TROPICAL DESIGN

MODULE O1: INTRODUCTION

Climate Responsive Architecture is a must in Building Design.

Architects must realize that the building skin is not just specifying materials and creating a façade for
aesthetics.

The building envelope serves as a climatic mesh that filters the outside environment to create a proper and
hopefully a comfortable indoor environment.

A climate responsive building envelope is only one functional criterion for correct design.

In the Philippines, hot humid conditions require protection from heat and maximum ventilation for interiors,
therefore, local designs should firmly consider these issues.

Proper fenestrations and building materials should be selected.

Opening fenestrations such as sun-shading devices should be considered by designers.

Good building orientation must also be looked at by architects to minimize direct solar radiation but
maximize potential for natural ventilation.

MODULE O2: CLIMATE ELEMENTS

BASIC CONCEPT:

"Weather" is the set of atmospheric conditions prevailing at a given place and time.

"Climate" can be defined as the integration in time of weather conditions, characteristics of a certain
geographical location.

At the global level climates are formed by the differential solar heat input and the uniform heat emission
over the earth's surface.

The movement of air masses and of moisture-bearing clouds is driven by temperature differentials and
strongly influenced by the Coriolis force.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATES:

1. Equatorial
Example: Those countries lying just above or below the equator, Southeast Asian Countries, Central America and the
Amazon Basin in South America
2. Cool Temperate
Example: N.W. Europe, Canada, and parts of North America
3. Warm Temperate
Example: Mediterranean Countries
4. Cool Temperate
Example: N.W. Europe, Canada, and parts of North America
5. Arctic
Example: Iceland, Greenland, Northern Russia, and China

For the purposes of building design a simple system based on the nature of the thermal problem in the
particular location is often used.

FURTHER CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL, SUB-TROPICAL & EQUATORIAL CLIMATES:

A. Warm Humid (Tropical Island) overheating is not as great as in hot-dry areas, but it is aggravated by very
high humidities, restricting the evaporation potential. The diurnal temperature variation is small.

B. Hot Dry (Arid/Maritime Desert) main problem is overheating, but the air is dry, so the evaporative
cooling mechanism of the body is not restricted. There is usually a large diurnal (day - night) temperature
variation.

C. Composite (Tropical Uplands)

Warm Humid:
High temp during the day, low diurnal change; Relatively high humidity: Heavy rains especially during
monsoon season; Cloudy and glaring sky; Lesser ground vegetation

Hot Dry:
Very high temp during the day; large diurnal range; can be quite low in winter; Low and very low humidity;
fairly constant throughout the year; Often low or very low precipitation; Little or no cloud. Cold and non-
glaring sky; Sparse and often bare ground vegetation. Very high glare from ground. Rich soil which only
requires water
Composite:
Mixture of warm/humid and hot/dry.; 1/3 to 2/3 ratio of monsoon period

The general climate (macroclimate) is influenced by the topography, the vegetation and the nature of the
environment on a regional scale (mesoclimate) or at a local level within the site itself (microclimate).
TROPICAL CLIMATE: PHILIPPINES
Temperature – average mean temperature (dbt) 20 – 30 deg C
small diurnal temperature change/range 2-5 deg

Humidity Levels - 50% - 100% Relative Humidity

Wind Conditions – Slow Wind Flow; Average of 2 m/s

PREVAILING WIND IN THE PHILIPPINES :

AMIHAN (NE) – NOVEMBER TO APRIL
HABAGAT (SW) - MAY TO OCTOBER
Sky Conditions – Overcast Sky most of the time; a lot of reflected heat/ solar gain

Precipitation – high during the year – average of 1000mm/yr

Precipitation (also known as one of the classes of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric water phenomena) is
any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity [1] The main forms of
precipitation include rain, snow, sleet, hail and graupel. It occurs when a local portion of the atmosphere
becomes saturated with water vapour and the water condenses. Two processes, possibly acting together, can
lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Generally, precipitation will
fall to the surface; and exception is Virga which evaporates before reaching the surface. Precipitation forms as
smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud.

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gaseous phase into liquid phase, and is the
reverse of evaporation.[1] When the transition happens from the gaseous phase into the solid phase directly,
the change is called deposition.

MICRO-CLIMATE:
Many factors contribute to micro-climate, for instance, the location of hills, rivers, streams and lakes, the
position of buildings and trees, whether the site is on coast or inland, in a town or in the rural areas,
whether the location is above sea level, etc.

OTHER MICRO-CLIMATE PHENOMENA ARE:

1. land/sea breeze
2. Courtyards
3. Evaporative cooling
4. Orientation
5. Slope of land height in relation to air movement, rainfall and temperature

URBAN CLIMATE:
Almost every city in the world today is hotter - usually between 1 to 4 deg C hotter - than its surrounding
area. This difference between urban and rural temperatures is called the "urban-heat-island" effect", and it
has been intensifying throughout this century.
ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE NEEDED IN DESIGN:

A. DBT (Dry-Bulb Temperature) – measurement of the temperature of the air and as far as possible
excludes any radiant temperature; measured in the shade.
instrument – silvered thermometer (in °F or °C)
- monthly mean of daily maxima (° C)
- monthly mean of daily minima (° C)
- standard deviation of distribution

B. Wind – direction, frequency and force of the wind throughout the year.
instrument – vane anemometer for high speeds kata thermometer for low speeds

C. RH (Relative Humidity) – amount of water in the air.

instrument – hygrometer (in %) or sling psychrometer
measured in 0F or 0C if WBT (wet-bulb temperature)
- early morning relative humidity (in %)
- early afternoon relative humidity (in %)

D. Precipitation – mainly rainfall but could also be dew.

instrument – rain gauge measured in inches or centimeters
- monthly total (in mm)

E. Sky – either cloud cover, measured in 1/8 or 1/10 or % of the sky covered, or it could be measured in
hours of sunshine
Cloud cover - based on visual observation and expressed as a fraction of the sky hemisphere (tenths, or
'octas' = eights) covered by clouds.
Sunshine duration - the period of clear sunshine (when a sharp shadow is cast), measured by a sunshine
recorder which burns a trace on a paper strip, expressed as hours per day or month.

F. Solar Radiation - measured by a pyranometer, on an unobstructed horizontal surface and recorded

either as the continuously varying irradiance (W/m2), or through an electronic integrator as irradiance over
the hour or day.

FOUR ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES DIRECTLY AFFECTING THERMAL COMFORT:

These are the four constituents of climate most important for the purposes of building design. Rainfall data
may sometimes be needed, such as for designing drainage systems and assessing the level of precipitation.

1.Temperature

2. Humidity

3. Solar Radiation

4. Air Movement
MODULE 03: CLIMATIC DESIGN

This is concerned with countries where discomfort due to heat and humidity are the dominant
problems.
Tropical Design is applicable to Tropical and Sub-tropical climates and Equatorial Climates covering the
Southeast Asian Countries.

IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATIC DESIGN

Climate has a major effect on building performance and energy consumption.

The process of identifying, understanding and controlling climatic influences at the building site is
perhaps the most critical part of building design.

THE KEY OBJECTIVES OF CLIMATIC DESIGN INCLUDE:

1. To reduce energy cost of a building

2. To use "natural energy" instead of mechanical system and power
3. To provide comfortable and healthy environment for people

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATIC DESIGN:

The local micro-climate and site factors will affect the actual environmental conditions of the building.

The important site-related factors should be considered when making the climate analysis:

1. Topography - elevation, slopes, hills and valleys, ground surface conditions.

2. Vegetation - height, mass, silhouette, texture, location, growth patterns.
3. Built forms - nearby buildings, surface conditions.

MAJOR THERMAL DESIGN FACTORS TO BE STUDIED INCLUDE:

1. Solar Heat Gain

2. Conduction Heat Flow
3. Ventilation Heat Flow.

THE IMPORTANT DESIGN VARIABLES IN ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSION :

1. Shape - surface-to-volume ratio; orientation; building height.

2. Building fabric - materials and construction; thermal insulation; surface qualities;
shading and sun control.
3. Fenestration - the size, position and orientation of windows; window glass materials;
external and internal shading devices.
4. Ventilation - air-tightness; outdoor fresh air; cross ventilation and natural ventilation.
DECEMBER 01 WEDNESDAY
MODULE O4: PASSIVE COOLING

PASSIVE COOLING
A cooling system using a building’s design and construction to maintain a comfortable temperature
within the building.

Passive design is essentially low-energy design achieved by the building’s particular morphological
organization rather than electro-mechanical means.

PASSIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES:

1. BUILDING CONFIGURATION, SITE LAYOUT and SITE PLANNING
Example : A building can be protected from direct sunlight by placing it on a location within the site
that utilizes existing features such as trees, terrain etc.

2. BUILDING ORIENTATION
Example : In tropical countries such as the Philippines, it is best to place service areas in the west and
east facing sides of the building because these sides are exposed to direct sunlight.

3. FACADE DESIGN
Use of Double-layered façade
Use Low-emissivity glass (Low-E glass)
Use of Insulation

4. CROSS VENTILATION
The circulation of fresh air through open windows, doors or other openings on opposite sides of a room
Cross ventilation: Cross ventilation is far more important in the tropics than in temperate zones. The
theoretical strategy for blocking or inducing wind flow into a building is based on local prevailing wind
conditions. Generally, for the tropical zones as much ventilation as possible is desired.

5. STACK EFFECT / CHIMNEY EFFECT

The tendency of air or gas in a shaft or other vertical space to rise when heated, creating a draft that
draws in cooler air or gas from below

6. SUNSHADING DEVICES

A. VERTICAL TYPES
Vertical Sun Shades are generally used on the East-Facing and West- Facing Sides
of a building
B. EGGCRATE TYPES
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Shades

7. WIND ANALYSIS
Wind direction: Desirable and undesirable winds in each of the climatic zones depend largely on local
conditions. Any breeze in the lower latitude (tropical and arid climates) is beneficial for most of the
year.
BUILT FORM
1. Zoning for transitional spaces -the traditional spaces used for lobbies, stairs, utility spaces,
circulation, balconies and any other areas where movement take place. These areas do not require
total climatic control and natural ventilation is sufficient. For the tropical and arid zones, the
transitional spaces are located on the north and south sides of the building where the sun's
penetration is not as great. An atrium can also be used a transitional space.

2. Use of atrium
In the tropical zone the atrium should be located so as to provide ventilation within the built form. In
the arid zone the atrium should be located at the centre of the building for cooling and shading
purposes.

DECEMBER 6 MONDAY

INFLUENCES ON BUILT FORM:

1. Form: Optimum building form for each climatic zone. Research has shown that the preferred length
of the sides of the building, where the sides are of length x:y, are: tropical zone - 1:3
Analysis of these ratios shows that an elongated form to minimize east and west exposure is needed at
the lower latitudes.

2. Orientation: Orientation as well as directional emphasis changes with latitude in response to solar
angle. Building's main orientation for tropical countries would have a directional emphasis on an axis 5°
north of east

3. Vertical cores and structure The arrangement of primary mass can be used as a factor in climatic
design as its position can help to shade or retain heat within the building form. For the tropical zone,
the cores are located on the east and west sides of the building form, so as to help shade the building
from the low angles of the sun during the major part of the day.
MODULE 05: CLIMATIC ZONES FOR BUILDING
Comfort Zone
The range of conditions under which most people feel comfortable. It is a function of a number of
variables

Thermal Comfort
Human comfort as determined by the ability of the body to dissipate the heat and moisture it produces
by metabolic action.

Relationship between the centre of the comfort zone and the annual mean temperature (Carl
Mahoney):
Tcc = Tam/4 + 17.2
where Tcc is the center of the comfort zone in E.T. oC
and Tam is the annual mean temperature
*Always correct to the nearest 0.5 upwards

To get the Tam (annual mean temperature):

Tam = (Highest DBT of the Year + Lowest DBT of the Year) / 2
Psychrometric Chart
A chart relating the wet-bulb and dry-bulb readings from a psychrometer to relative humidity, absolute
humidity and dew point

December 08

COMFORT ZONE

The comfort zone criteria given above are for sedentary activities:
discomfort due to slight sweating in sedentary activities may be more uncomfortable and disturbing as
it interrupts concentration.

The comfort zone is compared with the mean maxima (day) and minima (night) effective temperature
for each month to find out if the climate is comfortable or uncomfortable.

Recommendations to achieve comfort can be made for a great number of aspects from space between
buildings, building form, down to detail aspects of design.
§ consider window size together with other factors such as glazed area, orientation, shading and
building form consider thermal characteristic of roofs and walls, i.e., absorption of the surface and the
insulation of the construction.
MODULE 06: HEAT TRANSFER

(4) DIFFERENT WAYS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN BUILDINGS:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
4. Evaporation and condensation

CONDUCTION

The flow of heat through a material by transfer from warmer to cooler molecules in contact with each
other.

Conductivity is the rate of heat transfer that occurs through a unit thickness of material for a unit area
subjected to a unit difference in temperature.

Conductivity = per meter (thickness) / (area) * Temp difference (degC)

Conductivity (K value) = W/m degC

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.2m, area of wall is 12sqm and temperature difference is 3degC, then:
Conductivity = 0.2m/(12sqm * 3 degC) = 0.0056W/m degC

Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the flow of heat and is measured by the resistivity.

Resistivity = 1 / Conductivity = m degC / W

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.2m, area of wall is 12sqm and temperature difference is 3 degC, then:

Resistivity = (12sqm * 3 degC) / 0.2m = 180 m degC/W

For a given thickness of material, resistance to heat transfer is:

Resistance = Resistivity * t(mtrs) = m2 oC / W

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.20m, and resistivity is 180 m oC/W, then:

Resistance = 180 moC/W * 0.20m = 36 m2 oC/W

CONVECTION

Convection is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the flow of molecules from one place to
another.
Natural Convection is the movement of the molecules as a result of the heat energy they possess (i.e.
hot air rising).
Forced Convection results from the movement of molecules by pumps, fans, or other movement caused
by external forces.
The rate of flow of heat due to natural condition is usually measured by the conductance of a surface
or an air movement to a building construction.
Units are Watts / m2 Oc

Examples:
1. Warm air rising from register (forced convection).
2. Warm air rising from all surfaces of radiator (after air in contact with radiator has been heated
by conduction).
3. Warm air rising from (free convection).

RADIATION

Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves.

Radiation travels through air and the rate of transfer of energy is independent of the temperature of
the air.
The rate of radiation transfer is measured in Watts per m2.
The rate of flow of radiant heat from the sun can be found from the radiation overlay when it is placed
over the sun path diagram.
There are two terms commonly encountered while discussing radiant heat transfer:
Emittance (or emissivity), refers to the ability of a material’s surface to give off radiant energy. All
materials have emissivities ranging from zero to one. The lower the emittance of a material, the lower
the heat radiated from its surface. Aluminum foil has a very low emittance which explains its use in
reflective insulation.
Reflectance (or reflectivity) refers to the fraction of incoming radiant energy that is reflected from the
surface. Reflectivity and emissivity are related and a low emittance is indicative of a highly reflective
surface. For example, aluminum with an emittance of 0.03 has a reflectance of 0.97.

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION

HEAT GAIN AND COMFORT

Heat gain in the tropics is due mainly to solar radiation at the surface and only a smaller extent the
high air temperatures.

Heat gain in hot climates are highest when there are low wind speeds and less heat is transferred to the
air and more to the building surface.

Since major heat gain is from solar radiation, absorptivity of the surface to solar radiation is of primary
importance.

Absorptivity and the insulation must be chosen to minimize the proportion of heat from the sun which
penetrates the structure when the air temperatures inside and outside are similar.

Relative humidity in tropical regions are very high, hence air movement is the most effective way of
increasing comfort by encouraging the evaporation of sweat from the skin.

Design buildings thru which wind can pass with a minimum of obstruction.

Comfort in the warm humid tropics is achieved by encouraging cross ventilation while providing
protection from solar radiation.
MODULE 07: BASICS HEAT TRANSFER
Basics of Heat Transfer.

Insulation is measured as the air to air rate of transmission of heat per unit area – the “U” value.

The “U” value represents the rate of heat transfer from inside air per unit area per unit difference in
air temperature per unit time.

This is measured in Watts / sqm °C

U = 1 / sum of resistances

Sum of resistances include the following:

- Outside surface resistance
- Inside surface resistance
- Resistance of individual layers of the surface (Resistivity * thickness of each layer)
- Resistance of air spaces and cavities

The purpose of insulation is two-fold:

(1) to retard the flow of heat from one place to. another, and

(1) to maintain temperatures such that condensation does not occur on inside. surfaces.

... Insulation acts to reduce the rate of heat transfer by these methods

Example:
Calculate the “U” value of a brick wall with the following information:
- External surface resistance = 0.05 m2 oC / W
- Brickwall external sand rendering = 1.2 cm (resistivity 1.88 m oC / W)
- Brickwork = 20.0 cm (resistivity 0.83 m oC / W)
- Plaster (gypsum) = 1.0 cm (resistivity 2.17 m oC / W)
- internal surface resistance = 0.123 m2 oC / W

Solution:
External surface resistance: 0.050 m2 oC / W
Sand rendering resistance: 0.012 m * 1.88m oC / W = 0.025 m2 oC / W
Brickwork resistance: 0.200 m * 0.83m oC / W = 0.166 m2 oC / W
Plaster resistance: 0.010 m * 2.17m oC / W = 0.021 m2 oC / W
Internal surface resistance: 0.123 m2 oC / W

Sum of resistances: 0.385 m2 oC / W

“U” value = 1 / sum of resistances = 2.6 W / m2 oC
The rate of heat flow through a wall or roof (where the outdoor air is circulating freely through the
building) is given by the formula:

Q = U * A * (t0 – t1)

Where Q = rate of heat flow (in Watts)

U = “U” value
A = superficial area (sqm)
t0-t1 = difference between inside and outside air temperature

SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the outside air in contact with a shaded wall or roof which would give the same
rate of heat transfer and the same temperature gradient as the combined effect of solar radiation and
air temperature.
tsa = to + (X * I * ro)

Where tsa = sol-air temperature ( oC )

to = outside air temperature ( oC )
X = absorptivity of surface to solar radiation
I = intensity of radiation ( W / m2 )
ro = outside surface resistance ( m2 oC / W )

It is used to find the heating effect of the radiant heat load.

Example:
Wall surface = same as before where outside surface resistance is
0.05 m2 oC / W
Max. radiation = 600 W / m2
Absorptivity = 0.30
Air temperature = 20 oC

Then:
Sol-Air Temp = 20 oC + ( 600 W / m2 * 0.30 * 0.05 m2 oC / W )
= 20 oC + 9 oC
= 29 Oc
MODULE 08: SOLAR HEAT FACTOR

The percentage of incident solar radiation which is transmitted through a wall, assuming equal air in
temperatures on both sides.
The solar heat factor is proportional to the inside rise in temperature and is related to the radiant heat
from the ceiling or walls.
Radiation from the walls can be controlled by controlling the reflectivity and the “U” value of the
construction.
To avoid excessive radiation, the solar heat factor should not exceed 3% for roofs and 4% or walls in the
warm humid tropics.

q / I = 5 U*X %

Where q = heat transfer due to radiation = Q / A (heat flow per unit area)

q = U*A*(tsa-to) / A

q = U*( tsa –to ) from sol-air temp formula tsa = to + (X*I*ro)

q = U*( X*I*ro)

q / I = U*( X*ro ) if ro = 0.05 ----- 5%

Then q / I = 5 U*X %

Example:

From previous example of brickwall, “U” value is 2.6 W / m2 oC.

Absorptivity for external concrete rendering = 0.6

q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *2.6*0.6% = 7.8% > 4% max for walls

To reduce the solar heat factor to acceptable level;

reduce the absorptivity of rendering by using white wash or lime wash with an absorptivity of 0.30
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *2.6*0.3% = 3.9% < 4% max for walls OK

or reduce the transmittance “U” to 1.6 by adding 1cm of expanded polystyrene with resistivity of 30
(resistance is 0.01*30=0.30)
“U” = 1 / (0.385+0.30) = 1.46
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *1.46*0.6% = 4.38% > 4% max for walls
1.5cm of polystyrene (resistance 0.015*30=0.45), “U”=1/(0.385+0.45)
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *1.20*0.6% = 3.60% < 4% max for walls OK
TIME LAG

The time taken per fluctuation in temperature to pass through a material of unit thickness (hrs/m3oC).
Time lag depends on two properties:
- thermal capacity (amount of heat required per unit volume per degree rise in temperature)
- Rate of flow of heat

Time lag = thermal capacity / rate of flow of heat

The time constant of a composite temperature is the sum of the time constants of the individual layers.

STANDARDS FOR WARM HUMID CLIMATES:

Walls and Roofs should have:

A reflective surface (low absorptivity)

Light weight material (low heat capacity)
Insulation (low “U” value)

Solar Heat Factor: Roofs 3%

Walls 4%

Time Lag: 3 hours max.

To achieve this,

- Roof should have a cavity between the roof and ceiling. A reflective surface together with a cavity
will achieve standard.
- Heavy external walls should be restricted to day rooms, and should be as well shaded as possible.
MODULE 09: WIND AND AIR MOVEMENT

Air movement over the skin in warm humid conditions encourages evaporation of sweat from the skin,
causing a cooling sensation and lowering the effective temperature.

WIND GRADIENT

Variation in wind speed as wind speeds increase with the height above the ground, and the smoothness
of the ground surface.

As wind passes over hills, there is an increase in wind speed on the windward side and a more sheltered
area on the leeward side.

Although towns are “rough” and slow down the wind tail, tall buildings will often deflect strong winds
down to a lower level.

Corresponding openings on the leeward side must be carefully located to effect effective cross-
ventilation of all areas.

Wind shadows must be anticipated in order to be assured that other areas are not deprived of
prevailing breezes.

Buildings should be spaced so that openings do not occur within the wind shadow of the building in
front.

Average wind speed in the room will relate to the size of the opening, expressed as a percentage of the
wall area, taking either the outlet or inlet, whichever is the smaller.

Wind speed increases rapidly as the percentage opening area increases from 0 to 20%.

Above 30% increase in area, the windspeed does not increase so fast.

The variation in wind direction will alter the direction of the wind shadow, and allowance must be
made for these variations.

As a rough guide, the wind shadow will be 5 times the height of the building including the pitched roof.

The length of wind shadow for various shapes of buildings is given in the table, i.e., wind shadow length
chart.