Indoor

Air
Quality

Jenna Kamholz and Matthew Montry

csd
Center for Sustainable Development
 UTSoA - Seminar in Sustainable Architecture

Indoor Air Quality

Jenna Kamholz
Matthew Montry

Fig. 01 Percentage of North American homes with common indoor air quality problems

Introduction

While traditionally people have

been concerned about exposure to
outdoor air pollution, changes in our
ways of life and the ways we build
have made air within our buildings
more polluted than the outdoor air,
even in most cities. “EPA’s Total
Exposure Assessment Methodology Fig. 02 Global Production of Synthetic Chemicals

(TEAM) studies found levels of about

a dozen common organic pollutants indoor air quality (IAQ), includes the
to be 2 to 5 times higher inside environmental characteristics inside
homes than outside, regardless of buildings such as the concentrations
whether the homes were located of pollutants, the air temperature,
in rural or highly industrial areas.”1 humidity, and the ventilation rate
which affect human health, comfort,
People now spend approximately
or work performance.2
90 percent of their time indoors,
and the prolonged exposure to
indoor pollutants increases the Health
health risks. Furthermore, there
has been a dramatic increase in The effects of indoor pollutants on
the chemical content of building human health are known as sick
materials, furnishings and household building syndrome (SBS) symptoms
products. Compounding this problem or building related symptoms (BRS)
is recent trend to produce highly and often include eye, nose or
sealed buildings to reduce energy throat irritation, skin irritation, cough,
loss through infiltration. The term wheeze, headache, and fatigue

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UTSoA - Seminar in Sustainable Architecture

Contaminants Indoor Sources Potential Health Effects

Respirable Particles Tobacco smoke, cooking, unvented combustion appliances, aerosol Depending on particle composition: mucous membrane irritation,
sprays, condensation of vapors, resuspended housedust respiratory infections, emphysema, heart disease, lung cancer.

Formaldehyde Particleboard, plywood, insulation, furnishings, adhesives, synthetic Mucous membrane irritation, skin rash, chemical sensitivity, lower
building materials, tobacco smoke. respiratory irritation, pulmonary edema, central nervous system
effects, possible human carcinogen.

Microorganisms Air-cooling equipment, humidifiers, flush toilets, carpeting, people, Acute respiratory infections (e.g., influenza, Legionnaire's disease,
(Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi) pets, plants. Pontiac Fever, Q Fever).

Aeroallergens Plant pollen, animal dander, insect parts, house dust, molds, mites, Allergic reaction, pneumonitis.
(Allergic Agents) algae, detergents, chemical additives.

Combustion Gases Unvented combustion appliances, attached garages, woodstoves, CO: oxygen deprivation due to COHb,
(CO and N02) fireplaces, tobacco smoke. impaired vision and brain function, fatal at high concentrations.
N02: increased respiratory infection rate, bronchoconstriction,
pulmonary edema.

Radon Underlying soil, building construction materials, well water. Lung cancer.

Organic Vapors Solvents, adhesives, synthetic building Mucous membrane irritation, narcotic at high concentrations, central
materials, aerosol sprays, pesticides, nervous
cooking, furnishings, paint, metabolic processes, tobacco smoke. system effects, damage to heart, kidney, and liver, many documented
or suspected human carcinogens.

Fibers Insulation, fire retardants, building construction materials, Skin irritation, mucous membrane irritation; asbestos is associated with
(Asbestos, Mineral, furnishings, texture paints. increased incidences of lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal
Synthetic) mesotheliomas, and gastrointestinal tract cancer.

Fig. 03 Summary of Major Contaminents

symptoms.3 Chronic exposure incompatibility, unpleasant odors, this has also caused a buildup
may lead to increased mortality, as or lack of air movement create poor of indoor air pollution. Air-to-air
well as a decrease in productivity indoor environments. Only some heat exchangers may allow for
and in the ability to learn; the most contaminants may be directly sensed maintenance of both indoor air
susceptible include the young, the by the occupants while others may quality and energy conservation.9
elderly, and the chronically ill.4 The be unnoticed until more serious
health effects are related to the symptoms occur. Sources
exposure, calculated as the product
of pollutant concentration present Performance Indoor pollutants come from a variety
in each unit volume of air in the of sources: combustion, building
breathing zone of a space and time Studies have measured 4% to 16% materials and furnishings, cleaning
the person spends in the space.5 increases in the performance of and maintenance products, HVAC
The problem is complicated by the certain office work tasks when indoor systems, biological contaminants,
fact that building occupants may pollutant sources were removed. and outdoor sources. The relative
be suffering from irreversible health Better perceived indoor air quality is significance of the source is directly
effects and yet exhibit no symptoms correlated with a 1% increase in task related to how much of the pollutant
at the present time since many performance per each 10% decrease it emits and how hazardous those
diseases have latency periods of ten in the percentage of occupants emissions are. For some sources,
years or more.6 dissatisfied with indoor air quality.8 the age of the source and whether it
is properly maintained are significant
Comfort Energy factors in its levels of emissions.
Sources like building materials,
Comfort aspects related to Air-exchange rates are have been furnishings, and household products
IAQ include thermal, olfactory reduced in order to create more release pollutants continuously while
and sensory comfort.7 Thermal energy-efficient buildings, however others may be related to activities

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 Indoor Air Quality

Control Measure Description Pollutant Example

Ventilation: Dilution of indoor air with fresh outdoor air or Radon and radon progeny: Local exhaust of gas stove emissions; air-to-air heat
recirculated filtered air, using mechanical or natural methods combustion by-products; tobacco exchangers; building ventilation codes; venting sub-
to promote localized, zonal, or general ventilation. smoke; biological agents slab area to remove radon gas or volatile organic
(particles). compounds.

Source removal or substitution: Removal of indoor emission Organic substances; asbestiform Restrictions on smoking in public places; removal of
sources or substitution of less hazardous materials or products. minerals; tobacco smoke. asbestos.

Source modification: Reduction of emission rates through Radon and radon progeny: organic Plastic barriers to reduce radon levels; containment of
changes in design or processes; containment of emissions by substances; asbestiform minerals; asbestos; design of buildings without basements to
barriers or sealants. combustion by-products. avoid radon; catalytic oxidation of CO to CO2 in
kerosene burners.

Air cleaning: Purification of indoor air by gas adsorbers, air Particulate matter: combustion by- Residential air cleaners to control tobacco smoke or
filters, and electrostatic precipitators. products; biological agents wood smoke; ultraviolet irradiation to decontaminate
(particles). ventilation air; formaldehyde-sorbant filters.

Behavioral adjustment: Reduction in human exposure through Organic substances: combustion Smoke-free zones; architectural design of interior
modification of behavior patterns; facilitated by consumer by-products, tobacco smoke. space; certification of formaldehyde concentrations for
education, product labeling, building design, warning devices, home purchases.
and legal liability.

Fig. 04 Summary of Mitigating Measures

and therefore release pollutants Formaldehyde Volatile Organic Compounds

intermittently.10
Formaldehyde is a chemical Volatile organic compounds (VOC’s)
Combustion used widely to manufacture are carbon-containing chemicals that
building materials and household are gases at room temperature, and
Combustion products such as un- products as well as a by-product of are suspected causes of a broad
vented kerosene and gas space combustion. The most significant range of health effects including,
heaters, woodstoves, fireplaces, sources of formaldehyde are likely such as sensory irritation symptoms,
and gas stoves release carbon to be pressed wood products that allergies and asthma, neurological
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and contain urea-formaldehyde (UF) and liver toxicity, and cancer. VOC’s
particles. Combustion gases and resins, including particleboard, are emitted many common indoor
particles also come from improperly hardwood plywood paneling, and sources and produced from chemical
installed or maintained chimneys medium density fiberboard. Other reactions of indoor ozone with other
and flues and damaged furnace pressed wood products produced VOC’s, or materials like carpeting.
heat exchangers. In weatherized for exterior construction, such as While outdoor air is the major source
homes, fireplaces and woodstoves softwood plywood and flake or of ozone, additional sources include:
with no dedicated outdoor air supply oriented strandboard, use phenol- “ozone generators (marketed as air
can back-drafted pollutants into the formaldehyde (PF) resin which cleaners), electronic air cleaners
living space, particularly. At high emits formaldehyde at lower rates. (that unintentionally produce ozone
concentrations carbon-monoxide Formaldehyde emissions generally as a by-product), and some types of
can cause unconsciousness and decrease as products age and high office equipment.” 13
death, while at lower concentrations indoor temperatures or humidity
it can cause headaches, dizziness, increase the release of formaldehyde Radon
weakness, nausea, confusion, and in new products. High concentrations
disorientation, to fatigue. Nitrogen trigger asthma attacks, some Radon, a cause of lung cancer, is
dioxide irritates the mucous people can develop a sensitivity to produced by the uranium in the soil
membranes in the eye, nose, and formaldehyde, and it may cause or rock on which homes are built,
throat, causes shortness of breath cancer.12 entering the home as a gas through
and increases the risk of respiratory dirt floors, cracks in concrete walls
infection.11 and floors, floor drains, and sumps.

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UTSoA - Seminar in Sustainable Architecture

adverse effects of their own. Another

option is modifying the source
to reduce its emissions, which is
most effective for combustion type
sources.18

Moisture Control

One problem that contributes to

moisture build-up within buildings
occurred after a change in building
practices in the 1970s that “resulted
in tightly sealed buildings with
diminished ventilation, contributing
to moisture vapor buildup.”19 Other
problems are related to systems and
Fig. 05 Mold Gorwth
designs that pass water through a
building, do not perform effectively,
such as gutters, drains, etc., or allow
Radon problems can occur in any once discovered “with respect to water under a building.
home new or old, well-sealed or wood frame buildings can affect the
drafty homes, with or without a structural integrity of the building.”16 Many solutions are directly related
basement.14 to their corresponding problems. For
Molds are tiny spores that are example, repair plumbing leaks as
Biological Contaminants impossible to completely eliminate, soon as possible. If drainage around
making them one of the more the building is allowing water to
Biological contaminants include abundant and problematic issues pond near the foundation, re-route
bacteria, molds, mildew, viruses, regarding indoor air quality. Spores the drainage paths away from the
animal dander and cat saliva, continually move about through building. Reduce “condensation by
house dust mites, cockroaches, and indoor and outdoor air. The moment increasing surface temperature or
pollen. Particles contain allergens the spores land on a damp spot reducing the moisture level in the
or toxic chemicals with the potential indoors they begin to grow. While the air.”20 However, there are several
to cause respiratory issues and spores themselves are impossible to solutions such as maintaining
inhibited immune system function fully eliminate, the focus then turns proper humidity levels, increasing air
or effects on the central nervous to preventing the amount of spores circulation, and venting kitchens and
system. Microorganisms can also within the air, as well as minimizing bathrooms that rely on a common
release microbial volatile organic the amount of moisture within the technique, ventilation.21
compounds. High indoor air humidity building.17
increases the levels of house Ventilation
dust mites and house dust mite Improving Air Quality
allergens. 15 While ventilation is a simple, and
There are a variety of strategies easily understandable method for
Molds for improving indoor air quality creating more desirable indoor
that range from addressing the air quality, there are many issues
Aside from health issues, mold can source, to reducing the build-up of it can bring as well. Although
produce odors as well as effect contaminants, to modifying behavior. many buildings are designed to
the look of items it has attached Removing or avoiding contaminant accommodate natural air flows
itself to and is starting to destroy. sources has obvious benefits for through and around the building,
Mold can be very destructive if not indoor air quality, yet alternatives are there are many situations that are
prevented, and if not maintained not always available and may have

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 Indoor Air Quality

Fig. 07 Electrostatic precipitation filter

overall ventilation. Two common

HVAC systems used in public and
commercial buildings are constant
volume and variable air volume.
Constant volume systems “provide
a constant airflow [and vary] the air
Fig. 06 Ventilation within a building
temperature to meet heating and
not conducive to efficient ventilation. cooling needs. The percentage of
Ventilation may be deficient in Local Exhaust: An industrial outdoor air may be held constant, but
“confined spaces, facilities failing ventilation system that captures is often controlled either manually
to provide adequate maintenance and removes emitted contaminants or automatically to vary with outdoor
of ventilation equipment, facilities before dilution into the ambient air of temperature and humidity.”23
operated to maximize energy the workplace. This system cleans Variable air volume systems vary
conservation, windowless areas, the exhaust air before introducing it the airflow into occupied areas while
and areas with high occupant back into the space. maintaining a constant temperature.
densities.”22
Makeup Air: Also called Replacement Providing more air to a room can put
Ventilation Systems: and Compensating Air, is air supplied the room under positive pressure. If
to a space to replace exhausted air. less air is supplied to a room than
Dilution: A general exhaust is being exhausted then the room
ventilation system is a form of HVAC: Ventilating systems designed will be under negative pressure.
exposure control that involves primarily to control temperature, Negative pressure can result in
providing enough air in the humidity, odors, and air quality. unfiltered outdoor air seeping into the
workplace to dilute the concentration (Primarily for comfort) building through any cracks in the
of airborne contaminants [i.e. odors building envelope (seams, windows,
and particulates] to acceptable Building ventilation uses a etc.). Positive pressure in turn can
levels. By introducing more fresh combination of the above systems. push air out through the same
air into a space, the percentage The more systems used in means as air can seep in, preventing
of contaminated air decreases, conjunction with each other, the particulates and unfiltered air from
improving the overall indoor air more efficient (assuming proper entering a building.24
quality. calibration and maintenance) the

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UTSoA - Seminar in Sustainable Architecture

While ideas of natural ventilation Conclusion Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://
such as the stack and effect and www.iaqscience.lbl.gov/overview.html.
natural wind flows are considered Buildings cannot be sustainable 9. Sexton, Ken. Indoor Air Quality: An
as alternative means to using HVAC if they adversely effect the health Overview of Policy and Regulatory Issues.
systems, these natural process can of the occupants. Where possible Science, Technology, & Human Values 11, no.
overpower a building’s mechanical materials and products that emit 1 (Winter, 1986), Sage Publications, Inc., p 57
http://www.jstor.org/stable/689045
system. Interruption of air circulation or serve as hosts for harmful
and ventilation is possible in substances should be avoided, 10. “The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air
buildings with leaky envelopes. adequate air exchanges should be Quality. Environmental Protection Agency.”
The stack effect’s process pulls hot provided, and air temperatures and Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.
epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html#Refguide.
air from the top of the building and humidity levels regulated to reduce
replaces (pulls in) cooler air from the build up of toxins and irritants. 11. Ibid.
the bottom. This in turn introduces Indoor air quality is an issue
unfiltered air into the building.25 that needs to be considered 12. Ibid.
in all architectural projects to 13. “Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings
While moving and mixing indoor avoid creating harmful indoor Resource Bank: Indoor Volatile Organic
and outdoor air are necessary environments. Compounds (VOCs) and Health.” Lawrence
for proper ventilation there arises Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www.
iaqscience.lbl.gov/overview.html.
an issue of pollutants in the Notes
outdoor air. Air cleaning methods 14. “The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air
1. “The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air
include particulate filtration-filters, Quality. Environmental Protection Agency.”
Quality. Environmental Protection Agency.”
electrostatic precipitation, negative Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.
Environmental Protection Agency. http://www. epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html#Refguide.
ion generation, and gas sorption- epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html#Refguide
binding. Filtration filters are simple 15. Ibid.
2. “Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings
filters whose porosity allows/ Resource Bank: Overview,.” Lawrence
restricts airflow and particulates 16. “A Brief Guide to Mold in the
Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www. Workplace,” Occupational Safety and Health
of various sizes. Electrostatic iaqscience.lbl.gov/overview.html. Administration, http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/
precipitation charges particles an shib101003.html.
3. Ibid.
opposite charge of the filter, such
that as the particles pass over 17. “Mold Resources” Environmental
4. “The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/mold/
the filter they are attracted and Quality. Environmental Protection Agency.” moldresources.html (accessed November 4,
retained. Negative ion generation Environmental Protection Agency. http://www. 2009).
epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html#Refguide.
charges passing particulates so that
their static nature will attract and 18. Sexton, Ken. Indoor Air Quality: An
5. “Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings Overview of Policy and Regulatory Issues.
adhere them to surfaces within the Resource Bank: Overview,.” Lawrence Science, Technology, & Human Values 11, no.
room. This reduces the amount of Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www. 1 (Winter, 1986), Sage Publications, Inc., p 57
iaqscience.lbl.gov/overview.html.
particulates in the air, and allows for http://www.jstor.org/stable/689045
easy cleaning. Gas sorption-binding 6. Sexton, Ken. Indoor Air Quality: An 19. “A Brief Guide to Mold in the
pairs particulates that act as gases Overview of Policy and Regulatory Issues. Workplace,” Occupational Safety and Health
with a binding agent that helps with Science, Technology, & Human Values 11, no. Administration, http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/
1 (Winter, 1986), Sage Publications, Inc., p 54
the particulates filtration.26 A lack http://www.jstor.org/stable/689045
shib101003.html.
of hygienic regimes within HVAC
20. Ibid.
ducts and equipment can lead to 7. “Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings
anthropogenic diseases such as Resource Bank: Overview,.” Lawrence 21. Ibid.
Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www.
Legionellosis. Symptons include iaqscience.lbl.gov/overview.html.
high fever, chills, and cough, but 22. “OSHA Technical Manual (OTM)
- Section III: Chapter 3: Ventilation
have been known to include muscle 8. “Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings Investigation,” Occupational Safety and Health
aches, and headaches.27 Resource Bank: Impacts of Building Administration, http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/
Ventilation on Health and Performance.” otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_3.html.

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 Indoor Air Quality

23. “Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality,” Figure 07:1. “Install Electrostatic Allergy Filters
EPA/NIOSH/Building Air Quality: A Guide for to Fix Household Allergies: American Fresh
Building Owners and Facility Managers, EPA Ducts,” http://www.afducts.com/filters.html.
Publication No. 4001/1-91/03, http://www.cdc. (accessed November 18, 2009).
gov/niosh/baqtoc.html.
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24. Ibid.
“Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings
25. Ibid. Resource Bank.” Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory. http://www.iaqscience.lbl.gov/
26. “Mitigating IAQ Problems,” EPA/NIOSH/ overview.html (accssed November 12, 2009).
Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building
Owners and Facility Managers, EPA “The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air
Publication No. 4001/1-91/03, http://www.cdc. Quality. Environmental Protection Agency.”
gov/niosh/baqtoc.html. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.
epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html#Refguide
27. “Patient Facts: Learn More about (accessed November 4, 2009).
Legionnarie’s disease,” Legionellosis
Resource Site. Centers for Disease Control Sexton, Ken. Indoor Air Quality: An Overview
and Prevention, http://www.cdc.gov/legionella/ of Policy and Regulatory Issues. Science,
patient_facts.htm Technology, & Human Values, 11, no. 1
(Winter, 1986), Sage Publications, Inc., pp.
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(accessed October 31, 2009)
Cover: “Indoor Air Quality.” Go Natural Baby,
http://www.gonaturalbaby.com/blog/indoor-air- “A Brief Guide to Mold in the Workplace,”
pollution/326/ (accessed November 18, 2009) Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/
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coolheatmechanical.com/indoorairquality.
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The missing ingreenient.” Presentation at the gov/niosh/baqtoc.html. (accessed November
University of Texas, Austin, Texas, Fall, 2009. 18, 2009).

Figure 03: Sexton, Ken. Indoor Air Quality:

An Overview of Policy and Regulatory Issues.
Science, Technology, & Human Values 11, no.
1 (Winter, 1986), Sage Publications, Inc., p 54
http://www.jstor.org/stable/689045 (accessed
October 31, 2009)

Figure 04: Sexton, Ken. Indoor Air Quality:

An Overview of Policy and Regulatory Issues.
Science, Technology, & Human Values 11, no.
1 (Winter, 1986), Sage Publications, Inc., p 56
http://www.jstor.org/stable/689045 (accessed
October 31, 2009)

Figure 05:1. “Hardman Construction, Inc -

Projects,” http://hci-nw.com/projects.html.
(accessed November 18, 2009).

Figure 06: 1. “ECONRG Ltd. Renewable

Energy Products, Ireland, Wexford, Solar
Panels, Energy, Wood Pellets, Air Ventilation,
Geo Thermal,” http://www.econrgltd.com/
irish_energy_solutions/air_ventilation.htm.
(accessed November 18, 2009).