires less copper than an
ordinary 2-winding
transformer. Autotransformers are used for starting induction motors (reducing
applied voltage during starting) and in boosters for raising the voltage of feeders.

(iv) Instrument transformers. Current and voltage transformers are used to extend the
range of a.c. instruments.

(a) Current transformer

A current transformer is a device that is used to measure high alternating current in a
conductor. Fig.8 illustrates the principle of a current transformer. The conductor
carrying large current passes through a circular laminated iron core. The conductor
constitutes a one-turn primary winding. The secondary winding consists of a large
number of turns of much fine wire wrapped around the core as shown. Due to
transformer action, the secondary current is transformed to allow value which can be
measured by ordinary meters.
Secondary current,

For example, suppose that IP = 100 A in Fig.5 and the ammeter is capable of
measuring a maximum of 1 A. Then,

(b) Voltage transformer

It is a device that is used to measure high alternating voltage. It is essentially a step-
down transformer having small number of secondary turns as shown in Fig.9. The high
alternating voltage to be measured is connected directly across the primary. The low
voltage winding (secondary winding) is connected to the voltmeter. The power rating
of a potential transformer is small (seldom exceeds 300 W) since voltmeter is the only
load on the transformer.

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Fig 8 Current Transformer Fig 9 Voltage Transformer

1.7 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably done through the
use of three-phase systems because of its several advantages over single-phase systems. As
such, a large number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-phase energy system
for stepping-up or stepping – down the voltage as required. For 3-phase up or down
transformation, three units of 1-phase transformers or one unit of 3-phase transformer may
be used. When three identical units of 1-phase transformers are used as shown in Figure
10(a), the arrangement is usually called a bank of three transformers or a 3-phase
transformer bank. A single 3-phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase core-type
construction Figure 10(b) or three phase shell type construction.

Figure 10 (a) Three-phase transformer bank, both windings in star;(b) three-phase

core-type transformer

A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a three-limbed core, one limb for each
phase winding as shown in Figure 10(b). Actually, each limb has the L.V. winding placed
adjacent to the laminated steel core and then H.V. winding is placed over the L.V. winding.
Appropriate insulation is placed in between the core and L.V. winding and also in between
the two windings.

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A 3-phase core-type transformer costs about 15% less than a bank of three 1-phase
transformers. Also, a single unit occupies less floor space than a bank.

1.7.1 Three-Phase Transformer Connections:

Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard connections

(a) Star-Delta (Y-Δ) (b) Delta-Star (Δ -Y)

(c) Delta-Delta (Δ -Δ) (d) Star-Star (Y-Y)

These connections are shown in Figures 11 and 12, where V and I are taken as input line
voltage and line current respectively. Primary and secondary windings of one phase are
drawn parallel to each other. With phase turns ratio from primary to secondary as

N1/N2= a, the voltages and current in the windings and lines are shown in Figures 11 and
12. The various connections are now described briefly.

(a) Star-Delta (Y-Δ) connection

This connection is commonly used for stepping down the voltage from a high level to a
medium or low level. The insulation on the H.V. side of the transformer is stressed only to
57.74% ( ) line to line of.
√

For per-phase m.m.f. balance, I2N2 =I1N1

Here primary phase current, I1 = primary line current I

Figure: 11 (a) Star-delta connection and (b) delta-star connection of 3-Ø transformers
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(b) Delta-Star (Δ -Y) connection

This type of connection is used for stepping up the voltage to a high level. For example,
these are used in the beginning of H.V transmission lines so that insulation is stressed to
about 57.74% of line voltage. Delta-star transformers are also generally used as distribution
transformers for providing mixed line to line voltage to high-power equipment and line to
neutral voltage to 1-phase low-power equipment. For example, 11kV/400V, delta-star
distribution transformer is used to distribute power to consumers by 3-phase four-wire
system. Three-phase high– power equipment is connected to 400V, three line wires,
whereas 1-phase low-power equipment is energized from 231 V line to neutral circuits.

Phase and line values for voltages and currents on primary as well as secondary sides of a
3-phase delta-star transformer are shown in Figure 11(b).

(c) Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ) Connection

This scheme of connections is used for large L.V transformers. It is because a delta-
connected winding handles line voltage, so it requires more turns per phase but of smaller
cross-sectional area. The absence of star point may be a disadvantage in some applications.

In case a bank of three transformers is used, then one transformer can be removed for
maintenance purposes while the remaining two transformers (called an open-delta or V-
connection) can still deliver 58% of the power delivered by the original 3-phase
transformer bank.

For per phase mmf balance, I2N2 = I1N1

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Phase and line value for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides of a 3-
phase delta-delta transformer are shown in Figure 12 (a).

Figure 12 (a) Delta-delta connection and (b) Star-star connection of three-phase

transformers.

(D)Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection

This connection is used for small H.V transformers. As stated before, with star connection,
turns per phase are minimum and the winding insulation is stressed to 57.74% of line
voltage. Star-star connection is rarely used in practice because of oscillatory neutral
problems.

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Phase and line values of voltages and currents on both sides of a star-star transformer are
shown in Figure 12(b).

Problems:

1) A transformer has 500 primary turns and 3000 secondary turns. If the
primary voltage is 240 V, determine the secondary voltage, assuming an ideal
transformer.
Sol:
Given data:
N1 = 500
N2 = 3000
E1 = 240V

E2 = 1440V

2) An Ideal transformer with turns ratio of 2:7 is fed from a 240V supply.
Determine its output voltage.
Sol:
Given Data:
V1 = 240V

3) A 25KVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the
secondary winding. The primary is connected to 3000V, 50Hz supply. Find the
full load primary and secondary currents, secondary EMF and flux in each
pole.
Sol:
Given Data:
N1 = 500
N2 = 50
E1 = 3000V
F = 50Hz

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 P = 25KVA

4) A 6600/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase core type transformer has a net cross-

sectional area of the core of 428 cm2. The maximum flux density in the core is
1.5 T. Calculate the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.
Sol:
Given Data:
F = 50Hz
E1/ E2 = 6600/400 V
A = 428 Cm2 = 428 × 10-4m2
B = 1.5T

5) A Single-phase 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and

280 in the secondary winding. The voltage applied across the primary winding
is 240 V at 50 Hz. Calculate (i) the maximum flux density in the core and (ii)
induced emf in the secondary. The net cross-sectional area of the core can be
taken 200 cm2.
Sol:
Given Data:
F = 50Hz
N1 = 80
N2 = 280
E1 = 240V
A = 200Cm2

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 (i)

(ii)

= 3.5 × 240 = 840V

6). A current transformer has a single turn on the primary winding and a secondary
winding of 60 turns. The secondary winding is connected to an ammeter with a
resistance of 0.15Ω. The resistance of the secondary winding is 0.25Ω. If the current
in the primary winding is 300 A, determine (a) the reading on the ammeter, (b) the
potential difference across the ammeter (c) Total load on secondary in Volt-Amp.
Sol:
Given Data:
N1 = 1
N2 = 60
I1 = 300A
R2 = 0.25Ω
RA = 0.15Ω
a) Reading on Ammeter, [ ]
b) Potential difference across ammeter,
VA = I2 × RA
= 5 × 0.15 = 0.75V

c) Total Resistance on secondary =R2+RA = 0.25 + 0.15= 0.4Ω

Induced EMF in secondary = VA × RT = 0.75 × 0.4 = 3.0V
Total load on secondary = 3.0 × 5 = 15.0VA

7). A voltage Transformer has 4000 primary turns and 20 secondary turns. The
voltage on the primary of the transformer is 22KV. Determine the voltage on the
secondary of transformer.
Sol:
Given Data:
N1 = 4000
N2 = 20
V1 = 22KV

[ ]

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