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Ultra-Low Power Wireless Sensor Networks: Overview of Applications, Design

Requirements and Challenges
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ABUAD Journal of Engineering Research and Development (AJERD) ISSN: 2645-2685
Volume 1, Issue 3, 331-345

Ultra-Low Power Wireless Sensor Networks:
Overview of Applications, Design Requirements
and Challenges
Frederick Ojiemhende EHIAGWINA1,*, Olufemi Oluseye KEHINDE1, Nurudeen Ajibola IROMINI2, Abubakar
Siddiq NAFIU2, Deepak PUNETHA3
1
Department of Electrical Electronic Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic Offa, Offa, Kwara State, Nigeria
1
Department of Electrical Electronic Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
Frederick.ehiagiwna@fedpoffaonline.edu.ng, okdecibel@yahoo.com
2
Department of Computer Technology Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic Offa, Offa, Kwara State, Nigeria
ajibolaforu2003@yahoo.com/assidiq123@yahoo.com
3
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Tula’s Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
er.punetha@gmail.com
Corresponding Author: Frederick.ehiagiwna@fedpoffaonline.edu.ng
Date Submitted: 03/09/2018
Date Accepted: 18/10/2018
Date Published: 31/12/2018
Abstract: Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have received significant attention from various researchers in terms of its
architecture, design, challenges and supporting technologies, and so on. Also, their applications to different aspect such as
structural health monitoring, health care, precision agriculture, intelligent transport systems have been reported. Though,
some authors have reviewed different aspects of wireless sensor nodes, including applications, this paper presents a short
survey of selected literature from a pool of articles reporting application cases of ultra-low power WSNs published in 2010-
2017. In this paper, specific design requirements for using ultra-low power sensor nodes were highlighted. In addition,
existing solutions to challenges encountered when using WSNs for the selected applications were examined. This short survey
will help readers and practitioners with scholarly resource needed for understanding the state-of-the-art in ultra-low power
wireless sensor applications and offers insight into areas for further research. It will also help researchers to become aware
of potential collaborators in future works involving WSNs.
Keywords: Elderly, fall detection, object tracking, precision agriculture, sensor nodes, WBANs, and wireless sensor network.
1. INTRODUCTION memory for local data processing, radio subsystem for

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) comprise of many wireless data communication between nodes and base
collaborating sensor nodes capable of sensing, computing station, and power supply and storage unit. In addition,
and communicating sensed signals to a remotely located sensor nodes may also include components (not shown in the
server. They are used to monitor several physical figure) such as a location finding unit to determine their
phenomena inclusive but not limited to the following: position, a mobilizer to change their location or
pressure, sound, heat, air pollution, and health status, in the configuration (e.g., antenna’s orientation), and so on.
environment of the sensor nodes. The sensed data is Owing to their miniaturized size, nodes have limited
transmitted to a base station by cooperative capabilities of resources such as computation speed, memory capacity,
the sensor nodes. Figure 1 shows a functional block diagram battery power, and bandwidth. For instance, in actual
of a wireless sensor node, consisting of the following deployment, computation speed and or data rate may be
components: sensing subsystem including one or more traded off for battery power and vice-versa depending on the
sensors incorporating a transducer and analog-to-digital application. For power critical application, an ultra-low
converters for data acquisition. Other subsystems are WSN incorporating energy harvesting module may be
processing subsystem inclusive of a microcontroller and necessary.
www.ajerd.abuad.edu.ng/ 331
Moreover, nodes should be capable of self-organization routes with no external intervention. This is necessary, since
into a network infrastructure, with information retrievable in certain applications, technical expertise may not be
via queries retrieved from the base station. Self-organization available.
will allow for turned ON nodes to form a network and set up
Figure 1: Block diagram of a wireless sensor node
There are numerous applications of sensor nodes reported

by researchers. In addition, several articles have been written 2. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS FOR
to survey different aspects of wireless sensor networks. BIOMEDICAL USES
Specific examples of survey articles on WSNs include the A major area where wireless sensor network has been
works of Alemdar and Ersoy [1], and Latre et al. [2] applied is in biomedicine, which can help to monitor vital
discussing applications health care and WBANs in 2010 and signs such as heartbeat, motion, body temperature, pH,
2011 respectively. In 2012, Durisic et al. [3] examined oxygen saturation, respiration, and so on with a potential
applications to military, and in 2014, Borges and Co. [4] reduction in cost, increase in convenience and saving life.
characterized and classified wireless sensor networks Body Sensor Network (BSN), Wireless Personal Sensor
application. Network (WPSN) and Wireless Body Area Networks
In this short survey, some literature randomly selected (WBANs).
from a pool of existing papers reporting applications of In this paper, attention is paid to WBANs, which are
wireless sensor nodes with emphasis on ultra-low power wireless networks that permits the full exploitation of
applications was performed to give a quick view of the state- wireless sensors and complementary technologies in
of-the-art to upcoming researchers in this field and industry healthcare system. They comprise of miniaturized intelligent
experts in wireless sensor-based automation. The literature devices attached on or surgically implanted in the body
search was limited to articles published between 2010 and capable of establishing a communication link, to provide
2018. There are about 19,000 articles related to wireless real-time feedback to medical experts or user. With WBANs,
sensor network on ieeexplore.org alone. patients can be alerted via text message, alarm, and
Also, in this quick survey requirements for each precautionary/curative treatment can be given automatically
application were highlighted along with the associated [9]. Other WBANs could be used in the treatment or
challenges. Where possible, a block diagram showing the monitoring of gastrointestinal tract [10], cancer detection
application scenario is provided. The taxonomy of this paper and myocardial infarction [8], to monitor asthma, diabetics,
is shown in Figure 2. heart attack [11] and fall detection and activity recognition
The rest of this article is sectioned as follows: Section 2 in elderly care. In addition, it can be used to assess soldier
presents an overview of literature reporting applications of fatigue and preparedness for battle. The architecture of the
ultra-low power wireless sensor nodes in the biomedical WBAN system is shown in Figure 3.
field. Applications to non-medical areas are presented in WBANs should consider the following requirements: (a)
Section 3. Finally, areas for future research are presented in Transmission power: WBANs should transmit very low
Section 4. power so as to minimize interference and radiations, with
potentially harmful effect on the body tissue. However, this
power should be enough to overcome the attenuation effect proposed for WBANs. Bachmann [12] proposed low-power
of body tissues. sensor nodes for a biomedical application capable of
(b) Power Consumption: In an effort to minimize power autonomous operation, by optimizing the digital signal
consumption of body area networks, a cross-layer processing circuitry and radio data reception and
communication protocol that consumes low energy may be transmission.
necessary for WBANs since the sensors can sleep in slots (c) Robust design: WBANs should be robust to constant
where they are not communicating. Implanted WSN should changes in network configuration, since the user or wearer
be able to communicate with the external base station can be in motion. Communication of WBANs requires
located outside the body to ensure efficient energy energy efficient and highly reliable designs while keeping
consumption, so that the system can operate for years, thus delay, low [6], [7]. Other requirements for using WBANs
avoiding frequent chirurgical operations. Thotahewa et al [5] include data reliability, security, and privacy, complex and
evaluated the complexity of design, power efficiency, etc. of real-time data processing, image identification, etc.
Media Access Control (MAC) protocols based on UWB
Figure 2: Taxonomy of wireless sensor networks applications
(d) Long battery life: Since these sensor nodes are of a substance being compatible with living tissue, in terms
attached to the body frequent battery replacement will result of zero toxicity and immunological response. Whereas,
in discomfort. Therefore, ultra-low power operation is ergonometric design of WBANs are intended to maximize
essential in this field of application. productivity by reducing fatigue and discomfort. User
(e) Security and privacy: Security and privacy- comfort, which depends on the sensor form factor has to be
preservation are important issues that must be addressed given serious consideration when designing WBANs. What
when deploying wireless body area network for healthcare is more, the form factor is dependent on the battery size and
management. Privacy should be preserved both in data power consumption of the system. Very comfortable
content (e.g. blood sugar level, heart rate, etc.) and context WBANs are necessary because the trend is shifting away
information such as locations of sensors. from hospital-centric healthcare service to person-centric
(f) Biocompatibity and ergonometry have a direct bearing and proactive care delivering with a potential reduction in
on human safety and comfort. Biocompatibility is a property the cost of health services.
Figure 3: WBAN architecture for health services [8]
A review of the application, technical and functional

requirement of WBANs was reported in [9]. In that paper, 2.1. Care of the Elderly
research issues such as very low pair-to-pair latency, Globally, the number of those above 65 years is rapidly
biocompatibility, safety, scaling of the duty cycle, data rate increasing, thank to advancement in science and technology.
and power consumption were considered. Other issues Fall event among these individuals results in several cases of
reviewed include ergonometric assessment of WBANs, injury, with some being fatal. An elderly with the risk of
Quality of Service (QoS), interference mitigation, efficient falling can be instrumented with a wireless sensing device to
antenna design, privacy/security issues, coexistence with detect and analyze body movements continuously. The
other technology and reliability. device is capable of triggering an alarm when a fall is
(g) Self-organizing feature: In designing body area detected. Acceptable fall detection scheme must incorporate
networks, consideration must be given to sensitivity and measures to respect the privacy and dignity of the elderly. In
self-calibration especially under harsh conditions (fire, hot addition, the data gathered must be secured from those with
temperature, sweating body), which can affect node malicious intent. The sensor node should be both small in
transducers. Several sensors may be needed to accurately size and light in weigh, to enhance user comfort.
capture vital signs leading to more data generated. A taxonomy of some fall detection technologies, with
Therefore, data rate, system bandwidth, and energy efficient their merits and demerits, is shown in Figure 5. Jin et al. [13]
data acquisition system must be given adequate observed that fall detection schemes require specificity,
consideration. Sensors may operate at different frequency sensitivity, and accuracy. Zhenhe et al. [14] developed a fall
level, and as such system designers have to consider inter- detection system based on a 3-axis accelerator sensor worn
operability and system isolation requirements. Apart from on the waist. The sensor is capable of measuring velocity,
WBANs being capable of self-organization, they should shift, and tilt of the aged, and transmit observed data to a
have self-maintainability since they are usually set up on a remote monitoring unit. In the remote monitoring unit, data
patient by medical personnel who are neither computer are pre-processed using one-class Signal Vector Magnitude
scientist nor engineers. (SVM) classification algorithm. Then, the system adjudges
Other requirements include; reliable communication, whether or not falling has occurred using the difference in
device portability, real-time availability, obtrusiveness, energy consumption of the human body action and a
multi-hop routing, energy efficiency, and scalability, threshold value. An ADXL345 chip 3-axis digital
context-awareness, etc. are critical design requirements that accelerometer with multiple measuring ranges, 13 bits
must be considered with varying degree of importance resolution and current rating of 40-145 µA were used. Figure
according to a specific application requirement. The 4 shows the architecture of ADXL345. Detailed
following discussion highlights some recent examples of specification of this chip is found in [56].
deployment of WSNs in the biomedical sphere.
Figure 4: Block diagram of ADXL345. Redrawn from [56]
Figure 5: Some technologies for detecting falls
In [13], a similar scheme based on accelerometer sensor contact, closing and opening of doors, and gas leakage.
was developed, albeit complemented with humidity and Figure 6 show the connection of sensors in the proposed
temperature sensors. Meanwhile, Ransing and Manita [15] smart home. Data collected from these sensors are sent via
presented the development of smart or automated home, in ZigBee (XBee) to a remote unit, from where it will be
which home parameters can be measured and adjusted. processed and sent as a short message service to the
Several sensors are deployed to measure temperature, caregiver.
Figure 6: Block diagram of the smart home for supporting the elderly (adapted from [15])
ZigBee was used because it allows for low data rate, and (c) optical transparency, so as not to obstruct vision.
longer lifetime, good sensitivity and range, although with Another important requirement is (d) biocompatibility that
less throughput. Furthermore, integrating sleep/wake up is the materials used and their constituents must be harmless
schedule into the smart home system can greatly extend the to the eye after mixing with eye physiological parameters
lifetime of the nodes. like tear, and glucose.
In elderly who are ill, cognitive abilities may be impaired Previously existing Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
with medication compliance being low. For good health care (MEMS)-based IOP sensors based on capacitance
management of persons in this category, WSNs can be used measurement are opaque and rigid. Chen et al. [20] reported
to monitor the intake of medication. WSNs can be used to an 1.5mm3 intra-ocular eye pressure monitor implantable in
determine when and which medicine bottle is assessed, and the eye of a person having glaucoma. To power itself, the
the quality of medicine removed. The patient can be alerted sensor scavenges solar energy that gets to the eye since the
to take their pills as at when due and also set mechanism in sensor consists of a 0.07mm 2 sized solar cell. With 10 hours
place for the purchase of decreasing medicine [1]. This could of indoor light or 1 ½ hours of daylight, the sensor could
be via Short Message Service (SMS) notification. achieve lifetime operation. The authors in [17] developed a
lens with a frequency response of 8 kHz/mmHg capable of
2.2. Intraocular Eye Pressure Monitor sensing corneal curvature deformation. Zeng et al. [21]
Intraocular Pressure (IOP) refers to the tissue pressure presented a graphene-based lens, where the graphene act as
within the eye, determined by the level of production and a capacitor connected in series with the copper coil, resulting
drainage of aqueous humor. The typical IOP value range is in LC tank resonant coil. The authors in [19] developed a
10 mmHg ≤ IOP ≤ 22 mmHg. Increase in eye pressure is transparent and stretchable contact lens from graphene
responsible for many eye defects such as glaucoma, which hybridized with metal nanowires, which were integrated into
slowly and gradually results in blindness because the RLC circuit operating at radio frequency.
increased eye pressure damaged the optic nerve. Close to 70 The eye contact lens can also be used to monitor the blood
million persons are affected worldwide [16]. By sugar level, rather than frequently collecting blood samples.
occasionally, going to the clinic for testing, one may not be It could also be good in helping some patients who are not
able to note the peak pressure value that may occur during fully compliant with treatment.
sleep at night [17]. Therefore, continuous monitoring of IOP Through the microchip embedded on the concave side of
is desirable. the lens, the glucose the wearer’s tears are analysed and the
One could use tethered and wired sensor or wireless data communicated to the mobile phone or Personal
sensor node as possible solution. But user comfort should be Computer (PC) of the wearer. This could potentially lower
of paramount importance. The sensors should consume the cost of diabetes management, although, the reliability of
ultra-low power to prevent unnecessary battery using tears for diabetes monitoring is still in its conceptual
replacement.as noted by researchers from Stanford stage. External factors like environment, temperature and
University [18], pressure sensor miniaturization results in humidity may impact negatively on the accuracy of the
less trauma for the patient. They also observed that tethered glucose measurement [54]. Examples of studies in this
and wired sensor solution is beset by constraint in frequency. regard are highlighted next. Badugu et al. [55] presented the
Wireless contact lenses, an example of wireless sensor nodes use of a glucose-sensitive Silicone HydroGel (SiHG) contact
is a viable means to continuously monitor eye physiological lenses. Firstly, the authors used water and pure silicone
parameters. present in the SiHG using polarity sensitive probe. Secondly,
Requirements of desirable wireless contact lens include a glucose-sensitive fluorophore Quin-C18 with hydrophobic
[19]: (a)the need to maintain reliability despite several eye side chain for localization of probes at the interface region
blinks, (b) flexibility and stretchability to enhance comfort, was synthesized. From the research, it was concluded that
fluorophore Quin-C18 is a potential material needed to a and photodetectors evenly distributed around the finger, with
contact lens for continuous glucose monitoring, since the the best light path used for the Oximetry.
lense showed a similar response to glucose after about 90
days of preservation in water. 3. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS FOR NON-
MEDICAL USES
2.3. Heart Rate Monitor This subsection of the paper examines applications of
For persons who either engage in stressful activities, or sensor nodes for non-medical purposes such as industrial
are having a cardiopulmonary disorder, regular heart rate machine diagnostics, chemical/biological detection,
monitoring is crucial. A complete and flexible sensor earthquake/volcano sensing, monitoring of civil structures,
network for electromamogram (EMG)-for monitoring and and Precision Agriculture (PA) [26]–[29]. This examination
assessing electrical activity generated by skeletal muscles, is in the context of whether or they qualify for ULP
electroencephalogram (EEG)-for detecting medical operations or not, and what can be done to make them
problems connected with electrical activity of the brain, and qualify for such. Requirement for actual implementation are
electrocardiogram (ECG)-for monitoring the operations of also outlined.
the heart, built on SoC which incorporated adaptive power
management technology such as the use of boost circuits, 3.1. Structural Health Monitor (SHM)
sub-threshold processing, less energy consuming transmitter Conceptually, in Structural Health Monitor (SHM),
and bio-signal front-ends, and body heat energy harvesting embedded sensors detect and analyse vibrations and shocks
was developed in [11]. experienced by a given structure. Certain shocks are capable
Maiolo et al. [22] reported on the use of the highly flexible of causing significant damage within a short duration of
and low cost PolyVinylide ne FluorideTriFluoroEthylene time. It would require that structural engineers evaluate the
(PVDF-TrFE) piezoelectric pressure sensor and strain-gauge extent of damage and structural integrity of the building at
sensor with high stretchability in a wearable wristband to short notice and in most instances rely on visual inspections
monitor the heart rate and fine muscle movement of pilots. and their experience to make decisions, with potential
influence on the post-disaster recovery process.
2.4. Pulse Oximetry Visual observation is not always effective and time-
The operation of a pulse oximeter is based on the consuming. Sensing system that monitors the level of
difference in absorption pattern of red and infrared light of vibrations that different parts of a building have been
oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin. Oxygenated subjected to can assist in the assessment of the degree of
haemoglobin permits more red light to pass through it and damage suffered a structure, and the evaluators focus on the
absorbs more infrared light. The reverse is the case for areas that have sustained the highest level of vibrations and
deoxygenated haemoglobin. Finger or toe is usually chosen stress [30]. Many implementations are based on strains
with a photodetector at the other side to receive the light. experienced by an attached wire, which also transmit power
Subsequently, the ratio of red to infrared is compared with a to the sensors. During a high intensity vibrational-shock, the
"look-up table" or calibration curve. Much will be done if a wires used in the connection may be severed or deformed,
power dissipation of  10 W is to be realized. For instance, leaving the sensors without electrical power at this most
the energy consumption of the light source and detector will critical moment when sensed data is highly needed. A
have to be lower. Furthermore, the mechanism for possible solution is to use batteries, which, however,
comparing the light sources and decision is yet another area requires regular maintenance to replace the batteries. Most
was power management scheme may be included. sensors locations can be difficult to reach. Another problem
In [23], Tavakoli et al applied an Ultra-Low Power (ULP) related to power is the need for SHM sensors to monitor fast
wireless sensor in pulse Oximetry used in the measurement time-varying vibrations and to carry out long distance
of the percentage of oxygenated haemoglobin in the metering. Therefore, the need for reliable power supply
bloodstream of a patient. The use of a logarithmic trans- cannot be minimize.
impedance amplifier, which does not require ADC and DSP- However, the wireless implementation involving the use
high energy consuming components, resulted in lower power of wireless sensor nodes is gaining traction because it is not
dissipation of 4.8mW and a smaller chip size. limited by the aforementioned constraints of wired sensor
Madhav and Co [24] studied the extraction of respiratory system. Some wireless sensor nodes integrate in their
activity from pulse oximeter Photoplethysmographic (PPG) architecture energy scavenging scheme. If the operation of
signal using multi-scale independent component, thus the wireless node is to be autonomous, they have to be
presenting the use of an additional sensor. This will benefit operated on ultra-lower power sourced by incorporated
patients with sleep and cardiopulmonary disorders. vibrational or acoustic energy harvester. A sample of the
Previously existing devices for monitoring respiratory numerous articles reporting the application of WSNs to
activity such as nasal thermistor and spirometer obstruct SHM are reviewed next.
natural breathing. In [29], Wondra et al presented a technique based on
Avakhkisomi et al. [25] noted that the finger tissue has acceleration sensor nodes for Structure Health Monitor
some complex features that negatively affects the efficient (SHM). The sensor nodes record the acceleration of the
acquisition of PPG signal when sensors are not properly tower at different heights that are used to compute the
placed. Therefore, the authors developed a ring-shaped magnitude and vibration frequencies experienced by the
oximeter containing six sets of Light Emitting Diodes (LED) tower structure. In [27] passive wireless strain gauge was
used to limits of structural health monitoring systems based appropriate data aggregation schemes are required to
on wholly WSN or Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)- eliminate unnecessary data consequently reducing the power
based sensors owing to its ability to cope with fast time- required to transmit sensor data and extending the battery
varying vibrations and carry out long distance metering. lifetime. Furthermore, the mechanism for data acquisition
While Sabato et al [28] monitor the dynamic response of must be energy efficient.
structures and machinery using MEMs. Cheng et al. [30] (c) Power Source and Ultra-low Power Consumption: In
reported an event-driven energy-harvesting WSN for most cases farms are located in off-grid locations. Batteries
Structural Health Monitoring during an earthquake. may be used in powering the sensor nodes. These batteries
From the foregoing, there is the need to use highly flexible must be capable of operating without replacement for a
and stretchable piezoelectric materials like PVDF-TrFE in reasonably long period of time. When possible, energy
monitoring the health of structure in buildings located in harvesting schemes based on solar and wind energies may
environments with high seismic activities. To prevent be incorporated. Literature on precision agriculture with
closing bridges for routine inspections, the technics used in reference to crop farming are examined next.
the reported works should be implemented. This will In [33], a survey on the application of WSNs to precision
enhance the users’ comfort and avoid economic loss. agriculture was presented. The authors discussed an
application of sensor nodes to an automated irrigation
3.2. Precision Agriculture (PA) system, controlled by Remote Monitoring Station (RMS)
Precision Agriculture (PA) involves a collection of tools (Figure 8) and precision farming for a group of farmers in a
and practices required to accurately assess farming needs cooperative society (Figure 9). The authors in [34] and [35]
such as in irrigation and the amount of pesticide dosage discussed WSN based PA cases for potato farm in Egypt and
required in response to inter and intra-field variability in for irrigation management in Malawi respectively. The
crops [31]. PA may help to minimize expended resources authors in [34] noted that sensor nodes could be used to map
and maximize yield. Under this application, sensor nodes soil to reveal its location-specific features. While discussing
may be used to detect the moisture and chemical content of the application of sensor nodes to irrigation management,
the soil and plants, the data collected is then used to control Mafuta et al. [35] observed that when ZigBee and GPRS are
irrigation switches, and to determine the type and quantity of used, one of these loses connectivity when the other is turned
fertilizer required. For example, urea detectors can be used ON. The authors subsequently suggested an upgrade in the
to monitor soil to determine locations where cow have system’s firmware. In order to address the challenge of
urinated on, thus saving the farmer the cost of purchasing unavailability of grid supply, solar energy harvesting scheme
urea for those spots in the farm. was integrated into the irrigation management system. In
In addition, precision agriculture provides low-cost addition, by dividing the nodes into sub-networks, energy is
assistance to fast-track the efficiency of agricultural conserved since no single node (acting as a hotspot) is used
cultivations, improving the environmental sustainability of to collect all data from all other nodes. This harmonizes well
the whole process and the quality of the production. In with the suggestion of [34], who mentioned that network
sustainability there are efforts to reduce the use of chemical scalability can be achieved via a cluster based hierarchical
agents such as pesticides [32] in order to better care for the network.
environment. A good irrigation system will improve crop yield and lead
to lush pasture for livestock. Livestock management can be
Prior to deploying WSN for PA, the following enhanced by PA.
requirements and application challenges must be considered. For example, an implanted body area sensor on livestock
(a) Robust Packaging: the package of the nodes must be can monitor stomach acidity, fitness and digestion problems
water, and chemical resistant. This is owing to the fact that of animals. It may also be used to determine the best
the sensors would be used in the agricultural field. It should breeding time. However, since the animal may be in motion,
be able to withstand outdoor temperature fluctuation over a the network topology and coverage may be fluctuating.
long time period. Thus, routing protocol that can dynamically adjust to
(b) Effective Data aggregation scheme and changing network topology is required. In addition,
Communication: When applying sensor nodes in crop localization of the thousands of nodes that may be needed is
farming, there is the need to enhance connectivity to counter usually a challenge in PA in terms of maintaining a balance
foliage attenuating effect. One way this can be done is to between the accuracy of sensed data and energy
reduce the separating distance between two nodes. When consumption by the nodes. Received Signal Strength
performing field work (e.g. weeding) care must be exercised Indicator (RSSI) can be used to localize sensor nodes in an
not to disturb the nodes. Finally, cellular network-based energy efficient manner, although they are prone to errors
schemes are preferable to satellite or Wi-Fi based systems induced by variation in signal propagation. However, some
because of coverage and connectivity, and cost since SMS systems use Global Positioning System (GPS) to determine
are generally very cheap to send. the location of the nodes, to improve accuracy but at an
Another issue encountered when designing a PA scheme, additional cost both in terms of energy and hardware
involves the management of the noisy data generated by the requirement and the network flexibility and robustness may
several nodes deployed in an agricultural field. As such, be reduced.
Figure 8: Architecture of irrigation management system. Redrawn from [33]
3.3. Transportation System Transportation and smart cities researchers have

In transportation systems, sensors are needed for demonstrated WSNs application in freight train derailment
collecting traffic data for traffic planning and management, detection [36] and urban train transportation systems [37],
a major aspect in the ITS. Wired based ITS apart from cost and street parking [38]. In [39], sensor nodes were used in
and power consumption issues, can only be used in the condition monitoring to detect and identify rail track
monitoring of stationary vehicles, making them have limited degradation before an accident can occur as shown in figure
flexibility. WSNs offers a low-cost wireless communication 10. The real-time data they provide can be used by remote
capability and decision process coupled with easy observers to make critical decisions, thereby reducing
installation over wired sensors. Hence, WSNs are preferable unnecessary downtime. Information gathered include
in designing an Intelligent Transport System (ITS). temperature, humidity, wind and train speeds, and GPS
WSN based ITS usually involves the installation of three coordinates.
nodes (a) vehicle nodes-observes the parameters e.g. speed Intelligent transport system is an essential requirement in
and location of the vehicle in which it is installed (b) the development of a smart city. The topology of the roads
roadside nodes, usually installed close to the roads collect and buildings could potentially affect design considerations.
traffic data from all vehicles nodes, and (c) the intersection Lin et al [38] studied the effects of different urban layouts
nodes-receive data from roadside nodes for subsequent on node energy consumption, amount of mesh routers
analysis. The processed information is transmitted to a base deployed and sensing information delay to be factored in.
station for traffic management decision.
Figure 9: Precision agriculture coordinated by a farmer's cooperative society (sourced from [33])
System Requirement and Challenges: The quantity and same time their bulkiness limits flexibility. More so, it is not
quality of information depend on the type and amount of always possible to access locations were some sensor nodes
sensor nodes used in the condition monitoring scheme. are deployed. In contrast, wireless sensor nodes with
Usually, a large amount of noisy and similar data are specially designed packages can be used in chemical hazard
generated by the sensors. Also, implementation in harsh monitoring, earthquake and volcanic eruption observation,
environment results in additional design challenges coupled flood detection, weather forecasting, air quality and content,
with issues such as the provision of power and a higher glacier displacement measurement and natural habitat
probability of erroneous data transmission associated with monitoring [40]–[44].
the location of sensor nodes at a distance from the server. For instance, volcanic eruption monitors are used for
Consequently, a robust design should include appropriate detecting source mechanism, differentiate true eruption from
data aggregation technique, energy harvesting scheme, data noisy signals, and study the interior structure of the volcano.
intrusion detection, and prevention schemes to prevent The sampling rate of volcanic time series data is done at 40
observers with malicious from assessing privacy-related Hz or more, higher than other environmental monitoring
data. Furthermore, a good design will prevent transmission schemes. To allow for ultra-low power operation, power
errors, latency, missing or corrupted data and network control strategy such as triggering, and in-network event
outage. detection must be included in the monitoring scheme. There
should be a synchronization of data from various nodes used,
3.4. Environmental Monitoring using GPS. Air pollution monitoring is complex since
Environmental sensor nodes sense light, humidity, thousands of nodes may be deployed and there is a need to
temperature, fire, and air quality. Wired sensing schemes are reduce data noisiness via appropriate data aggregation
not efficient in sensed data management and power technique to eliminate duplicates and invalid results. In
consumption. In addition, wired sensor schemes require addition, data aggregation and compression will help in
bulky hardware, subject to telemetry and bandwidth reducing power consumption when a large amount of data is
constraint. Traditionally used environmental monitoring transmitted between several nodes.
data loggers may be expensive, time-consuming, and at the
Figure 10: Typical WSN setup for railway condition monitoring. Sensor devices are mounted on boards attached to the object being
monitored; examples include track, bridges, or train mechanics. Redrawn from [39].
Environmental monitoring systems require data archiving many industries, the dynamic nature of the industrial sector,
mechanism, internet access, long operating time, and energy the high cost of installing and maintaining wired automation
efficient design. Monitoring of indoor air quality is essential system and the need for a smarter automation system to
for human health, safety, and general well-being. To enhance efficiency and productivity. However, there are
determine air quality, gas sensors are used. Jelicic et al. [41], issues with the deployment of industrial WSNs in the
however, observed that commercially available gas sensor industries, including how to operate them in harsh industrial
are power-demanding, and not energy efficient. To solve this environments attributable to corrosive and caustic
problem, the sensor is put to sleep when to human is sensed chemicals, humid and dusty air, electromagnetic
in the room. The current drawn by the gas sensor during compatibility issues, high level of vibration, and so on.
sleep mode is just 8 µA. Human presence is detected using Another challenge is associated with the non-standardized
PIR. If the total time of operation of the sensor is T , the industry topologies. Also, in industrial environments, data
wake-up time and sleep time is t ON and t OFF respectively, communication is preferable because some sensor data are
time sensitive to prevent damages and large-scale repair. For
then the average power consumed by the sensor is as shown example, the automated fire extinguisher must activate as at
in equation 1: when demanded. In addition, technical challenges such as
Pav  PON t ON  POFF t OFF  T (1) coordination of communications of large-scale deployment
of sensor nodes have to be considered.
But POFF tOFF is very small, resulting in
Other issues have to do with privacy/security requirement,
Pav  PON t ON T (2) internet connectivity, etc. so there is a need for monitoring
systems that require little or no maintenance. In other words,
Equation 2 indicates that the average power consumed in
the sensor nodes of the system should be autonomous or
a duty cycled operation is significantly reduced.
require very few battery replacements. While it is true that
WSNs have been applied to monitoring industrial
power source in an industrial environment might be
environments and machines for reasons such as aging of
abundant, a robust monitoring scheme should be able to to prevent high force gradients due to device deformation,
function for a reasonable amount of time even during shut and (d) 10-year power supply lifetime.
down either for routine maintenance or other purposes. As Reshi and Co [50] introduced sensor node based vehicular
such the sensor nodes should include an energy harvesting pollution observing scheme called VehNode. VehNode is
module or power storage unit, and other low power attached to the exhausts of vehicles and it examines the
consuming components. pollutants in vehicle smoke, compares the values with a
given threshold and report any value out of the specified
3.5. Disaster Management range to the car owner and the agency responsible for
Examples in this regard where WSNs is used to provide pollution control.
feedback and real-time data in disaster management and The current sensor nodes are drawn from the car battery
environmental monitoring include; human existence when the car is parked and idle must be minimum. Some
detection in the event of a disaster [45]. In disaster nodes come with embedded energy harvesting system. Since
management, such as mountain rescue, a large amount of this involve automobile and communication could be
data and intensive communication at high frequency are disrupted, there is the need to implement a dynamic routing
usually involved. During a severe disaster, the mobile protocol and high data rate communication.
cellular network may be unavailable, and satellite
communication may be the only communication option 3.7. Object Tracking and Target Detection
available. The implication is that onboard sensor should be Conventional surveillance technologies such as
capable of satellite communication. Other important RADARS, though reliable and accurate are expensive and
requirements of sensor nodes meant for these purposes power hungry. Researchers have developed tracking systems
include robust packaging, resistance to humidity, good that integrate cheap and decentralized WSNs. In general, a
connectivity and coverage, etc. Available power should be typical target tracking system should consider (a) data
conserved for possible a disastrous event by building into the reporting mechanism (b) data quality-a function of the
network sleep/wake-up scheduler, with the current drawn number of nodes and coverage (c) prediction/estimation
during idle time as minimal as possible. Ivoghlian et al [46] algorithm, which must be distributed and lightweight e.g.
developed a miniaturized sensor dissipating very low power Kalman filter, particle filter and mobile agent (d) activation
for ubiquitous data acquisition. The sensor includes a power mechanism, and (e) logical network [51], [52]. In addition,
regulation scheme that contributes to longer operating time. object or target detection can be achieved by the following:
Owing to the authors' intention of using the sensor in an image sensor, an acoustic sensor, passive infrared sensor.
earthquake simulation experiments, the communication Wireless sensor-based tracking systems are not limited by
frequency and range are below 1 GHz and 11.7 km line of sight problem suffered by satellite-based systems, and
respectively. Pour et al [47] reported a microsystem, which so they can be deployed indoors. The deployment under this
scavenges solar energy used in operating very small scenario requires collaboration among nodes, location
hydrogen sensor autonomously. awareness, identification and coordination, real-time
Hydrogen as a fuel is non-pollutant, although it is processing, and a mechanism to evaluate a large amount of
explosive when mixed with oxygen. According to reference data frequently generated. For mobile objects, sensor node
[48]: “the use of hydrogen gas for combustion or any other connectivity and coverage are always changing.
purpose invariably requires a monitoring and controlling Meanwhile, “Boundary Recognition and Tracking
device to detect the hydrogen leakage and to alleviate the algorithm for a Continuous Object (BRTCO)" for
serious explosive danger”. The sensistor of hydrogen sensor monitoring vehicle movement, forest fire, wild animals, and
may be based on palladium/palladium alloy, optical fibre, noxious gas, which have an irregular profile in terms of
Schottky diode, where a palladium-alloy gate is used. And distribution were presented in [53]. Identification of
in some cases, when a hydrogen molecule gets to the sensor continuous object requires the exchange of a large amount
a small voltage is generated, which is further amplified by of data between several nodes. The authors reduced nodes’
on-chip amplifier. For an ultra-low power and autonomous energy consumption by introducing collaborative boundary
operation, the energy consumption of the amplification and nodes filtering for eliminating redundant nodes, and efficient
computation units must be given due consideration. data reporting via cluster base reporting node selection
scheme. Kalman filter and passive infrared sensor-based
3.6. Automobile Monitor tracking systems only detect object but fail to identify the
Wireless sensor nodes mounted on car rim could be used target. Therefore, Vasuhi and Vaidehi [52] proposed an
in tire pressure sensing along with an Integrated Circuit (IC) Interactive multiple model Target Tracking WSN
designed to harvest energy and store same in a battery for (ITTWSN), which uses velocity and acceleration models and
onward usage. The data sensed can be used to enhance several sensors to accurately detect and identify target.
engine control, vehicle-to-vehicle communications, and But when several nodes are transmitting data, a robust
object detection. According to Herndl [49], the requirements data aggregation scheme is required to minimize the
for a tire pressure sensor include (a)the mass of the entire computations involved and the amount data transmitted. A
sensor node, power supply and package inclusive should be good data aggregation scheme will further reduce power
<5g (b)strong package to withstand acceleration 3000 times consumption.
that due to gravity (c) the size should not be > 1 cm3, so as
4. CONCLUSION confidential information be transmitted so as to prevent

Issues involving privacy and anonymity of users trying external intrusion? What additional roles will WSNs play in
to access real-time data of the wireless sensor nodes will the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm? Solutions
need more attention since existing protocols are prone to to questions like this will require more research efforts in
denial-of-sleep attack. Also, in the application of WSNs to order to enhance user’s confidence and lead to more
medicine and industries, how best can the sensitive and innovative applications.
Table 1: Summary of WSN applications and their design requirement/challenges
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Ultra-Low Power Wireless Sensor Networks: Overview of Applications, Design

Article · December 2018

Frederick Ehiagwina Olufemi Kehinde

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Nurudeen Iromini Nafiu Abubakar Sidiq

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Corresponding Author: Frederick.ehiagiwna@fedpoffaonline.edu.ng

1. INTRODUCTION memory for local data processing, radio subsystem for

Figure 1: Block diagram of a wireless sensor node

There are numerous applications of sensor nodes reported

Figure 2: Taxonomy of wireless sensor networks applications

Figure 3: WBAN architecture for health services [8]

A review of the application, technical and functional

Figure 4: Block diagram of ADXL345. Redrawn from [56]

Figure 5: Some technologies for detecting falls

Figure 8: Architecture of irrigation management system. Redrawn from [33]

3.3. Transportation System Transportation and smart cities researchers have

4. CONCLUSION confidential information be transmitted so as to prevent

Table 1: Summary of WSN applications and their design requirement/challenges

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