ISSN 1712-8056[Print]

Canadian Social Science ISSN 1923-6697[Online]

Vol. 12, No. 7, 2016, pp. 13-17 www.cscanada.net
DOI:10.3968/8590 www.cscanada.org

The New Historicist Reading of Arthur Miller’s The Crucible

Fatemeh Mojdegani[a],*

[a]
University of Tehran, Kish International Campus, Iran. As a result, much critical examination has focused on
*Corresponding author. connection between the Salem Witch Trials and the so-
Received 24 April 2016; accepted 10 June 2016
called Communist with Hunts of the 1950s. However,
Published online 26 July 2016 few studies explore how the poetic language of the play
supports Miller’s social and political concerns.
In The Crucible, Arthur Miller, uses figurative
Abstract language-images, symbols, metaphors-indigenous to
New Historicism is a modern literary theory that the society of the play’s characters. The language of the
concentrates on how events, places, and culture within Salemites is steeped in the biblical and religious allusions
a society affect or influence a written work. New of their theocratic society. Moreover, the poetic language
historicism often looks for allusions to characterize of the of the text is distinguished by the use of opposites, which
time period a novel was written. This paper focuses on illustrate the extreme conflicts that polarize the Salem
The Crucible, a dramatic work by American playwright, Community. In this expression of opposites, Miller
Arthur Miller. The paper studies how The Crucible is effectively connects the parlous times of Salem village in
a vital part of America’s historical literature as well as the 1690s to the similar state of America in the 1950s. This
essential to the present day discussion of New Historicism is something that this article wants to explore about. This
that is greatly influenced by the work of Michael Foucault paper studies how The Crucible is a vital part of America’s
and his theories about power and discourse and Stephen historical literature as well as essential to the present day
Greenblatt’s idea of “textuality of history”. Despite the discussion of New Historicism that is greatly influenced
obvious political criticisms contained within the play, by the work of Michael Foucault and his theories about
most critics felt that The Crucible was a self contained power and discourse and Stephen Greenblatt’s idea of
play about a terrible period in American history. To put “textuality of history”. It has always been remarked by the
New Historicism as a mode of interpretation on this play, New Historicists that history is a complex phenomenon,
studies the complex networks of social discourses besides incorporating interacting discourses, and that literary texts
the concepts of power, subversion and resistance in this are woven through with social forces. In this interaction,
special way of reading of the play. the New Historicist critics often look for ways literary texts
Key words: New historicism; Power; Resistance; act subversively to divulge the lost or repressed discourses.
Subversion; Miller; History; Salem The question that is explored here is about the New
Historicist’s conception of power, its relation to the
Mojdegani, F. (2016). The New Historicist Reading of Arthur possibility of subversion or resistance; perhaps the most
Miller’s The Crucible. Canadian Social Science, 12 (7), 13-17. Available
from: http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/css/article/view/8590
contested issue in the ongoing debate.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/8590

1. WHAT HAPPENS IN THE CRUCIBLE?

Set in the village of Salem, Massachusetts in 1692, The
INTRODUCTION Crucible tells the story of what happens when the town’s
The Crucible has long been considered one of Arthur Pastor, Reverend Parris, spies his young daughter, Betty,
Miller’s more social—if not only political—plays. and a group of other girls from his church, dancing in

13 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture

The New Historicist Reading of Arthur Miller’s The Crucible

the woods. Betty is in a coma and her cousin, Abigail, New Historicism developed in the 1980s, primarily
admits that they were indeed dancing and accuses Betty of through the work of the critic Stephen Greenblatt, gaining
faking her illness to escape punishment. A neighbor, Ann widespread influence in the 1990s and beyond.
Putman arrives and says that her daughter is behaving New Historicists aim simultaneously to understand
strangely also, and that she has heard the rumor that the work through its historical context and to understand
Betty has been seen flying like a witch. She declares her cultural as well as to investigate the intellectual history
suspicion that Parris’s slave, Tituba has been introducing and cultural history through literature. The approach
the girls to native spiritual rituals and practices. She, owes much of its impetus to the work of Michel Foucault,
herself, has sent her servant girl to Tituba to find out who based his approach both on his theory of the limits
why she has lost so many of her babies. Reverend Hale of collective cultural knowledge and on his technique
is called in for a consultation on whether this is a case of examining a broad array of documents in order to
of some evil invading the community. Once the charge understand the episteme of a particular time. Using
of possible witchcraft is leveled, there is no turning Foucault’s work as a starting point, New Historicism
back for the people of Salem. As the play progresses we aims at interpreting a literary text as an expression of
learn of the disputes and jealousies that resided in this or reaction to the power-structures of the surrounding
farming community whose law is the dogma of their society.
faith and whose judges must uphold not only the law but Inspired by Foucault, New Historicism frequently
the authority and power of the church. Abigail and the addresses the idea that the lower common denominator
other young girls enter into a deadly game of naming as of all human actions is power. Therefore, the new
witches, the townspeople who try to reason with the court. historicists seek to find examples of power and how it
Many prominent and successful families are destroyed, is dispersed within the text. Power is a means through
giving rise to the question of why the young girls have which the marginalized are controlled, and the thing that
been given so much power. Why does the court believe the marginalized seek to gain. New Historicists seek to
adolescent girls over the stability of church members, who find “sites of struggle” to identify just who is the group or
by all accounts, have led good and productive lives? entity with the most power. New Historicism, being anti-
We begin to see that what the court wants is the establishment, always implicitly approves personal freedom
confessions of those who stand accused. It matters not if and celebrates all forms of difference and deviance.
they are guilty or innocent. It is the authority of the court New Historicism, though celebrates personal freedom
that cannot be questioned. Finally, John Proctor is faced and “deviant” thinking, suggests that it is “unthinkable”
with the decision to tell the truth, plead his innocence of because power is enabled and maintained by institutions,
witchcraft and hang, or to tell a lie and live. Elizabeth such as the court, the church, the colonial administration,
Proctor, who tells the only lie of her life in an attempt to the patriarchal family—and also diffused in ideological
save her husband, escapes the hangman because she is structures of meaning, characteristic modes of expression,
pregnant. When John Proctor declares he will plead guilty, recurrent narrative patterns.
Rebecca Nurse, the town’s midwife, is brought in from New Historicists, in course of interpretation, actually
her prison cell to witness his declaration in hopes that she situate the literary text in its context and recover as far
too will also plead guilty. She refuses and is shocked by as possible the repressed, contradictory or unknown
Proctor’s willingness to confess to a lie. When the Judges historical meanings or historicity of the text and then
try to force Proctor to name others and post his confession examine the relationship between these historical and
in public, he refuses because he has confessed to them cultural meanings of the text and the situation of the
before God. He admits that his confession is a lie. He is reader in order to arouse the readers’ cultural wonder at
taken to be hanged with the other accused. the resonance. In both the New Historicists, though they
are interested in issues of history, they interpret the term
history in a much broader sense. This group of scholars
2. NEW HISTORICISM AND LITERARY
does not take history and historical background just
STUDIES as political events of a period. Rather, they attempt to
New Historicism is an approach to literary criticism locate texts within other discourses which are prevalent
and literary theory based on the premise that a literary at the time. They want to emphasize that literature and
work should be considered a product of the time, place, history are inseparable. Williams and others emphasized
and historical circumstances of its composition rather the issue of class whereas Greenblatt emphasized social
than as an isolated work of art or text. It has its roots in and cultural practices that surrounded the text. A textual
a reaction to the “New Criticism” of formal analysis of representation or a literary text, therefore, is the product of
works of literature, which was seen by a new generation its negotiation with history and cultural exchange which
of professional critics as ignoring the greater social and becomes an interesting site for the New Historicists.
political consequences of the production of literary texts. Obviously, history cannot be known except through

Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 14

 Fatemeh Mojdegani (2016).
Canadian Social Science, 12 (7), 13-17

linguistic intervention and literature cannot be understood communists. The trials, which were well publicized,
without having knowledge of its historical context. The could often destroy a career with a single unsubstantiated
“textuality of history” with “the history of text” becomes accusation. Hollywood was hit directly by the McCarthy
the key concept of New Historicism as defined by Louis trials as screenwriters, playwrights, directors, musicians,
Montrose and quoted by Stephen Greenblatt in his essay and actors were brought in to testify. In all, three hundred
Resonance and Wonder (p.80). and twenty artists were blacklisted, and for many of them
The questioning of a text employed by the New this meant the end of exceptional and promising careers.
Historicists are more among these topics: Power relations, Arthur Miller realized that the lingo being thrown
containment and subversion of authority, historical cultural around by McCarthy sounded very similar to the language
pointers, language-knowledge-power connection, models used in the Salem Witch Trials (some 300 years before), a
of human personality, mapping of physical body and truth- historical period he researched heavily while in college. In
authority nexus that we will work with some of them in comparing the Salem witch trials and the McCarthy era,
studying this literary work that we want to speak about. there is a similar cocktail of fear, anxiety, passion, and
jealousy pervade the country that Miller shows completely
in The Crucible. Fear establishes its own reality, step by
3. THE NEW HISTORICIST STUDY OF step, as individuals abandon their own sanity in order to
THE CRUCIBLE be a part of the community mind, even if that community
mind is stricken with terror. We see this immediately in
In New Historicism, as said before, a literary work should the play, as Parris begins to elaborate on what he saw, or
be considered a product of the time, place, and historical what he thinks he saw, in the woods:
and social circumstances of its composition rather than as
I cannot blink what I saw, Abigail, for my enemies will not
an isolated work of art or text. The Crucible may well be blink it. I saw a dress lying on the grass . . . Aye, a dress. And I
called a social play, since it analyzes a public phenomenon thought I saw—someone naked running through the trees! (p.1)
with historical precedent and current actuality. But it
focuses on the subjective reality of that phenomenon; it Abigail challenges him:
cannot be judged merely on the literal accuracy or political No one was naked! You mistake yourself, uncle!” Parris
aptness of its topical allusions. Arthur Miller’s classic responds with anger: “I saw it! . . . Whatever abomination you
have done, give me all of it now, for I dare not be taken unaware
parable of mass hysteria draws a chilling parallel between
when I go before them down there (p.1).
the Salem witch-hunt of 1692—one of the strangest and
most awful chapters in human history - and the American We hear echoes of McCarthyism throughout such
anti-communist purges led by Senator McCarthy in the lines—the fear of the man who must testify before the
1950s. The story of how the small community of Salem is inquisitors, the willingness to accept their reality, his own
stirred into madness by superstition, paranoia and malice, gradually growing madness as he imagines something one
culminating in a violent climax, is a savage attack on the moment, is far from certain about what he has seen, and
evils of mindless persecution and the terrifying power of then the next moment is defending his imagined claim
false accusations. with indignant passion.
Throughout the 1940s and 1950s America was Senator McCarthy saw red everywhere, much as Hale
overwhelmed with concerns about the threat of and Parris see Satan everywhere. In trying to eradicate
communism growing in Eastern Europe and China. this perceived threat, an atmosphere of fear and paranoia
Capitalizing on those concerns, a young Senator named was created in both instances. Eventually, under extreme
Joseph McCarthy made a public accusation that more than pressure and fear of retaliation, like witnesses before
two hundred “card-carrying” communists had infiltrated HUAC, Mary Warren provides false testimony against
the United States government. Though eventually his John Proctor. People in both cases, like Mary Warren,
accusations were proven to be untrue, and he was censured were damned if they provided information and even more
by the Senate for unbecoming conduct, his zealous damned if they did not.
campaigning ushered in one of the most repressive times The belief that anything not American or democratic
in 20th century American politics. was evil in U.S. society during the 1950s was the basis of
While the House Un-American Activities Committee McCarthy’s attacks. Likewise, individuals in Salem who
(HUAAC) had been formed in 1938 as an anti-Communist did not abide by the prevailing morality were viewed as
organ, McCarthy’s accusations heightened the political evil. Using such a good versus evil morality and from
tensions of the times. Known as McCarthyism, the a position of superiority, men like McCarthy and Parris
paranoid hunt for infiltrators was notoriously difficult and Hale persecuted many innocent individuals on mere
on writers and entertainers, many of whom were labeled hearsay. Few men in the 1950s resisted HUAC as John
communist sympathizers and were unable to continue Proctor resists Salem officials. Lillian Hellman, a famous
working. Some had their passports taken away, while playwright, said during the HUAC hearings, “I cannot
others were jailed for refusing to give the names of other and will not cut my conscience to fit this year’s fashion”

15 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture

The New Historicist Reading of Arthur Miller’s The Crucible

(Schrecker, p.2). Such words echo those of John Proctor, The madness of many of the people in the play
who, when forced to provide false witness against others, corresponds with the madness of many Americans in the
declares: throes of the McCarthy era. Nobody wanted to be branded
I never knew until tonight that the world is gone daft with this
as a witch or as a communist, for to do so would mean
nonsense. (p.16) ostracism, at the very least, and a life lived as a marked
person. Many people did whatever they had to do, said
Clearly the act of naming names weighed heavily whatever they had to say, to avoid such a branding, such a
on Miller’s mind while he was writing The Crucible. stark alienation from the community.
The parallels between the events of Salem and Miller’s By defining New Historicism, it is also said that the
environment at the time, the McCarthy era, are easy to New Historicists seek to find examples of power and
draw. On February 9, 1950 McCarthy, who up to this the way that it is dispersed within the text. As Foucault
point was a rather unknown Senator, made a speech in believes power is a means through which the marginalized
Virginia in which he stated there were communists in the are controlled, and the thing that the marginalized seek
Department of State and he held in his hand a list of names. to gain. New Historicists seek to find sites of struggle
This was the beginning of a brief but damaging period to identify just who is the group or entity with the most
of hysteria in which Americans were interviewed about power. Possessing Power when an individual has the
their involvement in the Communist Party, pressured to ability to possess control or authority over others, they’ve
admit they were members and to name the names of other achieved power. Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible implies
members. Whether or not the accused were communists, the concept of how certain characters abuse their given
or whether or not the names of those brought forward did power to protect themselves or hurt others. Throughout
anything seemed to be a moot point. Many were accused the progression of the play, Parris’s high status allows
and many were named, with little proof. Being critical of him to dismiss the truth of witchery in order to keep his
the government, for example, was enough proof to convict standing. Unlike Parris, in order to escape her punishment
an individual as a communist. Abigail uses her power as a guard. Danforth’s position
Like those who answered “yes” to the McCarthy allows him to abuse his power for the keeping of the
question, Mary Warren, in The Crucible, is forced to court’s good reputation. Thus, as the plot progressed each
name names through fear and threats. When he is told that of the character’s power would betray the town therefore,
various individuals have confessed to being witches or creating the crucibles. This brought to light an adaptation
admitting others are, John Proctor responds by saying: of the Salem witch hunts which paralleled Miller’s, and
And why not, if they must hang for denying it? (p.36) many others’ traumatic experiences of being a communist
Proctor would rather face death by being honest with during the ‘communist hunt’ that took place around the
himself than falsely accuse others to save his own skin, 1950’s. As said before, this was the time of McCarthyism;
a choice not elected by many who faced HUAC in the the practice of making accusations towards treason,
1950s. The problem was when people named names disloyalty while turning a blind eye to the evidence. In
merely to deflect attention away from themselves. In the this playwright, as well as during the communist hunts,
play, this is certainly what Abigail and the girls do to one individual would accuse one another of what was
deflect attention away from their dancing in the woods: looked upon as a serious crime.
Those in a position of power, like Governor Danforth
I saw Sarah Good with the Devil! I saw Goody Osburn with the and the Reverend Parris, appear to be merely interested
Devil! I saw Bridget Bishop with the Devil! (p.10)
in perpetuating the power of the court and the church
When characters refuse to name names they get into and refuse to listen to dissenting views. They identify
trouble. In Act Three, Corey refuses to give the name themselves as part of the system and any dissent becomes
of his source that proves Putnam is falsely accusing his a personal affront.  Miller also suggests that they place
neighbors as witches: their faith in the girls because it is expedient to do so
as a means of reclaiming their eroding authority. As the
I will give you no name. I mentioned my wife’s name once and I’ll
burn in hell long enough for that. I stand mute. (p.23) “keeper” of justice, Danforth believes that people must
be sentenced to death if they do not confess. He follows
For this refusal, he is arrested for contempt of court procedures and refuses to admit Proctor’s deposition.  He
and eventually killed. When John attempts to confess in maintains that:
Act two, he also refuses to name names
A person is either with this court or he must be counted against
They think to go like saints. I like not to spoil their names. (p.36) it. (p.30)

The judge’s response is that John’s confession is a lie He maintains that 4,000 are already set to hang in
and invalid if he does not name names: jails upon his signature and 72 are ready to be hanging in
Proctor, you mistake me. I am not empowered to trade your life Salem here as well. There is “no road in between.” This is
for a lie. (p.36) the system of governing and judging in America in 1950s

Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 16

 Fatemeh Mojdegani (2016).
Canadian Social Science, 12 (7), 13-17

that Miller shows in the frame of a fiction in The Crucible. Other timeless issues provoked by The Crucible
McCarthy and his companions had identified themselves are the individuals social responsibility, integrity and
as part of the system that condemned many people without compromise; the power of guilt, love, conscious, fear, and
any logical and correct reason. This issue oppressed the hysteria; and adherence to supposedly religious principles.
sentenced people and the others a lot but nobody could The Crucible engages its audience with its treatment of
defend himself like the same we see in The Crucible. the subversive and the potentially transgressive; in short,
Danforth is convinced that “the voice of Heaven evil. Through the play, Miller clearly suggests that history
is speaking through the children” (p.81) and that any never really dies; rather, to use a cliché, it repeats itself.
hesitation would be to admit that he has already erred in Not only the play is about history, but also it has made
the sentencing of prior convictions. He does not brook history. Witchcraft may have been ruined in history, but
any exceptions and will not stay the proceedings because that does not mean it has been silenced. Indeed, Miller
this will cast aspersions on his honor and reputation, uses witchcraft and the Salem witch trials simply as a
which he confuses with the courts. When John Proctor metaphor for situations wherein those who are in power
and the Reverend Hale plead for the innocence of their accuse those who challenge them of suspect behavior in
loved ones and seek more time, Danforth dismisses their order to destroy them. Salem is an early example of what
concerns by stating that “it is not just” for those already Miller saw around him in the 1950s—the communist
found guilty. witch hunts and McCarthyism.
As said before, New Historicists visualized literary
works as cultural products and agents of ideology.
They see literature mediating rather than imitating CONCLUSION
human action. New Historicists see history not as blind To read The Crucible is to hold a mirror to America in
scholarship but a process, an ideology that completes itself 1950s and its current predicament. It is a unique piece of
upon the completion of a work of art. In The Crucible, literature that transcends the boundaries of the historical
the power of false accusations, the judicial system, and community in which it was written. Arthur Miller’s
consequences of abusive authority had a severe impact presentation of operation of power at various levels is
on these people’s lives, especially during the time of the an interesting site for the New Historicist critics. He
Salem witch trials. False accusations, often for personal has textualized the history and historicized the text as
benefit, were the major basis of the Salem witch trials. Greenblatt says that this issue produces both resonance
The young girls accused of being witches began accusing and wonder those are essential qualifications for a
others in the village in order to save themselves from great work of art. It was written in response to Senator
punishment. This only escalated into more dramatic events McCarthy and the House Un-American Activities
as the witch hunt progressed. More and more people Committee’s crusade against supposed communist
began turning on each other in order to save themselves sympathizers.  Despite the obvious political criticisms
and in some cases to increase personal wealth. These contained within the play, most critics felt that The
accusations cause the needless deaths of many innocent Crucible was a self-contained play about a terrible period
people and similar events still occur in modern times. in American history. Miller has reproduced a model of
An example of this is during the early 1950 in America historical culture, in which dissent is already suppressed,
where people were paranoid about communism when the subversion contained oppositional strategically, controlled
people were brought before the committee and were asked and defeated. He has tried to study social and cultural
to expose any communists that they knew or be labeled a issues in its historical and political contexts.
communist themselves.
In New Historicism, the concept of power and its
relation to the possibility of subversion or resistance is
REFERENCES
an important issue that Foucault points to them in this Bigsby, C. (2005). Arthur Miller: A critical study. Cambridge: UP.
approach. Miller wrote in his biography, Timebends, that Bloom, H. (Ed.). (1999). Modern critical interpretations: Arthur
The Crucible’s theme of resistance to tyranny was its Millerís The Crucible. Philadelphia: Chelsea House.
more important one. Relevant not only to the Salem witch Curtis, P. (1971). The Crucible. In G. Weales (Ed.), Arthur
trials and to the McCarthy hearings, this theme continues Miller the Crucible: Text and criticism (pp.255-71). New
to be relevant; it is a part of humanity that will be wrestled York: Viking.
with through the ages. We have Miller’s thoughts while Foucault, M. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.webs.wofford.
standing at Gallows Hill in Salem in 1953: edu/whisnant cj/his 389/foucault: 3-4
Miller, A. (1982). The Crucible. New York: Dramatists Play Service.
Here hung Rebecca, John Proctor, George Jacobs- people more Miller, A. (1987). Timebends. New York: Grove.
real to me than the living can ever be. The sense of a terrible
Marvel again; that people could have such a belief in themselves
Tiwary, N., & Chandra, N. D. R. (2009). New historicism and
and in the rightness of their consciousness as to give their lives Arundhati Roy’s works. Journal of Literature, Culture and
rather than say what they thought was false. Media Studies, 1, 79-96.

17 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture