Dynamic Space Frame Structures

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M.A.P.M. (Michel) Buijsen, 151 92 98

Building Technology Graduation Studio
Dynamic
Space
frame
structure
1
Dynamic Space Frame Structures

M.A.P.M. (Michel) Buijsen
Delft, 2011
2
Colofon
Student M.A.P.M. (Michel) Buijsen
Studentnr. 151 92 98
Tutors dr ir K.J. Vollers

ir A. Borgart
ir F.R. Schnater
Date 23 June 2011
Building Technology Graduation Project, 2011 Q3-4
Calatrava (2001) Quadracci Pavilion of the Milwaukee Art Museum (Milwaukee)

3
“Can you imagine, for example, a whole façade that gets transformed? Not
just half a façade, but the whole façade, like a curtain opening from one
side to the other.
This is, in my opinion, feasible today and certainly a challenge for the
new generation in the evolution of architecture.”
Cecilia Lew Kausel, Ann Pendleton-Jullian (2002) Santiago Calatrava: Conversations with Students (New York)
Princeton Architectural Press p. 35
4 Summary
The graduation research focuses on dynamic space frame Geometry
structures, a highly innovative field of investigation. The The geometry has been crucial for the project. The precedent
research towards these structures is divided into the structural analysis and study on structural basics for space frames
geometry and the design of the structural members, such as have introduced some very important principles regarding
the beams, connection points and actuators. for example stability. One of the main challenges of this
research was to design a structure which is dimensionally
As the research does not focus on a specific application or stable as well as dynamic. This has been realised by making a
architectural design, the research began very broad. It first structure which is composed of stable grid unit cells, which are
had to be determined which reconfigurations the structure arranged in a stable configuration. Thereby, the grid unit cells
should be able to handle. This needed an intensive study, are able to be reconfigured while remaining stable.
because it is complex to determine on maximal movement Another interesting study regarding the reconfigurability of the
while the intention of the research is to be widely applicable. structure relates to the structural elements which can alter their
lengths; the actuators. It has been thoroughly investigated
Transformation which group of structural elements could best be actuated.
The most interesting and feasible option was to take a planar Several aspects have guided this decisive process. The most
structure as a basis for transformation towards single- and important factor for the actuation was the achievable radius
double curved surfaces. For analysing different types of and thereby the dynamics which the structure would be able
transformations, an important distinction has been made to handle. This process has been developed simultaneously
between freeformed and developable surfaces. The main together with the design of the actuators. The most interesting
difference between them is the ability of the developable principle was actuating the bottom layer. A variation on this
surfaces to be translated into planar surfaces without in- concept was actuating the bottom layer partially, thereby
planar deformations. As freeform surfaces require in-plane only actuating the bottom layer elements in between of the
deformations, whereby these are far more complex to realise. grid unit cells.
Therefore, the transformation of the basic planar geometry has
been limited to single curvature and a ´molehill´ as case study Actuation
project for slight double curvature (see figure 1). Further investigation on several aspects of the design of
the actuators has given some very important conclusions
regarding the final actuation principle. These aspects are:
- Achievable radius
a. b. c.
- Angular alterations in the nodes
- Forces (actuators)
- Standard element lengths
- Minimal / Maximal length for the actuators
Fig. 1 Concepts for transformation

a. Basic shape
b. Concept 1 - Single curvature
c. Concept 2 - Double curvature
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The first two aspects, the achievable radius and angular Nodular system
alterations, can be related directly to the number of actuators. The last part of the research focused on the design of the
The principle of bottom layer actuation contains twice elements within the structure. The most important elements
as much actuators as the partial bottom layer actuation. are the nodes, which form the connections between the
Calculations have proved that hereby, the achievable (actuated) beams. For these nodes, four concepts have
radii with the same length alteration is twice as small in the been developed which all have potential in being applied in
partial bottom layer principle (6 metres versus 3 metres) and dynamic space frame trusses. The final model is based on the
the angular transformations in the nodes for this principle principle of creating a ball-and-socket joint. The main property
are twice as large. Minimizing the necessary angular and with which it distinguishes itself from the other concepts is that
length alterations of the structural members leads to less it is able to handle only small angular alterations for the bars.
complex detailing and more feasible end results. The forces As this is sufficient for the dynamic principle which has been
which the actuators should be able to handle have been developed, the nodes can be produced rather simple and
calculated for different element lengths. This study shows that inexpensive related to more complex node. The ball node is
the partial bottom layer actuation can only handle standard also very elegant and functions very well in receiving the fixed
element lengths of 1 metre versus 1,5 metres for entire elements.
bottom layer actuation. This is a very important conclusion,
because this leads directly to a reduction of the number of By finishing the project with the nodes, the research has dealt
structural elements and will thereby be more feasible from an with all the basic aspects for constructing a dynamic structure.
economical point of view. It has been a very inspiring study, opening up a new world to
explore.
The conclusion out of the analysis on these aspects is that
the entire bottom layer actuated structure is most feasible,
because it results in a more smooth curvature, whereby the
element lenghts can be longer and the angular alterations in
the nodes are smaller. This last aspect is important in deciding
on the nodular system.
Fig. 2 Movement within the structure Fig. 3 Conceptual drawing of the

Actuated members indicated in red Ball joint system
6 Preface
The first semester of Architectural Enineering - Building The conclusions of the former research have lead to another
Technology - has revealed my true fascination. The assignment field of innovation. The final design of the MSc1 project shows
prescribed nothing more than to create an innovative façade a universal node which is able to connect bars from multiple
system, in which the students were stimulated to push their directions. Therefore, it has to be able to alter its configuration.
main field of interest to the limit. These reconfigurable nodes provide the foundation for
dynamic space frame structures.
In this project, I focused on the field of space frame structures
for non-planar surfaces. These structures appear increasingly The futuristic architectural and technological field of dynamic
in the buildings nowadays because of to the developments in structures is currently in its development phase. For example,
digital modelling. As a consequence of the developments in the chair of Hyperbody, a research group directed by prof.
digital design, structural designs become even more complex. ir. Kas Oosterhuis at the TU Delft, "explore techniques and
I asked myself if it wouldn´t be great to design one element methods for designing and building of non-standard, virtual
which could be produced thousands of times and be applied and interactive architectures"1. Furthermore also the Adaptive
on a large variation of space frame structures with different Building Systems group focuses on issues as Digital design,
shapes? Sensory and perception, User-building interaction and Kinetic
structures2 .
The structure of these space frames consist only of bars
and their connections to each other. As the bars are only The opportunities offered by the former project in combination
a variation in length I decided to focus thoroughly on with current research topics form the base for the graduation
developing an innovative structural node, able to connect project. It will further develop on the former project, whereby
bars from multiple directions. This node would give architects a the purposes of the research will be broadened. The main
lot of freedom in designing complex structures. goal of the research is then to result in the creation of a
dynamic space frame structure!
As the project developed, I have been working on a highly
intelligent node together with my fellow-student Gijs Leffers.
The most important question resulting from the research
concerns current developments of digital designs related to
the production industries. The File-to-Factory principle uses
7
I would like to thank all of my tutors gratefully. Karel Vollers has

from the beginning on believed the possibilities and feasibility of
the research project. He was a great source of inspiration and
was also important for keeping my feet on the ground when my
ideas got overly ambitious. Andrew Borgart has been essential in
stimulating and evaluating on the ambitious research potentials
from a practical and feasible point of view. Frank Schnater has
been crucial in keeping the research within the boundaries and
coordinating the overall research process. I would also like to
thank Michela Turrin for her enthusiastic and very helpful support
from the beginning on.
I got a lot of energy and ambition out of the surprising and

supporting reactions of family and friend, colleagues, other
students and people who are just walking by. I would like to
thank everybody who has contributed to this inexhaustible and
essential source of energy.
Image: ONL (2006) Wireframe render of ‘The Cockpit’ (Utrecht)

1. http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=022afd95-6275-4991-9060-02b2b2aefad3&lang=en (08 May 2011)
2. http://www.bk.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=eacb5c10-640a-4001-bbcf-e0a2e38fe734&lang=nl (08 May 2011)
8 Content
1. Project description 11
2. Theory on geometry 17
3. Geometry 33
4. Dynamics 47
5. Structural elements 71
Future developments 88
Evaluation 90
List of images 92
Sources 94
ONL (2006) BMW Ekris (Utrecht)

9
Foster and Partners (2004) Great Court of the British Museum (London)
1
Project description
The explanation of the ambition has showed the intention of the project.
This first chapter will deal with the method which is used to research on this
technological and architectural innovative field. Thereby it will also treat the
project boundaries and constraint which have been stated, to prevent getting
off the track while still aiming at researching within broad perspectives.
12 Dynamic Space Frame Structure
Building Technology Graduation Project 2010-'11
Michel Buijsen | 151 92 98
23rd June 2011
1.1 Research question

The ambition has introduced the goal of this research, to determined while the research develops. However, some
build a dynamic structure. Because there has not yet been project boundaries can be defined to prevent the research
researched a lot on this topic, the intention is not to focus from going off track.
immediately on a very specific question or solution.
The project intends to research on dynamic structures without
lots of constraints to stimulate free thinking of innovative
How can a space frame structure be possibilities. Thereby the research only focuses on the structure
constructed, being both dimensionally of the space frame itself, leaving out the ´secondary´ structure
such as the columns. Also the connections to the skin around
stable as well as dynamic? the structure which make it wind- and watertight are left out
of the question. Thereby the focus is totally concentrated on
The research has been divided in two main aspects which designing a dynamic space frame.
are the basis for the structure. The first topic treats the overall
geometry of the structure. The geometry is not only able to The structure will not be designed for a specific project or
influence the structural behavior and the ways of movement, purpose. As the need for dynamic architecture will feed itself,
but also the aesthetics. When the geometry of the structure is this research is intended as a kick off for making dynamic
determined, the research is able to zoom in on the different structures, considered from a practical point of view. By
elements within the structure. The second part of the research this important practical aspect, the research will distinguish
therefore focuses on the design and detailing of the nodes itself from previous studies. This practical view consideres the
and the beams. following aspects:
The main question for the geometry is: - Constructional stability

The basic property of a structure is to be dimansionally stable.
How can a geometry be designed as being This implies that it will not be able to move uncontrolled. This
both dimensionally stable as well as dynamic, part does not have to be calculated, but can be analyzed
considered from a practical point of view? using methods which will be discussed. This is a critical issue for
the project.
The main question for the structural elements is:
How can the structural elements, the nodes - Controlability of the dynamics
and bars, be designed as being able to adjust Certain solutions will require specific and difficult ways to
control the movement of the structure. As making a dynamic
themselves to transformations of the geometry? structure is the final goal, it is important to take a close look on
this difficult aspect.
The questions already show the way in which the project
has to evolve. The geometry is the key to the design of the - Economical feasibility
structural members, able to provide constraints for the designs While designing the structure, every option and every choice
of these elements. Thereby, it is not recommended to define during the development will be subjected to economical
constraints at the beginning of the project, as they will be feasibility. This does not necessarily exclude certain options,
13
Project description
but makes sure that the final design will still be feasible. - Constructional calculations
Keeping this aspect in mind, it is for example important to try to As explained, the constructional stability will be treated,
use no, or as less as possible, very expensive elements. because this is of basic importance. Calculations can
provide even more detailed information, such as the
- Technical feasibility deformation of the structure and the forces in the nodes.
The concepts and designs have to be technical feasible. This However, this part will not be treated but assumed from
means that they have to be able to be made using not too earlier realized static structures. In the case that the structure
difficult processes, because this would only result in a more will have to take higher loads, these elements will be over-
valuable structure. It is also difficult to make a prototype of dimensioned.
complex products, which is of main importance in proving that
l the Response
design of a project functions as it is designed
to changing Response to. artificial - Border of the structure
The natural
followingconditions
aspects will be left out: environment The research will focus upon the structure itself and will not
Environmental Architectural treat connections to for example the ground floor, a wall or
- Application(s)
impacts criteria columns. This would again be a very specific field to research
It is important to realise that the research project is intended as upon once this project has resulted in a feasible concept.
an exploration on the field of dynamic structures.
- Ventilation (wind)
- Sun (solar power, passive energy reduction
It is therefore
- People walking by
not directly related to an architectural project or case study.

- Rain - Connections to a weather- and wind proof building skin
- Surface water
However, previous and current researches already show that Just as the borders of the structure will not be treated,
there is large interest for dynamic Response structures. Some examplar
to functional the connections
Responsetotothe physical skin will also be
changing left out. artificial
Response
applications are illustrated in figure 1.1.1. When the research The materialisation of the skin itself could already form an
requirements natural conditions environment
develops,
Wind
certain constraint will have Usertobehaviour
be made. Hereby the interesting new research project.
Environmental Architectural
end result could be subjected to a case study model.
impacts criteria
- Resizing spaces - Ventilation (wind) - People walking by
sponse to functionalProviding shelter -Response
Open / Close space to changing -
-
Response artificial
Sun (solar power, passive energy reduction
Rain
quirements Air out natural conditions -
environment
Surface water
er behaviour Environmental Architectural

a. impacts
b. criteria
Wind
izing spaces - Ventilation (wind) - People walking by
en / Close space
Air in - Sun (solar power, passive energy reduction
- Rain
- Surface water
Providing shelter
c. Summer d. Air out

Sun protection Winter
(summer)
Wind
Fig. 1.1.1 Potential fields of application1

AirEnvironmental
a. in impacts (ventilation)
b. Functional requirements (expanding space)
c. Environmental impacts (sun inlet)
Providing shelter
d. Architectural requirements
1
Source: www.adaptivebuildingsystems.com (31-01-2011)
Summer
Air out Sun protection Winter
(summer)
23rd June 2011
1.2 Research method It is important to define a clear research method, which is the
line which guides the research towards the end result. This
part will treat the method which was used for this research,
illustrated in figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2.
Research The central topic of the project focuses on dynamic structures.

Multidisciplinary approach Because there are currently a lot of developments in this
field of innovation, it is important to take a close look upon
literature which already has been published. This knowledge
then has to be further developed. This will be done by a
method called 'research by modelling', in which making
physical models is important to gain more insight in certain
ideas. Thereby these models are a great tool to visualize these
ideas, understand their composition and generate new ideas.
Structural
Geometry Feedback
elements To structure the research on dynamic space frame structures,
“Comparison of the effect
with the original intention.” it has been divided in two main topics. The first topic treats
the overall aspects of the total structure. Within this field, the
structural geometry is of main importance. The geometry
is able to influence the structural behavior, the ways of
movement and the aesthetics.
Determining the geometry enables the research to zoom in

on the different elements within the structure. Space frame
structures consist of length members, for example bars or
tensioned cables, and their connectors, also known as nodes
or joints. The structure will contain different types of these
Structure Node elements. Some bars will for example have to be able to alter
their length whereas others have got fixed lengths. These
variations will also occur in the nodes, of which some will have
to be able to connect another number of length elements
and some connections will have to be fixed and others have
to be dynamic.
Dynamic structure During the research, both parts have been developed
simultaneously. First they will not be confronted with several
aspects and constraints to stimulate freedom in thinking of
Fig. 1.2.1 Description of the Research Method new ideas and concepts. Ideas with a high potential will be
tested and confronted with some constraints which creates
´feedback´. Hereby, the different research topics will be
geared to one another.
15
Project description
Inspirations
The inspiration for these new ideas comes from multiple
sources. A literature study will gain more insight in precedents
and current possibilities. Because of the actual developments
in the research on dynamic structures, inspirational texts can
Research not only be read in books but also in papers and patents
Multidisciplinary approach which provide more actual developements.
Fresh inspirations from the literature study have to be

developed into ideas and concepts. As explained,
research by modeling is of great importance in this topic.
These physical models are able to help experimenting and
visualising until a certain extend. When the models become
1. Literature larger and more complex, the simplified materials which are
Structural
Geometry used will result in inaccurate models. Digital models enhance
Books, papers, patents, ... elements
solutions to generate simulations of complex models.
The best 3D drawing software to use for this purpose is a
2. Physical models combination of Rhinoceros and Grasshopper. Rhinoceros is
three dimensional drawing software, for which Grasshopper is
Geometries and elements a plugin with the ability to generate parametric models.
3. Digital models Research on the geometry and structural elements will lead
to one or several concepts which have got the potential to
Rhino, Grasshopper
be realized. These concepts will be analyzed and evaluated,
(parametric)
resulting in a final model. The final structural design and the
designs of the structural elements together form the dynamic
4. Analysis and Evaluation structure.
Structure Node
Constraints
In this research, it is important not to focus too much on the
first generated idea. Probably there is no optimal solution,
but several solutions will seem feasible. These will also all
contain different advantages and disadvantages. The more
Dynamic structure solutions there will be considered, the better the final solution
will be as it then can then be a combination of several
good concepts. The broader this research will be, the more
chances of diverging studies which lose their relevance will
Fig. 1.2.2 Description of the Research Method
be present. Therefore, several aims and constraints have to
be kept in mind very carefully.
“A robot senses the world that surrounds it.
It computes the information it receives.
It acts in the world.
It responds to uncertain environments.
Robots and other smart machines have the

potential to dramatically change the human
environment and the shape of our cities.”
Introduction to the project ´Robotic City´
http://www.thewhyfactory.com/?page=project&project=45&type=active (01 May
2011)
Fuksas (2009)Double curved roof of 'My Zeil', shopping centre in Frankfurt

2
Theory on geometry
This first chapter will deal with the theoretical principles
regarding the categorization of precedent structures and
the numerical analysis on stability. This knowledge provides
the basis to be able to analyse principles and concepts of
the next coming chapters.
23rd June 2011
2.1 Common geometrical typologies

To be able to research on the geometry which is most Within the categorization of multi-layer grids, there is an
suitable for the dynamic application, one has to understand important distinction between space frame and lattice
what geometries are applied in structures and what their structures.
properties are. To begin with, a categorisation has to be Space frame structure - Double layer structure in which the
developed in which the most common structures can be bottom horizontal member is not set in the same vertical plane
subsumed. A lot of research has already been done on the under the top horizontal member (figures 2.1.3a-f).
structural design of space structures. This has led to a variety Lattice structure - Structure in which the bottom horizontal
of terms, which will first be dealed with. The coming chapters member is set in the same vertical plane under the top
will treat precedent structural typologies. Before analysing horizontal member (figures 2.1.2a-b).
these, terms will first be explained which will be used to
distinguish and characterize the typologies. Some multi-layer structures show a very obvious repetition
of 3D cells which are called the grid unit cells. The design of
Layers many common multi-layer structures can also be regarded
single-layer, double-/ multi-layer as a result of connecting grids by bracing members. In those
Structural members within or parallel to the building skin cases the typical grid unit cell cannot always be clearly
form a layer. If there is more than one layer, they will be distinguished.
connected by diagonal bracing members.
The most common used multi-layer space frame structures are
For structures with low out-of-plane loads, a single-layer showed in figure 2.1.2 and 2.1.3. A structural analysis of these
structure is sufficient. This is mostly the case for vertical planes. typologies reveals interesting results which can be noticed
A double layer structure provides much more stiffness and as important principles before developing on the dynamic
can take much higher out-of-plane loads. Therefore it is used structure.
for larger, horizontal spans such as roof structures. The double
layer structure is the most common used multi-layer structure The main striking result is that all structures are build up from
(structure with more than one layer). More than two layers two-way grids. The six geometries show a variety of possibilities
are seldomly applied only in very specific structures. in which the squared grid can be applied. Figure 2.1.3a
shows the most common structure of a square-on-square
Grids typology in which the corners of the squares in the top layer
two-way, three-way, four-way are positioned above the centres of the squares bottom layer.
The structure is build up from a grid in which the structural Figure 2.1.3b shows a variation in which the bottom layer has
elements are arranged in several directions forming a grid size which is twice the size of the top layer, resulting
triangular, quadrilateral,hexagonal or other polygonal in a visual and structural lighter construction because of the
patterns. The grids are categorized according to the empty spaces in the middle of the large squares in the bottom
number of directions in which the elements are arranged. layer. This same principle is repeated in figures 2.1.3c-d, where
In squared forms (quadrilateral), the elements are arranged the grid is not orthogonal, but diagonal. Then there is also
in two directions and are therefore called two-way grids. a typology which combines the diagonal and orthogonal
Triangular grids consists of three directions and some specific arrangement in respectively the top and bottom layer. In
geometries have got four directions. these structures, the bracing members are in line with the
19
orthogonal grid, creating another visual effect. Most of these

alterations do not lead to very important structural changes,
as all of these structures create stiff tetrahedronal grid unit
Theory on Geometry
cells.
Two-way grids are most commonly applied because they form

the clearest and simplest stiff arrangements. For the design
of the joints, where the structural members are connected to
each other, it is important that the number of bars is limited.
In two-way multi-layer structures, at least eight bars are
connected to each joint of which four bars are members of
a layer and four bars are bracing members. In single layer
structures, one node can handle more than just the four bars
of a two-way grid, resulting in three- and even four-way grids.
Applying these grids in multi-layer structures would result in
complex connections.
Fig 2.1.1 Common used single layer grids

Two-way grids (top left, top center)
Three-way grids (top right, bottom left, bottom center)
Four-way grids (bottom right)
23rd June 2011
Fig 2.1.2a Lattice structure Fig 2.1.2b Lattice structure

Two-way grid Three-way grid
Fig 2.1.3a Square on square Fig 2.1.3b Square on larger square

One of the six most common topologies One of the six most common topologies
21
Theory on Geometry
Fig 2.1.3c Diagonal on larger square Fig 2.1.3d Larger square on diagonal
Fig 2.1.3e Diagonal on diagonal Fig 2.1.3f Diagonal on square

23rd June 2011
2.2 Dimensional stability

For the geometry of dynamic structures it is important As figure 2.2.1 shows, in two dimensional structures only the
that the structure is able to remains standing in different triangular structure is stable. The joints and tubular members
configurations. The essence to achieve this lies in being can be coded with respectively 'k' and 's'. A formula shows the
dimensional stable. A structure is dimensionally stable if it relation between the number of joints and tubular members
does not change its configuration as a result of external for a stable structure in the following way:
forces. Hereby the joints are hinged, because otherwise Triangle For n extra triangles
the bending moments will occur in the tubular members. Joints 'k' 3 n k = 3 + n
Different forms will be analyzed to demonstrate this principle Tubular members 's' 3 2n s = 3 + 2n
and relate it to certain common used geometries.
To remove the value n, the formula for the tubular members
A combination of vertices and lines determine the geometry is subtracted from the formula for the number of joints, which
of a form. The form with the least number of elements is the multiplied by two. This results in the formula s = 2k - 3. It is very
triangle, bounded by three vertices and three edges. Adding important to notice that this formula is a necessary condition,
a vertex and an edge results in a rectangle and n more but is not sufficient. This means that the formula has to be right,
vertices and n more edges result in other polygons. Let´s first but if it is right it can still not be ensured that the structure is
take a closer look upon the triangles. stable. This will be explained by the some examples, illustrated
in figure 2.2.2.
When taking a closer look upon triangles, it can be noticed
that a triangle is build up from three edges which have each Figure 2.2.2a and b show several stable triangles for which also
got a specific length. These edges are able to only sompose the formula is right. In figure 2.2.2 six triangles have generated
one kind of triangle, which is therefore also does not have a closed hexagonal form, in which the formula is not right,
the ability to alter its form. This contradicts to rectangular but the structure still is stable. On the contrary, figure 2.2.2d
forms, containing four edges with each a specific length. illustrates a structure for which the formula is right but the
Unless some of the joints are stiff, the rectangle is able to alter structure is not stable. With only one member moved, figure
its form resulting in lozenge-shaped forms. Xe illustrates a stable structure. By these examples can be
concluded that the formula has to be right, but it does not
necessarily give a stable structure. Nor does the formula have
to be right for a structure which is stable.
a. b. c. As the stability of a structure cannot be numerically

determined, a few rules of thumb enable examining the
structure. This is illustrated in figure 2.2.3.
Fig 2.2.1 Dimensional stability of different forms

a. Triangular structure
b. Quadrilateral structure (without forces on the structure)
c. Quadrilateral structure (with forces)
23
1. Check the structure on (stable) a. b. c. d. e.

triangles
Theory on Geometry
These forms are stable
2. Check if at least one edge of the
triangles is connected to another
stable form
This configuration of forms is stable s = 2k - 3 s = 2k - 3 s = 2k - 3 s = 2k - 3 s = 2k - 3
3. Check if the other (non-stable) s=5 s = 11 s = 12 s = 15 s = 15
forms are connected to at least k=4 k=7 k=7 k=9 k=9
n edges by maximal two stable
configurations. The number (n) of 5 = 2*4 - 3 11 = 2*7 - 3 12 = 2*7 - 3 15 = 2*9 - 3 15 = 2*9 - 3
edges is determined by 5=5 11 = 11 12 = 11 15 = 15 15 = 15
the number of edges minus two. Fig 2.2.2 Check of dimensional stability by using the formulas
This structure is stable The red forms and red calculations show where respectively the structure is instable or the calculation is wrong
a. b. c. d. e.
Fig 2.2.3 Check of dimensional stability by rules of thumb

The red geometry and red calculations show where respectively the structure is instable or the calculation is wrong
a. An instable, non-triangular form is surrounded by a stable configuration and three different stable forms
b. An instable, non-triangular form is surrounded by three stable configurations
c. A stable, non-triangular form is surrounded by two stable configurations
d. A stable, non-triangular form is surrounded by one stable configuration and contains two free edges
e. An instable, non-triangular form is surrounded by one stable configuration and contains three free edges
23rd June 2011
2.3 Geometry Polygons, Polyhedra and Solids

The report has to deal with a lot of specific terms. Some of Polygons and polyhedra have a lot of properties in common.
these are general and others are user-interpreted. In this The polygonal properties explain how regular polygons are
section, the relevant terminology for the geometrical study composed. In the same logic, polyhedra can also be classified
will be explained. as being regular and semi-regular. The regular types contain
edges of equal length and equal angles, whereas semi-
Geometrical elements regular types are composed of a variety of regular types. The
Polygon Planar 2 dimensional face (F), difference can also be explained in the following way:
bounded by a closed path composed of
straight line segments (E) running through "Regular polyhedra have only one kind of 'dihedral' angle
vertices (V) (angle between two faces) and 'Vertex figure' (figure
Polyhedron "Many faced 3 dimensional [shape], obtained by joining the mid points of edges around a vertex).
composed of points, lines and planes, Semi regular polyhedra have more than one kind of dihedral
generally referred to as vertices (V), faces (F) angle and the vertex figure is a non-regular polygon."
and edges (E) respectively." [Narayanan, 2006, p.779]
[Narayanan, 2006, p.779]

Vertex (V) Point element There are five types of regular polyhedra, which are known as
Edge (E) Straight line element Platonic solids, discovered by Plato (see figure 2.3.3). There are
Face (F) Planar 2 dimensional surface also fourteen types of irregular polyhedra, of which thirteen
are known as the Archimedis solids, discovered by Archimedis
Polygonal properties (see figure 2.3.4). The fourteenth has been discovered by
Cyclic Polygon in which all vertices lie on a single Ashkinuz. For this case, mainly the regular polyhedra are
circle important because of their properties to be repetitive in
Equilateral Polygon in which all sides are of equal length terms of edge lengths and face figures. The definitions of the
Regular Polygon which is both equilateral and cyclic polygons and polyhedra are both derived from the number of
edges.
Polygonal and polyhedronal properties
Convex Form in which one of the interior angles (angle
of two edges measured in a vertex) is more
than 180 degrees (figure 2.3.2a)
Concave Form in which all interior angles are less than
180 degrees (figure 2.3.2b)
Compositions of geometrical elements

Grid 2 Dimensional network of lines which are
parallel to each other positioned under equal
distances in multiple directions
Pattern Repetition of forms (2D) or shapes (3D)
25
a.
V E
Theory on Geometry
F
b.
Fig 2.3.1 Random structure

Containing vertices (V), edges (E) and
faces (F)
c.
d.
a. b.
Fig 2.3.2 Convex (a) and concave (b) polygons e.

Whether or not a polygon is concave can be checked by drawing a line which runs through a
vertex. When this line touches the polygon twice, the polygon is concave (b)
Fig 2.3.3 Five Platonic solids and their nets

a. Tetrahedron
b. Cube
c. Octahedron
d. Dodecahedron
e. Icosahedron
23rd June 2011
2.4 Geometry Surfaces

The surfaces which are relevant for this study, can be Freeform surfaces
divided in two categories. The first cateogory is that of the Freeform surfaces can be categorized in bézier surface and
developable surfaces, the second one treats freeform B-Spline and NURBS surfaces (figures 2.4.3). Bézier surfaces are
surfaces. named after the bézier curves, from which the surfaces are
build up. The B-Spline and NURBS surfaces are constructed
Developable surfaces from control points instead of curves. These surfaces can
Developable surfaces are characterized by the property that be constructed in an open or closed mode. As the various
they can be mapped isometrically into the plane [Pottmann, applications for the dynamic structure focus on the skin of a
2007] building, the closed mode will not yet be relevant.
Surfaces which are developable can be folded from a The developable surfaces have shown three types, of which
planar surface. Three basic types of developable surfaces the cylinder and the cone are curved in one direction, also
are cylinders, cones and tangent surfaces of space curves, called single curved. Double curved surfaces belong to the
illustrated in figure 2.4.1. Cylinders are formed by 'a family category of freeform surfaces. Making freeform surfaces
of parallel lines' [Pottmann, 2007]. Cones consists of lines dynamic is very hard, because each cell has got a different
which connect the central vertex point with points at the shape. This can be demonstrated by dividing a sphere into
base (figure 2.4.2). Concerning the central points for the segments. However the earth is a closed shape, its division
rotation, the three types of developable surface have other into degrees of latitude and degrees of longitude is a very
properties. The cylinder has got one center vertex, which is clear example. In the most common division, one can see that
extruded parallel to the extrusion of the base curve creating the segments are more narrow towards the top. An attempt
a straight central axis. None of the lines of the cylinder touch to divide the earth into equal pieces has resulted in the grid
the central axis. The cones also have one vertex which is structure which is illustrated in figure 2.4.4.
joined by all the lines. The tangent surface is a combination
of multiple central vertices which are spread over a space So, it is possible to create a sphere out of equal segements.
line. Regarding the outfolds of the curved surfaces, notice However, outfolding this sphere will result in a non-regular
that the cylinders and the cones consist of equal segments grid, as has already been discussed and illustrated in figure
and the tangent surfaces of a space curve are all unique 2.4.4. Therefore, these shapes cannot be transformed into
segments. planar surfaces. An investigation on possible deformations
for developable and freeform surfaces will follow in the
Developable surfaces have the ability to only generate very next chapter, resulting in constraints for the structure and its
limited transformations. Basic geometries for the structure geometry and nodular system.
will consists of one or two types of cells, resulting in the ability
to create cylindrical or conical curved surfaces out of a
planar surface. If more complex transformations have to be
achieved, the cells will have to be able to alter their edges
resulting in for example trapezoids from squares.
27
Theory on Geometry
a. b. c.
Fig 2.4.1 Developable surfaces Fig 2.4.2 Unfolding a cone

a. Cylinder
b. Cone
c. Tangent surface of a space curve
a. b.
Fig 2.4.3 Bézier (a) and B-Spline surfaces (b) Fig 2.4.4 Unfolding a geodesic sphere
23rd June 2011
2.5 Geometry Transformations

After having explained the differences and properties in the plane depends on the radius of the base of the cone.
between developable surfaces and freeform surfaces, It generates a specific shape and is thereby not universally
the time has come to start making first constraints. In this applicable. The single- and double curvatures show interesting
chapter, different basic shapes will be subjected to different aspects, but do not very much transform the shape of the
transformations (figure 2.5.1). After analysing the possibilities it cone. Another important aspect for the cones is that they are
will be determined which structure will be chosen to develop not very commonly used shapes in architecture. This makes
further. the cone not very interesting to specifically research upon.
Plane Hemisphere
Using the plane as a starting point gives a lot of opportunities The hemisphere is a freeform surface. As the previous chapter
for transformations. The first one is an in-plane transformation, has shown, it is possible to construct a (hemi-)sphere out of
leading to for example a trapezoidal structure. Thereby it one type of triangle. It is however not feasible to totally unfold
can also be easily rotated in one direction, resulting in a the shape, because that would result in a surface containing
curved surface. As the previous chapter has explained, it is open and closed parts. A solution for this is to only slightly
hard to create double curvature from a plane. An interesting deform the sphere, whereby the triangles are able to alter the
possibility for creating double curvature for a planar surface length of their edges. This could lead to a stretched shape
is making the cells of the grid actuated, whereby it can lead which is illustrated at the double curved transformation.
to local curvature.
Conclusion
Cylinder Both the plane and the cylinder have got lots of opportunities
As well as the plane, he cylinder is also able to transform for being transformed into planar, single- and double curved
into interesting shapes. Unfolding the cylinder results in a surfaces. As outfolding the cylinder results in a plane and,
plane, which can be the same as the plane as just has been inversely, curving a plane results in a cylinder they are both
discussed. Other transformations of the cylindrical shape are based on the same starting point.
stretching the cylinder (single curved) or offsetting the curved
line, whereby creating double curvature. The research will continue researching on transformations of
planar surfaces into a single curved surface (the 'partial shell'
Cone and a double curved surface (the 'molehill').
A cone is a developable surface, which means that it can
be unfolded to a planar surface. For basic cones, this surface Fig. 2.5.1 (right page) Transformation of basic shapes
contains a central vertex (top of the cone) around which into planar, single- and double curved shapes
The red lines indicate interesting relations
radial lengths are rotated. To be able to unfold the cones, The red dotted lines indicate interesting relations between different basic
one edge has to be splitted. The angle between both edge shapes
Basic shapes (left column): Planar square, Cylinder, Cone and Hemisphere
29
Theory on Geometry
Basic shape Planar transformation Single curved transformation Double curved transformation
Square, top view Trapezoid, top view Partial shell ´Molehill´
Cylinder Outfold Stretched cylinder Converging cylinder
Cone Outfold Truncated cone Converging cone
Hemisphere Not feasible Not feasible Stretched hemisphere
23rd June 2011
2.6 Force distribution in double layered space frames

A standard double layered space frame structure consists of show the deformations of a structure when certain members
elements which are subjected to tension or compression. The would be left out for respectively a rectangular or a triangular
knowledge of what forces the different structural members space frame. Figure 2.6.3 illustrates some examples of resulting
have to deal with can be applied in further research on deformations of the total structure.
the force distributions within a structure. For dynamic space
frames, this knowledge is relevant for the forces which
run through the different members, as well as also for the
transformation of the structure as a result of elongating
or contracting different members. Figures 2.6.1 and 2.6.2
a. a. a.
b. b.
b.
c.
c.
c.
d.
d.
e. d.
Fig 2.6.1 Forces in structural members of rectangular Fig 2.6.2 Force distribution in triangular Fig 2.6.3 Deformations of the double
double layer space frame structures double layered space frame structures layered structure
a. Stable rectangular space frame a. Triangular space frame a. Planar structure
b. Top chord removed, compression b. Top chord removed, compression b. and c. Rotation by removing the top- or bottom chords
c. Bottom chord removed, tension c. Bottom chord removed, tension resulting in single (b) curvature or double curvature (c)
d. Diagonal chord removed, tension d. Diagonal chord removed, compression d. Movement of a part of the structure
e. Vertical chord removed, compression
31
2.7 Conclusion
At the beginning of this research project, there was no

field of application and thereby also no constraints. This a. b.
first chapter has guided the research through a few steps
Theory on Geometry
to the determination on the basic form and the possible
transformation of a surface. Surfaces can be divided into
two categories; developable and freeform surfaces. The
developable surfaces can be folded from a single piece
of paper, and are thereby single curved. Freeform surfaces
contain rotation in more than one direction. Because the
research tends not to focus very specifically on one or a few
basic shapes and transformations, it is most likely to make the c.
structure able to handle double curvature, whereby it would
also have the ability to transform in a single plane. This seemed
however not the case. As spheres cannot be unfolded,
making a (hemi-)sphere planar is not possible. Further
developments in the research will take a planar surface as a
basic shape which will have to be single curved and double
curved like the 'molehill' surface illustrates (figure 2.7.1). Fig 2.7.1 Concepts for transformation
a. Basic shape
This chapter has furthermore focused on the theoretical b. Concept 1 - Single curvature
c. Concept 2 - Double curvature
background which is essential to understand and be able to
design structures in the coming chapters. These parts therefore
do not have specific conclusions yet, but will come forward in
the further development.
Fuksas (2005) Top view on the Milan Fair
3
Geometry
The first research topic is about the geometry of the structure.
Several geometries have been developed and analyzed to lead to
a final geometry, which can be investigated on its behavior in static
and dynamic cases. The development of these models and their
conclusions are explained in the first section.
23rd June 2011
3.1 Geometry Precedent analysis: Kagome Plate Truss Structure

At the start of the development of the geometry, it was very ‘Kagome plate structures for actuation’ [R.G. Hutchinson,
hard to think of a geometry which could be feasible for the N.A. Fleck et al, 2003]. This paper claimed to have identified a
dynamic structure. The structure has to provide a solution “truss structure based on the ancient Kagome basket weave
for various challenges, like having the ability to move as well pattern with exceptional characteristics for actuation”. To
as being dimensional stability. To start with, a precedent be able to analyze the model, it has been built to visualize
research project has been analysed. The project used for for example how the structure is constructed and what
the precedent analysis has been published in a paper called transformations it can handle.
Cell Perspective view Top view Side view
Kagome Plate Truss Structure Front view

35
Geometry
Neutral position of the bottom layer
One corner of a tetrahedron lifted,

View on the Kagome Plate Truss Structure causing a slight deformation in the structure
23rd June 2011
The goal for the research on the Kagome Plate Truss Structure Another important aspect for the analysis of the Kagome
was to "achieve arbitrary in-plane nodal displacements Plate Truss Structure is the total geometry of the structure.
with minimal internal resistance [and] having both isotropic Because the single and double layer Kagome Structures
stiffness and the properties desired for actuation". Because are horizontally mirrored, there is no difference as seen from
of the in-plane transformation, the application wherefore the the top. The illustration op page 34 shows a more detailed
Kagome Structure is designed differs from dynamic structures view including the side and front views. The extraction of
this research is about. However, this actuated structure shows figure 3.1.2 shows the hexagonal space in between of the
very intelligent and interesting features, which can lead to triangular - tetrahedronal - units. An important advantage of
basic design principles for dynamic structures. this arrangement is that the structure is isotropic, meaning that
it provides equal strength in all directions. A disadvantage of
The most striking and crucial elements of this Truss Structure hexagonal shapes is that they are not static determined. By
are the tetrahedrons. The arrangement of these shapes connecting all sides to triangles, which are also connected to
around a hexagonal shape provides a structure which other hexagonals a network is created which is not stiff and
is applicable in form-active structures. The paper deals thereby has the perfect ability to deform in-plane but nog out-
with two structures; one being a single Kagome layer with of-plane.
tetrahedrons and the other being a double Kagome layer,
both provided with tetrahedrons connected to each other It is very interesting to see in figure 3.1.2a is the intelligent
at the tops. The physical model (figures X) shows that the composition of different cell types which are used for different
dynamics in the single and double layer structures differ very purposes. The stiff triangular cells (grey) provide stiffness,
much. whereas the hexagonal cells provide flexibility in horizontal
movement.
For analyzing the possible movements in the Kagome
Structure, the following principles illustrate both the single
and double layer structures in 2D. In the principles it is clear
to see that the single layer structure provides more freedom
in out-of-plane deformation with less actuated members.
Therefore the application of this section is further explored in
a. b.
following geometries.
a. b.
Fig 3.1.1 Principle of Kagome Structures Fig 3.1.2 Top views on neutral and deformed structures
a. double layer Kagome grid a. top view on Kagome Structure, showing the isotropic properties
b. single layer Kagome grid b. top view on an in-plane deformation
37
3.2 Geometry Tetrahedronal Structure

The principles of the Kagome Plate Truss Structure have been The chapter of 'Theory on geometry' has illustrated the
applied in the second concept of the tetrahedronal structure. advantages of a triangular grid. It is the only pin-jointed
The 2D section of the single layer Kagome grid (figure Xb) dimensionally stable shape, which makes it the basic shape
proved to be very promising in the ability to provide freedom for the stable Platonic solids (figure 2.3.3). Therefore, the
in dynamics. However, the arragement of the tetrahedronal tetrahedronal structure has been build up from a triangulated
cells enables the structure to move in-plane, while it should be grid. These grids are also well-known in applications for double
able to move out-of-plane. The translation of the promising curved surfaces in architecture.
2D section into a 3D geometry has lead to the concept of the
Tetrahedronal Structure. The structure should be able to move
out-of-plane, which means that it is able to transform into
curved and double curved surfaces.
Geometry
Tetrahedronal Structure Front view

23rd June 2011
The development of the grid units are illustrated in figure cells is that they are still able to transform in the structure, as
3.2.2. The Kagome structure has shown the importance of the vertices which are shared by the three smaller cells are
ascribing different properties to different cells (see figure not connected to other grid unit cells. Every grid unit cell is
3.1.2). Figure 3.2.2b illustrates how this principle has been connected at the three corners to other grid unit cells.
applied on the triangulated grid. For many purposes, it
is important that the joints in the structure contain as less To achieve a combination of the intelligent principles of the
beams as possible. The design of the joints can be easier triangular grid and the dynamic section, the three triangles
and thereby be technically as well as economically more on each corner are translated to tetrahedrons which are
feasible. Also, the number of actuators will be reduced which faced downwards (figure 3.2.2b). The lower points of the
has an important impact on the costs of the structure. tetrahedrons are connected to each others, resulting in
another triangle (figure 3.2.2c). Thereafter, a series of these
In the chapter ´dimensional stability´ it has been proved grid units is arranged, according to the developed triangular
that forms which are surrounded by stable configurations grid. The last step in making the complete structure is to
are also stable. This provides the opportunity to divide connect the bottom layers of the grid units, which is done by
the geometrical grid into cells which will be equiped with connecting the corners of three grid units. This creates another
structural elements (stable) and cells which will be left set of triangles which makes the structure complete.
blank (possibily instable). The equiped cells contain a ´sub-
geometry´ in which each cell is subdivided in four smaller The next question is how to make this static structure dynamic.
cells. This creates a unique pattern of stable elements. Each The structure is statically determined, but by actuating
small cell is connected at two vertices to the other cells, members it should be able to move. The next research issue
creating a stable grid unit cell. The unique property of these therefore focused on what members should be actuated.
a.
b.
c.
Fig 3.2.1 Section of a triangular structure First model of the tetrahedronal structure
a. Neutral structure
b. Translated structure with elongated actuators in the bottom layer
c. Translated structure with contracted actuators in the bottom layer
39
Before the research on the geometry focused on further development of

this tetrahedronal structure, several attempts have been done to further
improve the model. This has resulted in two variations, which will be dealt
with in the next pages.
a. b.
Geometry
c. d.
Fig 3.2.2 Development of the structure (view on geometry)

a. 2D structure, triangular grid (colored cells will be subdivided)
b. 2D structure, cells equipped with structural elements
c. 3D structure, triangular cells replaced by tetrahedrons
d. 3D structure, structural members in the bottom layer (indicated in red) connect tetrahedrons
23rd June 2011
3.3 Geometry Variation 1 - Quatro-tetrahedronal cells

The most important constraints for the project concerned In the structure, a third layer is created by connecting the
about the feasibility from technological and economical bottom vertices of the all fourth tetrahedrons to each other.
points of view. A concept which challenges both of these The intention was to make this bottom layer of tensioned
aspects to perform optimally is the concept of the quatro- cables, based on the following principle. The cells can be
tetrahedronal grid unit cells. In this structure, the bottom connected as a three-way grid, consisting of hexagonal
layer has been replaced by a 'tripod', which connects to and triangulated forms. Herein, only the triangles are stable
the bottom vertices of all three tetrahedrons. In its neutral by theirselves. The hexagonal forms can be made stable by
position, this tripod in combination with the tetrahedrons enclosing them by other hexagonals and triangles, which
have formed another, fourth, tetrahedron. Movement of the are not able to alter the edges of the overall structure and
bottom vertex of the tripod enables the cell to transform. will thereby create the same principle as the Kagome Truss
The complexity of this variant lies in how to make the overall Structure. The reason for the importance of enabling altering
structure dimensionally stable, as the grid unit cell itself is not of the edges of the structure will be treated when regarding
stable anymore. the dynamics.
Quatro-Tetrahedronal Cells Front view

41
Geometry
Large model experimenting with the connections between the cells in the bottom layer
Movement of the grid unit cell

23rd June 2011
3.4 Geometry Variation 2 - Tensioned balanced cells

A second variation is based on the same focus to reduce cable from the bottom layer through a bracing member to the
the number of actuated members, stimulating the feasibility. top layer and back. Because the layers are inversely related to
The concept is again based on the tetrahedronal cells, each other, this results in a grid unit cell which is in equilibrium
this time rotated 45° around the edges which are formed and can be transformed by shifting cable lengths to the top-
by the vertices which are connected to two tetrahedrons or bottom layer. In the model (right page), this movement is
in the top layer. The tops which now are at the corners of be caused by a single controller in the bracing member.
the triangular grid unit cell can be connected in both the
bottom as the top layer. The very interesting and important The models show one large disadvantage. After rotating
property of these layers is that they form a sort of equilibrium. the tetrahedrons over 45°, the structure fails as there is no
If the members in the top layer extend, the members in the equilibrium anymore. After rotating over 45° (flat structure)
bottom layer have to contract and vice versa. the distance between the vertices in the top and bottom
The magic trick in this concept is to make the members in the layer do not counterbalance anymore. This is very important
top- and bottom layer tensioned. Cables can be used, which knowledge to apply when calculating the maximal
are able to deal with these tensional forces. This enables transformation the structure is able to handle.
the possibility to connect the layers by making a continuous
Tensioned balanced cells Front view

43
Both variations do not seem to be more feasible than the

basic concept. Therefore, further investigation will focus on this
tetrahedronal structure.
Geometry
Larger model experimenting with the
Movement of the grid unit cell (1) connections and movement mechanism
Larger model showing failure after rotating the

Movement of the grid unit cell (2) tetrahedrons over a certain point
23rd June 2011
3.5 Stability Dimensional stability of the Tetrahedronal structure

It is very important to proof whether the structure is The subdivision of the grid unit cell into four smaller cells has
dimensionally stable or not. Therefor, this section will explain lead to a single layered structure as shown in figure 3.5.1a. For
the entire structure and its cells, leaving no doubts for the making the cells three dimensional the triangles have been
stability. Figure 3.5.1 shows the evolution of the triangular grid replaced by tetrahedrons, creating a double layered structure
in four steps. Figure 3.5.1a shows a standard triangulated (see figure 3.5.2c). By connecting the tops (or down vertices
grid. The Kagome structure has shown the importance of in this case) of the tetrahedrons a bottom layer is formed. In
ascribing different purposes to different cells (see figure proving that this grid unit cell is stable, a first evidence can be
3.1.2). Figure 3.5.1b illustrates how this principle has been given by the composition of faces. The grid unit cell consists
applied on the triangulated grid. A difference is made of nothing else then (subdivided) triangles, which are stable
between cells which will be equiped with structural elements forms. This is also demonstrated when exploding the structure
and cells which will be left blank. The chapter ´dynamics in into different cells. The core cell is a octahedron, which is
the tetrahedronal structure´ describes the needs of these surrounded by three tetrahedrons. These are all, as we have
differences in cells for the ability to transform. Regarding the seen in the chapter 'polygons and polyhedra' (2.3), Platonic
aspect of stability, each structural cell is subdivided in four solids.
smaller cells. This has created a unique pattern of stable
elements. Each small cell is connected at two vertices to Arranging these cells in a larger grid shows that the
the other cells, creating a stable grid unit cell. The unique connections of the grid unit cells to each other also results in a
property of these cells is that they are still able to transform in tetrahedron, this time faced upwards. By these connections,
the structure, as the vertices which are shared by the three each corner edge of the cell is connected to the enclosing
smaller cells are not connected to other grid unit cells. Every tetrahedron. By making this connection at least at two of the
grid unit cell is connected at the three corners to other grid three corner edges, the grid unit cell is stable.
unit cells. The rules of thumb which were explained in the
chapter of ´dimensional stability´ (figure 2.2.3) proof that this
results in a stable structure, consisting of stable grid unit cells
which are arranged in a stable grid.
a. b. c. d.
Fig 3.5.1 Development of the structure (view on geometry)

a. 2D structure, triangular grid (colored cells will be subdivided)
b. 2D structure, cells equipped with structural elements
c. 3D structure, triangular cells replaced by tetrahedrons
d. 3D structure, structural members in the bottom layer (indicated in red) connect tetrahedrons
45
a. b. c.
d.
Geometry
Fig 3.5.2 Development of the structure
a. 2D subdivided grid unit cell
b. 3D grid unit cell with tetrahedrons
c. 3D grid unit cell with structural members in the bottom layer
d. Exploded view of a grid unit cell (grey) surrounded by other grid unit cells
Herzog & De Meuron (2008) Birds nest (Beiijng)
4
Dynamics
After having determined the geometry of the structure, the investigation of
dynamic structures focuses on the movement within the structure. Using the aspect
of feasibility as a key issue, this chapter researches on the transformation of the
structure for both of the dynamic concepts and their resulting length and angular
alterations of the structural members.
23rd June 2011
4.1 Actuation
As the tetrahedronal structure seems to have the best Bottom layer actuation
properties for being applied in dynamic structures, further Because of the development of the grid towards the final
investigation focuses on the actuation of this structure. It geometry, the first thought was to actuate the bottom
is important to notice that this first analysis is based on the layer and thereby rotate the tetrahedronal cells around
actuation of a single grid unit cell. The consequences of one another. They are able to rotate over the edge which
transforming these cells for the total structure will become is created from the vertices they share with the other
clear later on in the investigation. tetrahedrons. By elongating the bottom layer members,
the structure will become convex and by contracting the
The actuated structural members are being called the members it will become concave. The advantage of this
´actuators´ and have got the properties to be able to resist concept is its clear curvature which the model shows. It
tensional and compressional forces. The tetrahedronal certainly has potential to be applied and will therefore be
structure consists of different groups of structural members analyzed more deeply on the effects of actuation in the
of which the effects of being actuated will be investigated. chapter 'dynamics'.
Thereby the following groups will be investigated:
- Bottom layer elements
- Top layer elements
- Bracing elements at the corners
- Bracing elements around the core
Rigid body of the grid unit cell
Bottom layer actuation

49
First model of the tetrahedronal structure
Dynamics
Second model including actuated Detailed view of the second model
elements in the bottom layer with bottom layer actuation
23rd June 2011
Corner bracing members Core bracing members

When actuating the corner bracing members in the grid unit Another possibility in actuating the bracing members is to
cell, the tetrahedrons would be able to transform, whereby actuate those which are positioned around the core of
the octahedron would function as a fixed core element. The the octahedron. This concept is however not feasible, as
transformations which can be achieved with this model are the model shows that actuation results in only very slight
very interesting, but have to be carefully further analyzed transformations.
because they will probably need to be able to be very
short as well as long to be able to generate large effect in
transforming the overall structure.
Actuation in bracing members at the corners
Actuation in bracing members in the core

51
Top layer actuation

When analyzing the dynamics of the bottom layer actuated
structure, an important problem was identified. When
actuating the bottom layer, the members had to be able to
contract to a short element, whereas it also had to be able
to be elongated to a long element. If these members have to
be more than twice as long as they would have to be short,
the members have to be telescopic resulting in more complex
elements. This has a high impact on the technical as well as
economical feasibility. These aspects have lead to the first
top layer actuated structure concept. It can be seen that
when rotating the tetrahedrons over their rotation axis, the
bottom layer has to deal with large length variations, whereas
the top layer only has to treat a short length alteration. In
this first top layer actuated concept, the structure consists
of stable tetrahedrons which are connected to actuators at
their corners. This was a very interesting idea, but has a lot
of structural problems because the actuators are in almost
the same plane as the top layer. Thereby the actuators
would have to deal with extremely high forces to contract
or elongate. The second top layer actuated structure, which
has been developed later on in the process, actuates the top
members of the tetrahedrons.
Dynamics
Actuation in added top layer
23rd June 2011
4.2 Transformation Single curved structure

The first concept deals with single curved structures. The After taking a quick look on the different structures after
first step in the development of this concept focuses on the actuation, the first conclusions can already been made.
transformations which are possible by altering the lengths First, it is very clear to see that the effect of actuation the
of the actuated structural members of the first and second bottom layer (figure 4.2.1b) is much larger than any of the
principle, respectively the actuation in the bottom layer and other actuation principles (figure 4.2.1c-f). On the other hand,
the actuation in the top- and side members. Some variations actuating only the side members (figure 4.2.1d) does not
on these principles have also been simulated, to be able lead to a promising transformation. The principles of figure
to see the effect in transformation of the structure by each 4.2.1c, 4.2.1e and 4.2.1f do not differ very much in their range
of the actuated structural members. The structures resulting of transformation. To determine which of these principles
from the different actuation principles are displayed in figure functions best, a closer look upon the number of actuators
4.21.
a. b. c.
Fig 4.2.1 Concepts for actuation

The red lines show the actuated members in the structure
a. Planar surface
b. Actuation in the bottom layer
c. Actuation in the top layer
d. Actuation in side members
d. Combination of bottom layer actuation of the members between
the grid unit cells and side member actuation
e. Actuation of bottom layer members between the grid unit cells
53
can give a solution. In the top layer actuation principle The investigation and determination on the best feasible
(figure 4.2.1c) there are 20 actuators, compared to 22 in the actuation principle will further be explained using a more
bottom- and side member actuations. The partial bottom layer complex transformation; double curvature.
actuation of figure 4.2.1f however, only has got 12 actuators.
Hereby, the preference for the single layered structures would
be given to principle b and f, respectively the bottom and
partial bottom layer actuation. A third interesting principle
would be that of the top layer actuation, illustrated in figure
4.2.1c.
d. e. f.
Dynamics
23rd June 2011
4.3 Transformation Double curved structure

The second transformation which the structure should be unit cell, the surrounding cells can transform to single curved
able to handle is about double curved surfaces. This concept cells, whereby the corner which has to be lifted up is pointed
has been developed using the conclusions of the analysis in to the center grid unit cell. Single curvature in three different
the previous chapter and the conclusions of the principles directions thereby leads to a double curved structure.
for single curvature. Because the double curvature relates to
single curvature, the most interesting concepts for actuation However, there is one important issue in which double
in the single curved structures have been simulated for curvature differs from single curvature. As the cells in the
double curvature. Figure 4.3.1a-d illustrates the effect of single curved structure all rotate parallel to each other,
these different principles. Before going more deep into these these cells are rotated around a corner in double curved
principles, the first conclusion which came out of simulating structures. Thereby, the surface is not developable any longer,
these principles was that the double curved concept does but becomes freeformed. As the top layer of the structure
not differ very much from the single curved concept. What is dimensionally stable, it is not able to transform. All of the
happens in the structure is that for lifting up the center grid concepts illustrated in figure 4.3.1 show that as a result of this
a. b. c.
Fig 4.3.1 Concepts for actuation

a. Planar surface
b. Actuation in the bottom layer
c. Actuation in the top layer
d. Actuation of bottom layer members between the grid unit cells
55
issue, the top layer has to be able to transform. The illustrations This bottom layer concept has to collaborate with a
also show that none of these concepts can work on their transformation in the top layer, which is able to connect the
own. The concept of the top layer actuation is not feasibile, connection points between the grid unit cells (see figure X).
because it is not able to generate double curvature (see The length alteration of the top layer members is dependent
figure 4.3.1c). of the actuation in the bottom layer. However, one important
constraint regarding the top members is that these elements
The remaining concepts out of the analysis for single- and only have to be able to elongate.
double curvature are the bottom- and partial bottom layer
actuated structures. These will be further researched upon, to As the grid is stable, the edges of the structure are constraints
be able to argue which concept suits the dynamic structures whereby the members of the top layer in a planar state
best. are in their basic length. In any case in which the structure
comes out of this basic planar state, the elements have to be
become longer.
d.
Dynamics
Fig 3.8.2 Result of actuating the top layer members
When actuating the top layer members equally, the tops of the tetrahedrons share
their top vertices. Herefor, the side members need to be able to deal with small
length alterations
23rd June 2011
4.4 Transformation of the structure
To be able to determine the capacity of movement in

the structure, it has to be thoroughly analyzed. Significant
geometrical changes happen in the actuated structural
members and the angles between all structural members. C
In the following analysis, transformations caused by different
concepts of actuation will be calculated resulting in the I’ I’’
conclusion which concept fits this particular geometry best. E
F
To start with, figure 4.4.1 displays the structure, whereby the
nodes have been coded.
B I
A
Top layer D
A-D = B-D = B-E = C-E = C-F = A-F = a
H’’ H
D-E = E-F = D-F = a G G’’
A-B = B-C = A-C = 2*a
Bracing members H’
A-G = D-G = F-G = a G’
B-H = D-H = E-H = a
C-I = E-I = F-I = a
Fig 4.4.1 Grid unit
Bottom layer Overview of vertices in perspective view
G-H =b G-G' = e
H-I =c G'-G'' = f
G-I =d G-G'' = g
H-H' = h I-I' =k
H'-H'' = i I'-I'' =l
H-H'' = j I-I'' =m
57
Actuation 5 metres. This radius is measured from the actuated, layer

In order to further developed the transformations, it is of the structure. From the four different curved structures,
important to know what maximal curvature the structure three values can be extracted. The first one is the variation
should be able to handle. This will result in length alterations in length for the actuated members. The other two values
of the linear elements and angular alterations for their concern the alterations in the angles between the beams.
connections to the nodes. To get more insight in the length- This important analysis will be applied on two different
and angle variations, the section of the structure has been principles. The first one deals with actuated members in
drawn for four different curvatures with a radius of 2, 3, 4 and the entire bottom layer, the second one deals with partial
bottom layer actuation.
a. b. a. b.
c. d. c. d.
Dynamics
Fig 4.4.2 Bottom layer actuation Fig 4.4.3 Partial bottom layer actuation
a. Convex structure, radius 2 and 4 m. c. Concave structure, radius 2 and 4 m. a. Convex structure, radius 2 and 4 m. c. Concave structure, radius 2 and 4 m.
b. Convex structure, radius 3 and 5 m. d. Concave structure, radius 3 and 5 m. b. Convex structure, radius 3 and 5 m. d. Concave structure, radius 3 and 5 m.
23rd June 2011
The results of the analysis of the actuated members are Radius Concave Convex
displayed in table 4.4.1 and 4.4.2, in which the first length shows Ratio
the length for the concave structure and the second one shows 2 m. 0,69 m. 1,61 m. 2,33
the length for the convex structure with the same radius. These 3 m. 0,77 m. 1,37 m. 1,78
values are compared to each other in the column called the 4 m. 0,82 m. 1,26 m. 1,54
ratio. This value determines the number of times the elongated 5 m. 0,85 m. 1,20 m. 1,41
length is larger than the contracted length.
Table 4.4.1
The differences in ratios between both principles show very Bottom layer actuation
interesting results. For the design of the actuators, it makes Radius Concave Convex
a great difference whether the ratio is beneath or above Ratio
the value of two. If the value is less than two, a rather simple 2 m. 0,36 m. 1,91 m. 5,31
actuator can be applied. If the ratio exceeds a value of two, a 3 m. 0,53 m. 1,65 m. 3,11
telescopic structural member has to be applied. Thereby, both 4 m. 0,63 m. 1,48 m. 2,35
principles have a large difference. In the case of bottom layer 5 m. 0,69 m. 1,38 m. 2,00
actuation, the smallest radius will be three metres. In case of Table 4.4.2
partial bottom layer actuation, the value for a radius of 5 metres Partial bottom layer actuation
just touches a ratio value of two. Radius Concave Convex

Ratio
In this stage, it is difficult to make choices when the aim of the 6 m. 0,74 m. 1,31 m. 1,77
project is to be able to create a lage degree of freedom. On 7 m. 0,77 m. 1,27 m. 1,65
the one hand, the bottom layer actuated structure provides 8 m. 0,80 m. 1,23 m. 1,54
more freedom, on the other hand it takes twice as much 9 m. 0,82 m. 1,20 m. 1,46
actuators. Usually, space frames are applied in large span 10 m. 0,84 m. 1,18 m. 1,40
structures, whereby curvatures with a radius of three metres
are very small. Table 4.4.3 shows an extention of table 4.4.2, Table 4.4.3 6,00
Partial bottom layer actuation
whereby the resulting values are illustrated in graph 4.4.1-3. (continuation)
5,00
The graph shows a very clear inversely proportional connection, Bottom layer actuation
what means that the impact of the curvature decreases. Partial bottom layer actuation

4,00
Because of the results of this analysis, the final decision on the
actuation principle will be to actuate the bottom layer partially.
Ratio
This provides enough freedom in movement for dynamic 3,00

purposes of large span structures.
2,00
After making this decision, there are two more important
angular values to be determined. The first angle, alpha, is
1,00
the angle between the actuated members and the bracing
members (figure 4.4.6). The second angle, beta, is the varying
Radius
angle between two grid unit cells (vertices A, B and C in figure 0,00
4.4.7). Graph 4.4.1-3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(Partial) Bottom layer actuation
59
Feasibility in length alterations of the actuators Minimal Maximal Maximal Ratio

There are many types of actuators, such as the most length elongation length
commonly used pneumatic, hydraulic and electrical cylinders. [mm] [mm] [mm] [-]
For this application, the electrical cylinders suit best, because 1 273,5 105,0 378,5 1,38
they do not require highly frequent maintainance and have 2 318,5 150,0 468,5 1,47
got a long life span. They are also, as well as the pneumatic 3 371,0 202,5 573,5 1,55
and hydraulic cylinders, able to take high forces. The simplest 4 423,5 255,0 678,5 1,60
versions have been investigated furthermore on their tensile 5 468,5 300,0 768,5 1,64
and compressive strengths and their length alterations. 6 536,0 352,5 888,5 1,66
7 588,5 405,0 993,5 1,69
For this investigation, the documentation of a manufacturer 8 633,5 450,0 1083,5 1,71
has been taken as a basis. This documentation has been 9 686,0 502,5 1188,5 1,73
chosen, because the products have been thoroughly 10 738,5 555,0 1293,5 1,75
documented. Table X and X show two different products, the 11 783,5 600,0 1383,5 1,77
LZ60S and the LZ80, in which the LZ60S can take lower forces
and more specific length alterations than the LZ80.
Table 4.4.4 Electrical cylindrical actuators
LZ60S, able to take forces up to 4.000 N
The main differences between the two types of actuators are
Minimal Maximal Maximal Ratio
their abilities of length alterations and the forces they can
length elongation length
take. The first type shows an increasing ratio number, whereby
[mm] [mm] [mm] [-]
the length elongation also increases up to 600 mm. The
1 (min.) 318,5 7,5 326,0 1,02
second type shows a more consistent ratio number (except for
1 (max.) 708,5 397,5 1106,0 1,56
the smallest version), with a much higher maximal elongation
2 (min.) 753,5 405,0 1158,5 1,54
of 1005 mm. It is important to notice that the first types are
2 (max.) 948,5 600,0 1548,5 1,63
standard, whereas the second version can vary its minimal
3 (min.) 993,5 607,5 1601,0 1,61
length in steps of 7,5 mm.
3 (max.) 1181,0 795,0 1976,0 1,67
4 (min.) 1233,5 802,5 2036,0 1,65
As the ratio number never exceeds a value of 1,77, the
Dynamics
4 (max.) 1436,0 1005,0 2441,0 1,70
minimal radius for entire bottom layer actuation would be
about 3 metres and for partial bottom layer actuation 6
metres. Looking more closely on the length alterations, both Table 4.4.5 Electrical cylindrical actuators
LZ80, able to take forces up to 12.000 N
actuation principles can almost succeed with the first type The minimal length is calculated by taking the maximal elongation and
of actuator, whereby the structure only can not reach the a adding 311 mm (1), 348,5 mm (2), 386 mm (3) or 431 mm (4)
radius of 3 and 6 metres for concave transformation. As the

length needed for this radius does not lie far from the possible
minimal lengths, this will be neglected.
Further research on the forces on the actuators should point

out if the maximal force of 4 kN is sufficient for the structure.
23rd June 2011
Angular transformation in the entire actuated bottom layer

Angle alpha Angle beta
Vertex G G-A / G-G' C
Vertex A A-G / A-G' C
A-G' / A-G''
G-A / G-G'' I’ I’’ I’ I’’
A-G / A-G''
G-H / G-D E
F E F
G-I / G-F B I
A Vertex B B-H / B-H' B I
A
Vertex G' G'-A / G'-G H’’
D
B-H' / B-H'' H’’
D
G'-A / G'-G''
H H
G G’’
B-H /B-H'' G G’’
Vertex G'' G''-A / G''-G H’ H’

G’
Vertex C C-I / C-I' G’
G''-A / G''-G'
C-I / C-I''
C-I / C-I''
Vertex H H-A / H-H' Fig 4.4.6 Angle alpha Fig 4.4.7 Angle beta
Actuated members are indicated in red Actuated members are indicated in red
H-A / H-H'' Vertex D D-H / D-G
H-I / H-E
H-G / H-D Vertex E E-H / E-I
Vertex H' H'-A / H'-H
Vertex F F-I / F-G
H'-A / H'-H''
Vertex H'' H''-A / H''-H
H''-A / H''-H'
Vertex I I-A / I-I'

I-A / I-I''
I-H / I-E
I-G / I-F
Vertex I' I'-A / I'-I
I'-A / I'-I''
Vertex I'' I''-A / I''-I
I''-A / I''-I'
Table 4.4.6 Radius Concave Convex Range Table 4.4.7 Radius Concave Convex Range
2 m. 69,9° 36,2° 33,7° 2 m. 40,2° 107,6° 67,4°
3 m. 67,4° 46,8° 20,6° 3 m. 45,3° 86,4° 41,1°
4 m. 65,9° 50,9° 15,0° 4 m. 48,3° 78,1° 29,8°
5 m. 64,9° 53,1° 11,8° 5 m. 50,3° 73,8° 23,5°
61
Angular transformation in the partial actuated bottom layer

Vertex G G-A / G-G' C
Vertex A A-G / A-G' C
A-G' / A-G''
G-A / G-G'' I’ I’’ I’ I’’
A-G / A-G''
Vertex G' G'-A / G'-G E
F
E
F
G'-A / G'-G'' B I
A Vertex B B-H / B-H' B I
A
Vertex G'' G''-A / G''-G H’’
D
B-H' / B-H'' H’’
D
G''-A / G''-G'
H H
G G’’
B-H /B-H'' G
H’ H’
G’
Vertex C C-I / C-I' G’ G’’
Vertex H H-A / H-H'
C-I / C-I''
H-A / H-H'' C-I / C-I''
Vertex H' H'-A / H'-H Fig 4.4.8 Angle alpha Fig 4.4.9Angle beta
Actuated members are indicated in red Actuated members are indicated in red
H'-A / H'-H''
Vertex H'' H''-A / H''-H
H''-A / H''-H'
Vertex I I-A / I-I'

I-A / I-I''
Vertex I' I'-A / I'-I
I'-A / I'-I''
Vertex I'' I''-A / I''-I
I''-A / I''-I'
Dynamics
Table 4.4.8 Radius Concave Convex Range Table 4.4.9 Radius Concave Convex Range
2 m. 79,6° 12,9° 66,7° 2 m. 20,7° 146,1° 125,4°
3 m. 74,7° 34,5° 40,2° 3 m. 30,7° 111,1° 80,4°
4 m. 71,7° 42,1° 29,6° 4 m. 36,6° 95,7° 59,1°
5 m. 69,7° 46,3° 23,4° 5 m. 40,5° 87,4° 46,9°
6 m. 68,3° 48,9° 19,4° 6 m. 43,4° 82,1° 38,7°
7 m. 67,3° 50,7° 16,6° 7 m. 45,5° 78,6° 33,1°
8 m. 66,4° 52,0° 14,4° 8 m. 47,1° 76,0° 28,9°
9 m. 65,8° 53,0° 12,8° 9 m. 48,4° 74,0° 25,6°
10 m. 65,3° 53,7° 11,6° 10 m. 49,5° 72,5° 23,0°
23rd June 2011
Radius Concave Convex Ratio The configuration of the actuated cells changes when beams
Entire actuation are being actuated. For single- as well as double curvature,
3 m. 0,77 m. 1,37 m. 1,78 only two beams will be actuated the same time, because
Partial actuation also double curvature is build up from elements which are
6 m. 0,74 m. 1,31 m. 1,77 subjected to single curvature.
The most extreme lenghts of the actuators have been

Table 4.4.10 (top) calculated in table 4.4.1-3. As it is not known yet whether the
Radius Gamma
Lengths of the actuators for feasible
Delta entirely actuation (3 m.) and partially structure will be entirely or partially actuated, the calculation
a 60,0° 60,0° ctuation ( 6m.) of angles gamma and delta will treat the most extreme values
b 44,9° 67,6° of both principles. The lengths are displayed in table 4.4.10. As
Table 4.4.11 (left) has already been concluded, the length of the members are
c 85,0° 47,5° Angles gamma and delta
about equal when the radius for partial actuation regarding
entire actuation is being doubled. Therefore, the angles
gamma and delta can be calculated using about the same
values.
This results in three extreme values regarding the angular

alterations in the nodes, illustrated in figure and table 4.4.11.
Because curvatures can happen in each direction, the
members have to be able to rotate from the smallest to the
largest angle. In this case, the beams therefore have to be
able to be at a mutual angle of minimal 45° and maximal 85°.
Fig 4.4.11 Maximal movement a. b. c.

A partially actuated structure is illustrated, the
principle equals the entirely actuated structure
a. Standard structure (lactuator = 1,00 m.)
b. Elongated structure (lactuator = 1,37 m.)
c. Contracted structure (lactuator = 0,74 m.)
Angles
gamma Angles
gamma Angles
Angle gamma
delta Angle Angle
delta delta
63
Radius Concave % Convex % The last calculations on movement within the structure
Entire actuation concern the top layer. As explained in chapter 4.3, a
3 m. 0,10 m. 10% 0,03 m. 3% negative side effect making double curvature in a structure
Partial actuation is that the nodes in the top layer are not in one vertex
6 m. 0,15 m. 15% 0,08 m. 8% anymore. Therefore, the top layer has to be able to accept a
slight transformation.
Table 4.4.13 (top) Figure 4.4.12 illustrates some very important aspects
A F G
Lengths of the actuators for feasible entirely regarding this top layer actuation. As the structure has a
actuation (3 m.) and partially actuation ( 6m.)
a 55,8° 55,8° 68,4° As the length of the members in the simulation minimal length in its horizontal configuration, every change
b 60,0° 60,0° 60,0°
is 1 m., the length alterations are converted to leading towards double curvature results in elongation of the
percentages
c 56,3° 56,3° 67,5° layer. Therefore, the top layer members only have to be able
Range
4,2° 4,2° 8,4° Table 4.4.12 (left) to elongate and do not have to be able to contract. This has
Angles gamma and delta been illustrated in the two situations in the right column of
Fig 4.4.12 Movement in top layer figure 4.4.12 showing transformation to convex and concave
a. Elongated structure (lactuator = 1,31 m.) structures, both resulting in elongation of the top layer.
b. Standard structure (lactuator = 1,00 m.)
c. Contracted structure (lactuator = 0,74 m.)
Another aspect is also shown in this right column. The corner
bracing members do not have to be able to change their
A
l = 1m.
l = 1,12m. length, but they however do have to be able to rotate
F
a. slightly around the bottom vertex.
C
The resulting values for the length alteration of the top layer
G
are shown in table 4.4.13. There is a difference in concave
Dynamics
I
l = 1,31m. and convex structures, as the radius is measured from the
b. l = 1m.
actuated layer and the length alteration from the top layer.
Therefore the radius of the top layer differs for concave and
convex structures. The most extreme value for the entire
actuated structure is 10% and for the partial actuated
structure is 15%. Besides the fact that these length differences
c.
C are limited, the elongation is a result of transformations in
l = 1m.
Fl = 1,12m. the bottom layer. Thereby, it does not need to be controlled
A and can be designed different from the actuated structural
members. The design of these members will be explained
l = 0,74m.
I in chapter 4.6, after the more detailed explanation of the
G bottom layer actuators in the following chapter.
23rd June 2011
4.5 Bottom layer actuators

As a control for the feasibility, indicative structural The forces which the actuators have to be able to handle are
calculations have been made. These calculations are able calculated from the scheme, shown in figure 4.5.2. Because
to give insight in the forces which run through the structure. there is an equilibrium, the forces in point A equal zero. The
The actuators, enabling the structure to move, should be load and lengths a and b are known, whereby the horizontal
able to take these forces. Reasonable forces which the force can be calculated. The outcomes are displayed in
actuator has to be able to handle, have been assumed from table 4.5.1. There are a few variables in this calculation. The
documentation. A comparison between different producers, first one is the length of the beams. As there are no standard
shows that the maximal force for standard actuators is about lengths, the calculation can show what will be the maximum
10 kN1. length for a reasonable force. Then there are two results for
the horizontal forces. The top table shows the forces in a half-
The forces on the structure are based on dead load from actuated layer and the bottom one the forces in the entirely
a entire facade, consisting of the structure and a skin. As a actuated layer. Hereby, the differences between the two
material for the skin, glass, metal or cushions (ETFE-foil) have versions can be taken into account when deciding upon the
been assumed as being the materials which can be applied actuation of the structure.
most likely. As a value for the dead load, the weight of the
glass has been taken, because this is the highest own weight
(about 50 kg/m2). The forces are (slightly) overdimensiond
and also contains safety factors as prescribed by the NEN 1
Source: Documentatie RK Rose+Krieger, Drive Mechanisms
6702. (August 2009) from: www.rk-rose-krieger.com
Fig 4.5.1 Geometrie of the structure

Top view (left) and perspective view (right)
65
V
A
Dead load 2,2 kN/m 2
b
Finishing layer 0,5 kN/m2 H
Fixing 0,2 kN/m2
a
Structure (own weight) 1,5 kN/m2
Assumption: load of the beams is 5 kg/m1 (0,05 kN/m1),
nodes weigh about 20 kg (0,20 kN)
One grid unit cell contains 21 beams (21 x 0,05 = 1,05 kN) V
A
and 9 nodes (9 x 0,2 = 1,8 kN), spread over about 2 m2)
Live load 1 kN/m2 b
H
a
Table 4.5.1 Values for the dead- and live load Fig 4.5.2 Schematic view on the
forces through the structure
a. Half actuated structure
b. Actuated structure
Dynamics
Fig 4.5.3 Forces on the structure
red dotted lines indicate the area in which the load
is directed to the point load
Top view (left) and perspective view (right)
23rd June 2011
Length of the beams [m1] 1 1,2 1,5 2 2,5

Width of the truss [m1] 1 1,2 1,5 2 2,5
Height of the truss [m1] 0,87 1,04 1,30 1,73 2,17
Surface of each cell [m2] 0,43 0,62 0,97 1,73 2,71
Surface for point loadsa [m2] 0,87 1,25 1,95 3,46 5,41

Dead loadb [kN/m2] 1,91 2,74 4,29 7,62 11,91
Safety factor (1,2) [kN/m2] 2,29 3,29 5,14 9,15 14,29

Live loadc [kN/m2] 0,87 1,25 1,95 3,46 5,41
Safety factor (1,5) [kN/m2] 1,30 1,87 2,92 5,20 8,12

Load [kN] 3,59 5,16 8,07 14,34 22,41
a
Each point load is connected to six triangles, of which it receives 1/3 of the
load
b
The dead load, determined in table X, multiplied by the surface for point load
c
The live load, determined in table X, multiplied by the surface for point load
Table 4.5.2 Calculation of the forces on the structure
Half-actuated layer
a m 1 1,2 1,5 2 2,5
b m 0,87 1,04 1,30 1,73 2,17
F kN 3,59 5,16 8,07 14,34 22,41
V kN 7,17 10,33 16,13 28,68 44,82
Hd kN 8,3 11,9 18,6 33,1 51,8

Actuated layer
a m 1 1,2 1,5 2 2,5
b m 0,87 1,04 1,30 1,73 2,17
F kN 3,59 5,16 8,07 14,34 22,41
V kN 7,17 10,33 16,13 28,68 44,82
Hd kN 4,1 6,0 9,3 16,6 25,9
d
In case of equilibrium, the sum of forces in point A is zero. Then: V x a = H x b
The horizontal force equals the force in the actuators
Table 4.5.3 Calculation of the force in the actuator
For both the half actuated and the actuated grid
67
4.6 Top layer actuators

Chapter 4.3 has explained the need of actuating the top a.
layer. At the end of chapter 4.4, calculations have pointed out
that a maximum length alteration of 10% or 15% is sufficient for
respectively the entirely bottom layer actuated and partially
bottom layer actuated structures. Actuators can be used
for this application, but these are rather expensive because b.
they have got the ability to achieve much greater length
alterations.
Next to this small length alteration, it is also important to notice c.

that the top layer members only have to become larger. The
horizontal distance between the end points of the structural
members is the largest when the structure is horizontal. As
the structure is dimensionally stable, it is only possible to add
double curvature to the structure by altering the lengths of the
members. Making a straight line curved with fixed start and
end points will thereby always result in elongation of the line, Figure 4.6.1 Length alterations
The dotted lines indicate the original position of some of the vertices in the
see figure 4.6.1. horizontal structure
a. Horizontal structure
b. Concave structure, showing elongation in the top layer
Another property of the actuators of the bottom layer is their c. Convex structure, showing elongation in the top layer
ability to control their lengths, which is necessary because the

actuators cause the transformation. The rest of the structure,
including the top layer, follows as a reaction upon this
actuation and thereby do not need to be controlled. Minimal Maximal Maximal
Dynamics
length elongation length
For the application in the top layer, a damper is a perfect [mm] [mm] [mm]
solution. It is able to take forces up to 13 kN and able to 1 220 100 320
handle length alterations of 500 - 800 mm, depending on the 2 320 200 520
length of the structural elements elements (grid size). 3 420 300 720
4 520 400 920
5 620 500 1120
6 720 600 1320
7 820 700 1520
8 920 800 1720
Figure 4.6.2 Damper Table 4.6.1 Length alterations of dampers

Romicon GS-70 Romicon GS-70, able to handle forces up to 13 000 N
Source: www.romicon.nl (14 june 2011) Source: www.romicon.nl (14 june 2011)
23rd June 2011
4.7 Conclusion
The study on the dynamics of the geometry started with an elements. The structural members consist of nodes, bars and
investigation on the effect of actuating different groups of actuators for the bottom and top layer. The following aspects
structural members. The most interesting principle contains have been investigated:
actuated members in the bottom layer of the structure,
whereby the tetrahedrons can be rotated around a central - Maximal achievable radius
triangle. A variation on this principle is the partially actuated - Angular alterations in the nodes
bottom layer, whereby the grid unit cells cannot transform, - Force which the actuator has to be able to handle
but are able to rotate around each other. - Standard length of the linear elements (bars and actuators)
- Minimal and maximal length of actuators in the bottom and
Both concepts have got potential and each has got its own the top layer to achieve the maximal radius
(dis-)advantages. The study on the actuation of the structure
continued with both principles. Specific investigations on for These aspects have all been applied on both the partially
example the lengths and forces on the structural elements and the entirely actuated bottom layer. After comparing the
should be able to point out the most feasible option for single different advantages and disadvantages, a choice can be
and double curvature. made which can be further developed. As the entirely bottom
layer actuated structure contains twice as much actuators,
SIngle- and double curvature it is able to handle a twice as small radius of 3 metres instead
There is a fundamental difference between these types of of 6 metres. These minimal radii have been determined by
transformations. Whereas single curvature is rather simple to comparing the minimal and maximal length of real actuators
realise, double curvature is far more difficult. The difference with those needed to achieve the radius. As in this phase the
between these transformations is that the grid unit cells in the standard length is not known yet, a more universal value has
single curved structure transform parallel to each other in been introduced: the ratio. This is the value with which the
one direction. In double curvature, the cells have to rotate in minimal length has to be multiplied to get the maximal length.
all three directions of the central triangle. The main problem
of double curvature however, is that the grid is dimensionally Independent on the standard lengths, the radii enable the
stable. Hereby it is only able to transform as a developable possibility to calculate the angular alterations in the nodes.
surface, whereas double curvature is a freeform surface. It might make sense that the alterations in the entirely
The only solution to be able to achieve double curvature actuated structure are twice as small as those in the partially
is by actuating both layers. It has already been conclused actuated structure. The smaller these alterations are, the less
that actuating the bottom layer functions very well to complicated and less large the nodes become. For this aspect
achieve transformations. This conclusion proves that it is also again, the entirely actuated bottom layer structure has got
necessary to actuate the top layer of the structure. important advantages.
Structural elements The calculation of the forces which run through the structure
Now that it is clear that actuation will happen in the (partial are related to the lengths of the structural elements and the
or entire) bottom layer and the top layer. The next step is to forces which the actuators have to be able to handle. As
take a closer look on what exactly happens in the different it is known that the actuators can handle up to 13 kN, the
question is how large the forces will be for different lengths.
69
The calculations result in maximal values of 1 metre for the Final result
partially actuated and 1,5 metres for the entirely actuated This investigation in chapter has resulted in a lot more
bottom layer structure. detailed knowledge about what happens with the structural
elements. The The investigation has lead to conclusions which
This might be one of the most decisive conclusions. As the substantiate the choice of the final actuation concept.
main advantage of the partially actuated structure is that In the beginning, there was a doubt whether it would be
it requires less actuators, and thus will be cheaper, the necessary to actuate the entire bottom layer. It has however
advantage of the entirely actuated structure is that it needs turned out to have excellent properties regarding the lengths
less elements. For example, a structure spanning 15 metres of the elements (with a maximal length of 1,5 metres), the
requires 15 cells of 1 metre and only 10 cells of 1,5 metres. forces through the actuators (not exceeding 10 kN) and
small angular transformations in the nodes, whereby the
The last investigation has been done on the top layer size of the nodes can be reduced. Besides that, the entirely
members. As the length alteration in the top layer is a lot actuated bottom layer structure also shows a more fluent
smaller than that in the bottom layer, a solution has been transformation, able to transform to a radius of up to 3 metres.
searched differing from the actuators. As the top layer does
not control the transformations, but only has to elongate The next chapter will further develop the node system for
as a result of double curvature, a more simple solution has the tetrahedronal concept, including the principles of the
been found. Industrial dampers can be applied. The relevant actuation.
products for this application are able to take forces up to
13 kN and length alterations of 500 - 800 mm.
Node B, Node B, Node E, Node E,
Horizontal Vertical Vertical Horizontal E
10°
Dynamics
5°
50° 60°
10°
B
40° D
20°
20°
40° H
10°
Node H, Node H,
10°
50°
Horizontal Vertical
50°
10°
10°
Fig 4.7.2 Transformations caused by actuation
Actuation in the bottom layer between the grid unit cells
Fig 4.7.1 Rotation in the nodes NB The cell which will not be transformed (the octahedron)
Rotation which is needed to achieve a curvature with a radius of max. 3 m. is indicated in grey, the actuators and their rotations are indicated in red
70
Fuksas (2010) Entrance building Admirant, Eindhoven

71
5
Structural elements
The constraints for the design of the structural elements
have been made in the previous chapter concerning the
dynamics. This chapter starts with a precedent study which
will lead to concepts for dynamic structural elements. These
concepts will be analyzed, resulting in a final design.
23rd June 2011
5.1 Node design Precedent study

The first experimental models which used space grid Shell joint system
structures were made in the beginning of the twentieth The shell joint principle fixes the tubular members by clamping
century by the inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham them in between of two or more shells. These structures are
Bell (1847-1922). The structures consisted of tetrahedral and mostly used for single layered structures, whereas the previous
octahedral units, made out of tubular members which were systems are designed specifically for multilayer structures.
connected by cast nodes. The MERO system was the first Because less members have to be connected almost in a
one which has made the lightweight three dimensional single plane, the shell joints offer more freedom in their designs.
space frames commercially available. The system which has
been developed by Dr Ing Max Mengeringhausen (1903- Slot joint system
1988) in 1943 still is the most common method. From 1943 The slot joint system differs mostly in the production and
on, several other variations which have been developed assembly of its typical cylindrical shape and the specifically
can be categorized. Figure X shows the five categories using designed tubular members. The connections between the
examplar systems. Of course each category has got more tubular members and the joints are not demountable and
systems based on the same principle. requires specially trained labour and specific equipment.
Ball joint system Plate joint system

This system is based on universal spherical nodes, containing The plate joint system is the most simple joint, consisting of a
18 holes at angles of 45, 60° and 90° relative to each single folded plate able to connect eight beams. Partially the
other. The tubular members can be screwed into any of plate is planar, connecting four members which are in the
these holes, whereby one node is able to realise the entire same plane. The corners of the plate are bended to be able
structure. This system is developed by MERO in 1943 and is to connect four diagonal bracing members. In these eight
called the KK-system. parts, the plate is perforated each with three holes to bolt the
tubular members onto.
Socket joint system
The socket joint system is based on almost the same principle
as the ball joint system, except for the connections of the
tubular members. In this system, the bars are fixed by screws
from the inside of hollow spherical nodes. The Tuball-joint
has been developed by Octatube and is one of the systems
which are based on this principle.
Fig 5.1.1 Categorisation of precedents

a. Ball joint node d. Slot joint system
Example: Mero KK Node Example: Triodetic Joint
b. Socket joint system (principle equal to ball joint system) e. Plate joint system
Example: Tuball System Example: Unistrut System
c. Shell joint system
Example: Nodus Joint
c.
a.
d.
b.
e.
73
Structural elements
23rd June 2011
5.2 Node design Analysis and Design

Analysis The first thing that can be noticed when comparing the
The analysis of the different categories of precedents has precedents is the way in which the concept influences the
lead to several important conclusions. It can be noticed shapes. The socket joint system shows only a slight variation
that the concepts differ a lot, while they are developed for on the ball joint because they differ in the way the tubular
the same purpose: to build a space frame structure. As the members are connected. This results in a 'cleaner' aesthetic
nodes do not differ in their purpose, the differences can be for the socket joint system. The shell joints are based on the
traced back in other aspects. The most important one is the same principle of connecting tubular members to a three
way they are produced and assembled on site. Next to these dimensionally shaped form, but this principle offers more
technological aspects is the impact of the designs on the freedom in their designs.
aesthetics. The most relevant issue for this research relates
mostly to the technological part, but the central question in The slot joint system mostly differs in the connection of the
the precedent study is which of the design aspects of these tubular members to the nodes. This connection is very
five concepts can be relevant for dynamic structures? specifically shaped and not demountable. The plate joint
system differs in the connections to the tubular members as
well as in the node design. It is a variation on the shell joint
system, in which the plate joints consist of only one element
whereas the shell joints contain several elements which are
bolted or welded together.
a.
b.
75
Design - Centric forces

The difference between the previous systems and the system Because the dynamic structure will have to be able to
for dynamic structures is that the joints in dynamic structures change its configuration, the connection points of the
have to contain moving elements. This brings along the tubular members on the joints will also rotate. It is important
following important requirements: to be sure that the forces which run through the structure
(tubular members and the node) run centric through
- Isotropic form one point. Otherwise, the structure will show unwanted
It is recommended that the form of the node has to be the deformations, causing friction in the nodes.
same in each direction. If this is not the case, it will be hard
to design the node and its connections universally as each Because of the requirement of the nodes to be isotropic, a
connection will differ in its detailing. The basic shapes which sphere is the basic form for the node designs. Figure 5.2.1
are isotropic are basically the sphere and derived from this shows variations on the five mentioned categories. However,
are shells and rings. Furthermore, a cylindrical shape is also figure 5.2.1a is the only concept which shows a spherical
isotropic but only in one plane. node. The other concepts are abstractions of a sphere,
resulting in different properties regarding rotational freedom
and structural behaviour. The explanation of these concepts
and their feasibility for this project will be described on the
following pages.
c. d.
Fig 5.2.1 Node concepts

for dynamic structures
Structural elements
a. Ball joint node
b. Shell joint system
c. Ring joint system
d. Plate joint system
23rd June 2011
Ball/Socket joint system
The first concept for a dynamic joint is based on the ball- and
socket joint system (see figure 5.2.2). The dynamic spherical
Fig 5.2.2 Ball-socket connection
node contains several holes, whereby the tubular structural
members are connected to an inner ball which is able to
rotate within the outer sphere. This connection is based on the
principle of a ball- and socket connection.
The main advantage of this principle is that the tubular

members have got the possibility to rotate around the
central point of the node in more than one direction. The
disadvantage is that each connection point needs a large
amount of surface, whereby the number of tubular members is
inversely proportioned to the freedom of each member.
Top view Front view Perspective view
Ball- and Socket joint system

77
Shell joint system
The second concept is based on shell joint systems. For this

concept, the sphere has been splitted into several parts which
Fig 5.2.3 Shells
are able to rotate over one another (see figure 5.2.3). The
tubular members are connected to a connecting element
which is able to rotate over the shells. In this system, rotation
in one directionis provided by rotating the shells and rotation
in its perpendicular direction is provided by rotating the
connecting elements. This results in a joint in which the range
of rotation is splitted in two directions, creating different
elements and details. The rotation of the shells over the central
axis offer less freedom than the rotation of the beams over
these shells. Therefore, a joint can be positioned in a way in
which it fits the needed rotational freedom best.
Structural elements
Shell joint system

23rd June 2011
Ring joint system
Next to shells, rings are also abstractions of a sphere. The rings

can be rotated one-directionally over a central axis, whereby
connection elements can be rotated in the perpendicular
direction. So far this principle is very much like the Shell joint
system. There is an important diffence regarding the rotational
freedom which can be achieved, because as the rings have
got a smaller width, they can handle more rotation.
Several concepts for the ring joint system have been

developed, resulting in the illustrated concept. The earlier
concepts will be explained on the following pages.
Slot / Ring joint system

79
Plate joint system
The plate joint system is a variation on the Ring joint system, Fig 5.2.4 Differences in transmission of the forces through the nodes
in which the rings are replaced by plates. A conceptual
difference between the Plate and the Ring joint system is that
the Ring joint is able to connect rings with a different radius.
This is needed because the rings have got a more rectangular
section, whereby the width of these profiles strongly limit the
minimal angle between two tubular members. The plates are
only a few millimeters thick but have got a larger surface.
Sructurally, both concepts differ mostly in the transmission of

the forces, which is illustrated in figure 5.2.41. Because these
differing connections, the plate or ring joints not necessarily
are less strong.
1
Source: Space structures: Principles and practive, p. 228
Structural elements
Plate joint system

23rd June 2011
5.3 Node design Model study

After the development of the conceptual nodes, resulting out
of a precedent analysis, some physical models have been
made. The former product design project had already proved
that making prototypes is very important for the process, as
every small detail has to be known to be able to make one.
The project of the MSc1 studio focused on the design of

a standard node which could be applied in various static
double curved structures. The aim of this project was to create
a universal node, which is able to receive at least six beams
from multiple directions. The final model shows a ring-concept
in which three rings are able to rotate inside one another.
Every ring creates a 'surface', whereby every beam which
lies in this surface can be connected. Because two lines
Fig 5.3.1 Conceptual are able to define a surface, each ring can connect to at
model of the gyroscopic least two beams, wherefore it has to be able to rotate three
principle dimensionally in every position. The concept seems rather
simple, but detailing this node deserved special attention.
The node consists of three rings, which are connected by
connection points which have to be able to move around the
Wooden model showing the gyroscopic principle

81
rings. These are hard to detail because they have to be able to redirect
the forces through the structure, while they are also the weakest link.
Another complex detail concerns the connection between the beams
and the rings. These connection points have on the one hand to be as
small as possible, because enlarging the connection points has a high
impact on the ability of the rings to rotate and on the angles between
the beams. On the other hand, enlarging the connecting elements
improves the redirectioning of the forces through the beams, the
elements and to the rings.
Next to these advantages and disadvantages, the model has been

tested on structural properties. It has been modeled in Diana, whereby
it has showed that the rings have to be detailed as being connected to
each other. Hereby the deformation of the rings caused by the forces
Fig 5.3.2 Exploded view
will be reduced. Too large deformations can result in friction of the
of final model
rings, which is of course not desired.
The complexity and potential of this model have stimulated to continue

the research in this graduation study. The positive and negative aspects
which have been explained will strongly influence the design of the
node for the dynamic structure.
Structural elements
1:1 Gyroscopic node prototype containing rings
and connections to the tubular members
23rd June 2011
Prototyping the node
From the four concepts which have been illustrated (5.2), a The ring concept offers better possibilities, because a lot of
prototype has been made of two concepts. The ring joint problems of the gyroscopic model have already been solved.
in first instance looks kind of similar to the ring concept. However, it still contains the crucial details of the connections
However, it contains improvements which react upon the of the beams to the rings and the connection of the rings to
disadvantages of the gyroscopic model. The concept the central axis. A second model is based on a plate joint,
resulted in complex detailing between the rings to make whereby the rings have been replaced by plates. The main
it possible for the rings to rotate to any desired plane. For difference between the plate- and ring joint is the way they
example, the inner ring rotates around 1 axis. Hereby, the redirect the forces, which has been illustrated in figure 5.2.4.
ring cannot be positioned in any desired surface. Herefore, Both the ring- and the plate joint have been made using 2
the middle ring has to be rotated, whereby the connection different ways of making the central axis. The first one is a
points to the smaller ring rotates along. It will not be surprising cylinder with the same height as the rings, whereby the rings
that this is very hard to achieve. and plates are connected to one element. In the second
version, the middle of the axis has been removed to create an
Therefore, the ring concept is based on half rings, which empty center and thereby a visually lighter node. The models
rotate around one central axis. Only one beam will be show that this version results in an unstable node, whereby this
connected to each ring, whereby it is easier to position last version is not feasible.
each beam. Also, the rings are only made in two different
sizes. The third, inner ring of the gyroscopic model showed The other concepts of the ball- and segment joint are more
a considerably lower freedom in rotation, because the difficult to be made, because it is hard to model a spherical
circumference is smaller and the elements connecting the node. Therefore the models are first simulated and thereafter
beams to the nodes will be able to rotate in a smaller angle. roughly modeled.
Ring joint model with central axis (middle, stable)

and without central axis (right, unstable)
83
Structural elements
Plate joint model with central axis (left, stable)
and without central axis (right, unstable)
23rd June 2011
During the development of the calculations of the dynamics a. b.

in the nodes, the ball concept came forward as the most 52,5°
intesting concept because some members had to be fixed
and others (actuators) had to be abe to move within a small
130°
60°
25°
range in vertical and horizontal directions. The calculations
had resulted in some numbers, which are illustrated in figure
5.3.4. These have been modeled in the prototype which is 52,5°
showed at the bottom of this page.
This is a rough abstraction of the real model. During further

development, this nodular system seemed most feasible as c. d.
being the final system. Therefore, it has been modeled more
detailed later on in the process. This will be shown in the part of
the final structural design (5.4). 20° 20°
Figure 5.3.4
Required freedom in the node
a. Freedom in horizontal movement (top view)
b. Freedom in horizontal movement (perspective view)
c. Freedom in vertical movement (section view)
d. Freedom in vertical movement (perspective view)
Fig 5.3.3 Conceptual illustration of the Joint showing freedom in horizontal rotation (left)
ball joint system and vertical rotation (right)
85
Prototyping a structure
After prototyping different joints, a prototype has been made
of an entire grid unit cell. To model all the different joints
in the structure, the beginnings of the surrounding grid unit
cells have also been connected. The concept is based on
that of a ball joint, in which the joints have been modeled
slightly abstracted. Whereas the real joint would connect to
several different beams using one node, the model contains
several balls which are each connected to one beam. When
actuating the prototype, it shows that this would result in
undesired excentric forces. The consequences of these forces
however are not very clear in the model, because they do not
handle high loads. The structure has got one important subtle
but essential detail. First, the corner elements were designed
as tetrahedrons. In this model, the edges in the top layer which
are created by the vertices which all tetrahedrons share, are
connected to each other stiff instead of rotatable (see the
photo bottom right). Thereby, the tetrahedrons have become Model of the structure
a sort of swing, rotating around this stiff top triangle. However,
this model was generated for a structure in which the bottom
layer of the grid unit cell would also be actuated. As this is not
the case, this very interesting conclusion cannot be used.
Structural elements
Model showing transformation (left) and
detailed views on different nodes (middle, right)
23rd June 2011
5.4 Node design Final Node Designs

The final structural design is the finishing part of the research. However, the bars of the structure do not rotate optimally in
After the investigation on geometry had resulted in the their connection points because there is a lot of friction. This
tetrahedronal structure and the study on actuation has is also necessary, because otherwise the bars could show
investigated on the elements could best be actuated, the unwanted rotations, whereby they would not point to the
angular transformations have been determined. This chapter center of the node and the forces would go excentric.
has dealt with a few concepts for the node structure, which
has lead to this final result. Because of the large number of An alternative detail has been developed while thinking of
structural members which can be fixed on the node and the better connection points. Hereby, the bars are connected
small transformations in the connections to the nodes which to balls, which can be enclosed in the node like a ball- and
are needed by the actuators, the ball concept is the most socket connection. The advantage of this solution would
interesting one. be that the balls have got less friction, whereby a smoother
rotation would be allowed. The disadvantage however of this
The most logical solution for detailing the node has been solution is that forces would run excentric. Thereby, this solution
illustrated in figure 5.4.1. Prototyping this node has gained is feasible only in the partially actuated bottom layer structure,
more insight in how this idea would actually work in practice. as discussed in chapter 4. The difference of this structure
A steel node has been adjusted for this dynamic application regarding the entirely actuated bottom layer structure is that
by making larger holes and making the connection points of it also contains four fixed beams, able to keep the node on its
the rotatable structural elements. The result of this prototype position and handle the excentric forces. The solution for the
is a very elegant node, in which the structural elements are entirely actuated bottom layer structure is feasible, however
able to rotate in the degrees of freedom as have been more complicated to detail and produce.
calculated.
Photos of the prototype, showing only the fixed beams (left), the
fixed and moving beams (middle) and the inside of the node (right)
87
5.5 Conclusion
The research on the node systems has been developed figure X and X, the partially actuated structure has got some
separately from the development of the geometry and advantages because each node contains three dynamic
dynamics. Hereby, some ideas for the nodes have already and four fixed connections, whereas the entirely actuated
been tested before the investigation on the exact properties bottom layer has got five dynamic and two fixed connections.
of the node had finished. The general part of this chapter Because the partially actuated structure has got fixed
focused on different concepts, which were all based on connections, it matters less that forces would not run centric
(parts of) a sphere. The most interesting concept was the through the node. Therefore, this partially actuated concept
ball concept, which is able to handle fixed connections very allows less complicated detailing, whereby the dynamic
well as well as dynamic connections. Thereby it is also a very connections can be realised by balls which have got less
elegant design, which does not very obviously show the details friction in rotating than the shell-like components from the
which are necessary to connect the dynamic elements. entirely actuated structure.
Prototyping the node has revealed some interesting results. The entirely actuated bottom layer structure is realisable, but
The conclusion from chapter 4, dynamics, was that the entirely contains more complicated details. Therefore, the partially
actuated bottom layer structure was far more interesting to actuated bottom layer structure is a highly interesting
develop. However, detailing the nodes offered some new alternative although it offers less freedom, less elegant
insights. When comparing the details of both structures, see transformations and shorter structural members.
Rotatable connection Fixed connection

Moulded
Pop stages are getting more interactive; moving elements and video screens. end
When is the time pieces
for moving stages?
Queensday 2011 at the Museumplein, Amsterdam (30-04-2011)
Hole Ø 40 mm Steel bars, Ø50mm
Structural elements
Teflon
Fig. 5.4.1 Detail of the node

88 Future possibilities
The results of this research on the innovative field of dynamic Besides these further investigations, it is also important to
structures are only the top of the iceberg. The project evaluate on this project by further developing the structure
boundaries of this research were very helpful to focus on towards a 1:1 mock-up. This final stage has been approached,
specific problems which were solved. These same boundaries but seemed too hard to reach within a research project of half
have also left a lot of aspects empty which can now be a year.
researched upon. Next to these issues, during the process also
a lot of new possibilities showed up which could be developed Application
in a later stadium. These possibilities mainly concern specific It was very helpful for the research to not focus on a single
properties which the structure needs for specific purposes. The application at once. Now this project has resulted in interesting
main important items for future developments are summed up. conclusions, these can be taken to higher grounds. By
confronting the structure with a specific architectural design,
Building skin it will become clear what the product already has got to offer
One of the main elements which was left out by the project and which points of attention have to be explored to make it
boundaries was the building skin. A very extensive research feasible.
can be done on several aspects regarding the skin such as the
materialisation and its connection to the structure. The main One of the most interesting applications is that of temporary
complexity of this research would be that the flexible structure structures, pavilions and coverings. For the sake of the
also needs materialisation which is able to handle curved feasibility, applying this dynamic structure brings some
surfaces or planar elements which are flexible connected as a important properties along.
result of subdividing the curved surface into planar elements.
Deployable structure
Connection of the structure to the building One of the applications for which this system could be used
The geometry of the structure is designed as being floating is (temporary) single storey pavilions. The dynamic structure
in the air, which is of course not possible. The structure has is able to trigger people to visit the pavilion, whereby it can
to be connected to a floor or vertical elements such as a travel all over the world. Because of the short-time period in
facade, a wall or columns. The first case would be the most which the structure stays on the same location, maintenance
interesting to research upon, because this structure would be can be done when traveling to another location. To make
fully independent of other elements. A first step can therefore this field of application more interesting, the structure should
be taken by regarding the maximal span of the structure. This have to be moved without needing lots of containers and
will determine if a structure is able to stand by itself. If this is trucks. Deployable structures are specifically designed for
not the case, columns or other vertical structural members are purposes whereby they need to be able to contract in very
needed. A very interesting field for investigation lies in how small pieced and also extend into an enourmous structure.
these vertical members would best fit to the philosophy of the A very nice examples of one of the earliest developments
structure. of this kind of structures is the roof covering for the swimming
pool, developed by Escrig Valcarcel Sanchez (1965). Further
research can focus upon the possibilities and requirements of
structures in terms of deployment.
89
Fig. 6.1.1 Roof covering for swimming pool

Escrig Valcarcel Sanchez (1965)
90 Evaluation
The introduction to this graduation study ihas already been At the very beginning of the graduation studio, my main goal
two years ago in the spring semester of 2009 of the MSc1 was to develop on the node which has been developed in
Building Technology product design studio. From that project the MSc1 studio. Therefore, I also needed a geometry. The
on, I wanted to research on this field of innovation. When the graduation research has however evolved differently, and
time came to start the project in the spring semester of 2010 focused for a very large part on the geometrical configuration
(MSc3 Materialisation studio) the subject has been introduced and the effects on the structure and the nodes. The process
as a proposal for the course of 'the Future Evelop'. After has been highly interesting and I think that I would not
finishing my architectural graduation project at the end of want to change a single thing or decision. I can see a lot of
december 2010, the research started. opportunities for the results of this project. As the research is
never finished, I regard these opportunities as being interesting
During the development of the project, the time has passed fields for further research studies.
rapidly. It was a very interesting process, in which I, fortunately,
had very few ´downs´ a lots of ´ups´. In the beginning, I had to When I graduated for my previous study only three years ago,
find my way in researching. However, this was solved quickly I had never expected myself to achieve this kind of highly
when I was asked to stop writing and start puzzling. I think this interesting and innovative results. I am very grateful that I have
was an important step; to let me be guided by the process got the opportunity to have achieved my ambitions.
of the research development, not trying to take too much
control by myself.
91
92 List of figures
p. 3 Photo of the Quadracci Pavilion of the Milwaukee Art Museum (Calatrava, 2001)
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-50oUnyf0WMU/TXWw-3zYPNI/AAAAAAAAAo8/TK7q0ZeHV1o/s1600/1.JPG (08 May 2011)
p. 6-7 Wireframe render of 'The Cockpit', acoustical barrier in Utrecht (NL) (ONL, 2006)
http://www.architecture-page.com/assets/images/content/prj_onl_cock/pop1.gif (08 May 2011)
p. 9 Photo of the BMW Ekris building in Utrecht (ONL, 2006)
http://www.centraalstaal.nl/websites/implementatie/mediadepot/md398.jpg (19 May 2011)
p. 11 Photo of the double curved roof for the Great Court at the Britisch Museum (Foster, 2004)
http://english.dac.dk/db/filarkiv/11921/british_museum_Nigel_Young_Foster_Partners_RGB.jpg (03 May 2011)
p. 17 Double curved roof of 'My Zeil', shopping centre in Frankfurt (Fuksas, 2009)
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/MyZeil_innen.jpg (11 May 2011)
p. 19 Fig. 2.1.1 Based on: Narayanan, Subramanian (2006) Space structures: Principles and practive, vol. 1
(Brentwoord) Multi-science, p. 17
p. 20 Fig. 2.1.2 Based on: Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 18
p. 20-21 Fig. 2.1.3 Based on: Ramaswamy, G.S [et al] (2002) Anaysis, design and construction of steel space frames
(London) Telford, p. 201
p. 22 Fig. 2.2.1 Based on: Beranek, W.J. (2000) Krachtswerking deel 3: Vakwerken, standzekerheid (Delft) TU Delft,
p. 303
p. 23 Fig. 2.2.2 Based on: Beranek, W.J. (idem), p. 310-311
p. 25 Fig. 2.3.3 Narayanan, Subramanian (2006) Space structures: Principles and practive, vol. 2 (Brentwoord)
Multi-science, p. 780
p. 27 Fig. 2.4.1 Pottman, H (2007) Architectural Geometry (Exton) Bentley Insitute Press, p. 535
Fig. 2.4.2 Pottmann (idem) p. 539
p. 30 Fig. 2.6.1 Based on: Beranek, W.J. (2000) Krachtswerking deel 3: Vakwerken, standzekerheid (Delft) TU Delft,
p. 309

p. 33 Top view on the Milan Fair (Fuksas, 2005)
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_LMlTUAn8v_Q/SwwJNgOpzZI/AAAAAAAAAEQ/xkxkE5PsywM/s1600/fuksas4.jpg
(27 April 2011)
93
p. 36 Fig. 3.1.2 Based on: Hutchinson, R.G. [et al] Kagome plate structures for actuation
International Journal of Solids and Structures 40 (2003) 6969–6980, p. 5
p. 47 Bird's nest (Herzog & De Meuron, 2008)
http://www.bustler.net/images/uploads/lubetkin_hdm_beijing_stadium_02x.jpg (15 June 2011)
p. 71 Entrance building Admirant (Fuksas, 2010)

http://www.archiportale.com/immagini/FileProgetto/immaginigrandi/32662_3.jpg?801,0828 (20 May 2011)
p.72 Fig 5.1.1a (top left) Narayanan, Subramanian (2006) Space structures: Principles and practive, vol. 1
Fig 5.1.1a (top right) Chilton, J. (2000) Space grid structures (Oxford) Architectural press, p. 33
Fig 5.1.1a (bottom) Chilton, J. (idem), p. 33
p. 73 Fig 5.1.1b (left) Narayanan, Subramanian (2006) Space structures: Principles and practive, vol. 1
Fig 5.1.1b (right) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 228
Fig 5.1.1c (top) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 243
Fig 5.1.1c (bottom) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 244
Fig 5.1.1d (top) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 238
Fig 5.1.1d (bottom) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 239
Fig 5.1.1e (top) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 231
Fig 5.1.1e (bottom) Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 230
p. 79 Fig 5.2.4 Narayanan, Subramanian (idem), p. 230
p. 89 Fig. 6.1.1 Escrig, F, Valcárcel, J.P., Sanchez, J Deployable cover on a swimming pool in Seville Journal
of international association for shell and spatial structures IASS 37 (1996) n 120, figure 2 p. 41
94 List of sources
Literature
Beranek, W.J. (2000) Krachtswerking deel 3: Vakwerken, standzekerheid (Delft) TU Delft
Chilton, J. (2000) Space grid structures (Oxford) Architectural press
Engel, H. (1999) Tragsysteme; Structure systems (Ostfildern-Ruit) Hatje
Makowski, Z.S. (1981) Analysis, Design and Construction of double-layer grid (London) Applied Science Publishers LTD
Narayanan, Subramanian (2006) Space structures: Principles and practive, vol. 1 (Brentwoord) Multi-science
Narayanan, Subramanian (2006) Space structures: Principles and practive, vol. 2 (Brentwoord) Multi-science
Pellegrino, S. (2001) Deployable structures (Wien) Springer
Pottman, H (2007) Architectural Geometry (Exton) Bentley Insitute Press
Ramaswamy, G.S [et al] (2002) Anaysis, design and construction of steel space frames (London) Telford
Schumacher, M.; Schaeffer, O.; Vogt, M.M. (2010) Move - Architecture in Motion (Basel) Birkhäuser Verlag AG
Papers
Hutchinson, R.G. [et al] Kagome plate structures for actuation International Journal of Solids and Structures 40 (2003) 6969–6980
The field of research of the graduation project
investigates on a new generation of design
principles, being innovative in the ability to create
dynamic and interactive architecture.
The report explains the development of the dynamic space frame
structure of this research. This structure consists of structural elements,
which are arranged in a geometry which is optimally transformable.
This geometry gives the constraints for the design of the structural
elements such as the elements with their fixed and dynamic lengths
and the nodular system. The design process has been interactive
and has resulted in a structural solution in which the most important
design aspects have been integrated in both the geometry as well
as the nodular system.
The geometrical configuration of the structure has been

designed, calculated and tested. This report not only explains
the development towards the final product, but also reveals very
interesting conceptual ideas which can be developed in following
studies.

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M.A.P.M. (Michel) Buijsen, 151 92 98

Dynamic Space Frame Structures

Tutors dr ir K.J. Vollers

Date 23 June 2011

Building Technology Graduation Project, 2011 Q3-4

Calatrava (2001) Quadracci Pavilion of the Milwaukee Art Museum (Milwaukee)

Fig. 1 Concepts for transformation

Fig. 2 Movement within the structure Fig. 3 Conceptual drawing of the

I would like to thank all of my tutors gratefully. Karel Vollers has

I got a lot of energy and ambition out of the surprising and

Image: ONL (2006) Wireframe render of ‘The Cockpit’ (Utrecht)

ONL (2006) BMW Ekris (Utrecht)

1.1 Research question

The main question for the geometry is: - Constructional stability

not directly related to an architectural project or case study.

er behaviour Environmental Architectural

c. Summer d. Air out

Fig. 1.1.1 Potential fields of application1

Research The central topic of the project focuses on dynamic structures.

Determining the geometry enables the research to zoom in

Fresh inspirations from the literature study have to be

Robots and other smart machines have the

Fuksas (2009)Double curved roof of 'My Zeil', shopping centre in Frankfurt

2.1 Common geometrical typologies

orthogonal grid, creating another visual effect. Most of these

Two-way grids are most commonly applied because they form

Fig 2.1.1 Common used single layer grids

Fig 2.1.2a Lattice structure Fig 2.1.2b Lattice structure

Fig 2.1.3a Square on square Fig 2.1.3b Square on larger square

Fig 2.1.3e Diagonal on diagonal Fig 2.1.3f Diagonal on square

2.2 Dimensional stability

a. b. c. As the stability of a structure cannot be numerically

Fig 2.2.1 Dimensional stability of different forms

1. Check the structure on (stable) a. b. c. d. e.

Fig 2.2.3 Check of dimensional stability by rules of thumb

2.3 Geometry Polygons, Polyhedra and Solids

[Narayanan, 2006, p.779]

Compositions of geometrical elements

Fig 2.3.1 Random structure

Fig 2.3.2 Convex (a) and concave (b) polygons e.

Fig 2.3.3 Five Platonic solids and their nets

2.4 Geometry Surfaces

Fig 2.4.1 Developable surfaces Fig 2.4.2 Unfolding a cone

2.5 Geometry Transformations

2.6 Force distribution in double layered space frames

At the beginning of this research project, there was no

3.1 Geometry Precedent analysis: Kagome Plate Truss Structure

Cell Perspective view Top view Side view

Kagome Plate Truss Structure Front view

One corner of a tetrahedron lifted,

3.2 Geometry Tetrahedronal Structure

Tetrahedronal Structure Front view

Before the research on the geometry focused on further development of

Fig 3.2.2 Development of the structure (view on geometry)

3.3 Geometry Variation 1 - Quatro-tetrahedronal cells

Cell Perspective view Top view Side view

Quatro-Tetrahedronal Cells Front view

Movement of the grid unit cell

3.4 Geometry Variation 2 - Tensioned balanced cells