CHAPTER - 4

EDDY CURRENT METHOD

GENERAL
Technological advances in the field of eddy current testing equipment has
so broadened the scope of capabilities that today eddy currents are being used
are evaluation of : fatigue effects , depth of case, decarburization, film thickness,
discontinuities, material hardness, alloy composition, material thickness, carbon
content in steel melt, movement of surfaces in adverse environment , etc.

The article configuration, scope of the test, location of area of interest,

type of environment, dictate the method, type of coil which would be required for
the specific test.

Eddy current testing more so than any other form of nondestructive testing
is strictly specialized. This makes the development of techniques which would be
universal very difficult.

The three general groups which will be covered are conductivity testing,
discontinuity testing, and coating measurement.

CONDUCTIVITY TESTING

1) GENERAL
One of the major applications of eddy current testing is the measurement
of conductivity. This application is possible since most materials have a unique
conductivity value determined by the materials chemical composition, its
processing and method of manufacture. It should be noted that most pure
metals, e.g., gold, copper, silver etc,. have definite conductivity values, whereas
most alloys have broad values or ranges.

2) INTERNATIONAL ANNEALED COPPER STANDARD (IACS)

Standard conductivity has been defined by the international
Electrochemical Commission in terms of the amount of resistance to be found in
a specified grade of high purity copper when measured at 20 C. (68F). This

83
resistance amounts is approximately 0.15 chms per gram meter, which has been
arbitrarily designated as 100 % conductivity.

Expressing conductivity in terms of International Annealed Copper

Standard or % IACS is a convenient method of comparing one material with
another. For example, material with a conductivity of 50 % IACS would be
interpreted to mean that the conductivity when compared to the IACS would be
only 50 %.

3) EQUIPMENT SCALES
Equipment designed to measure conductivity indicates the conductivity in
terms of the IACS percentage. Figure 4 -1 illustrates a typical tester which has a
scale expressing conductivity in terms of a percentage. Normally the range of the
scale is a small segment of the total IACS range. For example, the range of the
scale in the tester in Figure 4 -1 may have a conductivity range of 60 – 110 %
IACS. Although some tester have a removable scale, the trend is toward specific
conductivity ranges designed for a specific application as in Table 4 – 1.

Figure Typical Conductivity Tester

84
 Table 4 –1: Typical Scale Ranges

Scale Number Conductivity Ranges Resistivity Range

% IACS In Micro – OHM -
CM
1 1-5 43 UP
2 4-20 8.6 – 43
3 15-70 2.8 – 8.6
4 60-110 1.5 – 2.9

4) CALIBRATION
Calibration of eddy current conductivity testers is accomplished by the use
of calibration samples (Figure 4 – 1). Normally two samples are provided, one for
each end of the scale. A typical calibration procedure is detailed as follows:

a. Place position switch (Figure 4 – 1) to position B.

b. Check that meter indication falls in red area on right end of meter scale. This
denotes that battery power is satisfactory.
c. Place position switch to position 1. (This is the low sensitivity position.)
d. Select calibration sample with the highest IACS value and, using the IACS
knob, set this value on the IACS scale. (Scale has a Centerline to permit
setting of specific value.)
e. Press eddy current probe against selected calibration sample.
f. Adjust calibration HIGH control to obtain Zero indication on meter scale.
g. Replace calibration sample with the IACS sample for the low end of the
scale.
h. Press eddy current probe against the sample and adjust calibration LOW
control to obtain zero indication on meter scale.
i. Perform final calibration by placing position switch 2 and repeat steps done
through h

85
NOTE: Because of interactions between the high and low sensitivity positions
(1 and 2), It may be necessary to repeat the procedures several times to obtain
zero indications on both positions.

5) CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
The following paragraphs describe the measurement procedures, the
interpretation, and the various factors related to evaluating the results.

a) Procedure:
A typical measuring procedure is detailed as follows:

1. Ensure that tester is calibrated.

2. Ensure that article’s temperature is approximately the same as the
calibration samples.

NOTE: Normally the ambient temperature of the calibration samples and the
article are the same, therefore, if calibration is accomplished immediately prior to
performing conductivity measurements, the requirement of Step 2 is satisfied.

3. Press eddy current probe against test article.

4. Slowly rotate IACS knob until mete indicates zero.
5. Observe value on IACS scale. This is the conductivity of the test
article.

b) Interpretation:
The typical tester shown in Figure 4 -1 is a compact, portable, battery –
powered instrument with a fixed frequency and with probe matched to the tester.
Accuracy is within ± 3 % of the scale reading which can be improved when the
tester is calibrated within a range less than the full range of the scale.

1. Since the tester has a fixed frequency and coil, the depth of the eddy current
penetration on a specific material will vary with the conductivity of the
material. (Table 2 -1). As the conductivity increases the depth of the
penetration decreases. For example, for material “x” with a value of 98 %
IACS, the depth is 0.030. This means that conductivity measurements are
being made only near the surface of the article, and are independent of the

86
 thickness of the article, providing that the article is thicker than the depth of
penetration.

2. Most eddy current conductivity testers are designed for use on non –
magnetic conductive materials, This, of course, is based on a magnetic
material adding a second variable, permeability, and making it impossible to
use established scales that relates readings to conductivity values. To
measure magnetic materials, it would be necessary to saturate the material.
Complete saturation may not be possible in some highly magnetic materials
or in thick sections. However, where it is possible, saturation of the material
would make the permeability value approximately one.

3. In the measurement of a magnetic conductive material, the IACS value is an

absolute value and can be related to a material or group of materials as
shown in Figure 4 – 2 and 4 – 3. It should be pointed out, however, that heat
treat, cold working, aging and ambient temperatures all affect the conductivity
value; therefore, the actual relationship of the measured value to the
information in Figures 4 – 2 and 4 – 3 must be qualified. Normally, the
conductivities of a number of acceptable articles are measured and correlated
against actual physical testing so as to qualify their conductivity
measurements as reference standards.

87
Figure 4.2 Relative Conductivity of Various Metals and Alloys Versus Eddy
Current Meter Readiness

88
 Figure 4-3: Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum and Magnesium Alloy

c) Sorting:
Most nonmagnetic pure metals can be screened by the means of their
conductivities. However in screening alloys the conductivity values frequently
overlap. This overlapping is characteristics of the alloying elements which govern
the conductivity.

Two general cases can be identified. In the first case, a number of

materials have been mixed. Each material can be identified and its conductivity
defined. With this information, it is then possible to sequentially measure each
article in the mixed group and to separate the article based on the differences in
conductivity. The sorting operation can only be performed when there is no
overlap in the ranges of conductivity for each material. if the ranges overlap, it
becomes impossible to determine which article falls in which material class. In
the second case, a group of articles of the same material must be sorted based
on the differences in conductivity between articles. For this condition, the
absolute conductivity value of each article is not required. A typical procedure for
performing sorting under this condition is detailed as follows:

89
1. Ensure that tester is calibrated.
2. Select article with maximum allowable conductivity.
3. Select article with minimum allowable conductivity.
4. Select article with conductivity that is halfway between maximum and
minimum allowable values. Use this article to set value on IACS scale. Press
probe against article.
5. Rotate IACS knob to obtain zero indication on meter.
6. Place probe against maximum allowable conductivity article, observe meter
value, and record value.
7. Place probe against minimum allowable conductivity article, observe meter
value, and record value.
8. Sort articles by pressing probe against test Reference standard, observing
meter indications, and accepting or rejecting articles based on the limits
established by the maximum and minimum references and indicated on the
metal.

d) Hardness Measurements:
Eddy current conductivity testing can also be used to infer the hardness
of a number of nonmagnetic materials. Usually conductivity decreases as
hardness increases. A relative scale can be set up for this relationship by
selecting two or more calibration samples which cover the range needed for the
articles to be tested. These samples are measured by normal hardness
techniques, e.g., Rockwell, then conductivity measurements are made and
correlated. Table4-2 illustrates how such information can be gathered regarding
the hardness of a specific material. This information can be related to a range of
conductivity values for the material. It thus becomes possible to use conductivity
measurements rather than hardness measurements to infer the hardness of this
specific material. It should be noted that other variables may not affect the
article’s conductivity but may affect its physical properties (Reference Note 1,
Table 4.2) Caution must always be exercised in an implied hardness
measurements by means of eddy current, for it is common that hardness
measurements may be in gross error

90
e) Heat Treatment Variations:
In the processing of materials and articles heat treatment and
quenching techniques are used which produce metallurgical variation in the
articles. These variations produce changes conductivity (nonmagnetic
material) which can be detected by eddy current testing. Such conductivity
tests are being used as in – process controls. Conductivity tests can also be
used to evaluate damage caused to structures as a result of excessive
heat. For example, if the conductivity of a (structure) material is
established and then the structure is exposed to excessive hear, it is
possible to determine the degree of physical change due to the exposure.
In many cases localized heating of a structure may occur; therefore, a
comparisor, can be made between the two areas on the same structure, the
strength of an article will decrease and the conductivity increases in direct
relation to the amount of heat treatment received by the article; therefore,
through conductivity measurements, it becomes possible to monitor
changes in an article’s strength as shown in Table 4 -3.

f) Depth of Penetration:
In performing conductivity testing, it is necessary to keep in mind that
eddy current testing is essentially a surface testing technique. In the case of
a plane conductor, the current falls off exponentially with depth below the
surface. (Figure 4.4) The standard depth of penetration in a plane
conductor in a uniform field is the depth at which the current is equal to
1/e (37 percent) times its value at the surface. The greater the frequency,
permeability or conductivity, the less the depth of penetration. For
nonmagnetic materials whose value of permeability (µ) is approximately
one, the desired penetration can be controlled by the frequency selection.

g) TEMPERATURE:
A Change in the temperature of an article will change the electrical
conductivity due to the increase in lattice parameter and thermal vibration of
the atom. In several techniques this increase in lattice size and the resulting
change in conductivity can be used to measure temperature of an article in
an adverse environment. How ever in most applications where conductivity
is being measured, the control of the reference standard and the article’s

91
 temperature may be of utmost importance. All test which are critical in
nature.

Table 4 -3: Physical Properties of Copper

YIELD
UTS ELONGATION, % HARDNESS, CONDUCTIVITY
CONDITION POINT
KSI ON 2 IN. DPH * IACS
KSI

AS CAST 9 27 42 60 59

HOT WORKED 18 33 40 71 69

AS HOT
WORKED AND
10.2 29 40 64 38
QUENCHED
FROM 1050 C

AS QUENCHED
AND AGED AT 39.2 54.4 25 152 85
500 C FOR 1 HR

Figure 4-4: Eddy Current Strength Drops off with Distance from
Surface

92
 Table 4 -2. Conductivity Values /R/C Hardness

ALUMINIUM ALLOY – SHEET AND PLATE - BARE

CODNDUCTIVITY VALUE
MAT % OF IACS * **
BRINELL VALUE 10 MM
MAT’L SPEC COND. STANDARD SUPERFICIAL (MATERIAL THICKNESS .
BALL 500 kg. LOAD
050 THICKER)
5456 MIL –A – 19842 0 NO HARDNESS TEST DATA AVAILABLE
H321 NO HARDNESS TEST DATA AVAILABLE
H343 NO HARDNESS TEST DATA AVAILABLE
6061 QQ – A - 327 0 H 75 MAX. 44.0 – 49.0
T4 H 91 MIN. 15 T64 MIN 57 MIN. 35.5 – 40.5
T6, T651 E 85 MIN. 30 T47.5 MIN 80 MIN. 40.0 – 45.0

7075 QQ – A – 283 0 E77 MAX. 30T38.5 MAX 70 MAX 44.0 – 47.0

T6; T651 B83 MIN. 30T72 MIN 137MIN 30.5 – 34.5
MMS - 159 T73 B69 MIN (SEE NOTE 1 AT BOTTOM OF PAGE) 38.0 MIN
7079 MIL – A – 8877 T6, T651 30.5 – 34.0
NO HARDNESS TEST DATA
7178 0 43.0 – 47.0
7178 MIL – A – 9180 T6, T651 B 86 MIN. 30T74 MIN. 145 MIN. 30.0 – 34.0
7079 0 44.0 – 47.0
7079 T6, T651 30.5 – 34.0

NOTE 1: THIS VALUE IS TO BE USED ONLY TO DETERMINE THAT MATERIAL IS NOT IN THE “O” CONDITION. IT
DOES NOT IN ANY WAY INDICATE WHETHER OR NOT THE MATERIAL HAS BEEN PROPERLY HEAT TREATED TO
THE T 73 CONDITIONS.
NORMAL ROCKWELL TESTING WILL BE USED ON MATERIAL THICKNESS OUTSIDE THE RANGES AUTHORIZED
A ROCKWELL SAMPLE SHALL BE TAKEN FOR THOSE LOTS TESTED ENTIRELY BY CONDUCTIVITY TESTING

93
 DISCONTINUITY TESTING

1) GENERAL
A second major application of eddy currents is the detection of
discontinuities. In such detection eddy currents flow in regular patterns
within an article and a discontinuity changes this pattern. (Figure4.5). As the
pattern changes, the output indication changes.

Figure 4-5: Eddy Current Pattern Changes

Detection of discontinuities depends directly on the design of the

specific types of eddy current detectors. It also depends directly on whether
manual or automatic methods are used. The following paragraphs will
describe the application of the impedance method of performing
discontinuity testing. Figure (4.6) illustrates a typical eddy current
discontinuity detector. This is the same detector described in Chapter 3. In
using this detector, it should be recalled that the detector does not provide
absolute measurements. A change in the meter indication simply means
that the article has changed the impedance of the test coil. If a change in
characteristics will change the coil’s impedance which, in turn, will cause a
change in the meter indication.

2) CALIBRATION
The typical impedance (discontinuity) detector (Figure 4 – 6) does
not require calibration immediately prior to use. It is sufficient to turn on the
detector and allow 15 minutes of warm up prior to use. Turn on the detector
as follows:

94
 Figure 4-6: Typical Impedance (Discontinuity) Detector

a. Connect probe to PROBE receptacle.

b. Connect detector to power source.

c. Rotate SENSITIVVITY control clockwise to MAX position. This

turns on the detector and sets the sensitivity of the detector to
the maximum position.

d. Check that POWER ON light comes on.

3) DISCONTINUITY DETECTION
Use of a typical impedance (discontinuity) detector is a two step
process: 1)Preparation and 2) detection. In using the detector, it is
important to know that the depth of penetration can be changed by the
FREQUENCY control. Ten positions are shown in Figure 4 -6. The lowest
position (position1) is the highest frequency (e.g., 134 kilocycles); the
highest position (position 10) is the lowest frequency (e.g., 54 kilocycles).
Rotating the control from the lowest position increases as the frequency is
decreased. The LIFT – OFF control is a fine frequency (vernier) control for
any frequency selected by the FREQUENCY control. In normal practice, the
Frequency control is set to a position is thus a coarse frequency control

95
while the LIFT – OFF control, the final frequency is selected. The
FREQUENCY control is thus a coarse frequency control while the LIFT –
OFF control is a fine frequency control.

a) Preparation:
Preparation for discontinuity detection is accomplished as follows:

1. Ensure that detector is turned on and SENSITIVITY control is rotated

clockwise to MAX position.
2. Turn BALANCE control counter clockwise to maximum position.
3. Turn LIFT – OFF control counter clockwise to maximum position.
4. Set FREQUENCY control to position 1. (or to specified setting, if
known).
5. Press probe on surface of reference. Use reference that has been
previously determined to be acceptable.
NOTE: Eddy current detection is a relative testing technique. Article
references must be established for comparison.
6. Adjust BALANCE control to obtain mid – range indication (approximately
250 microamperes on meter scale)
7. Lift, then return probe to reference’s surface, noting the direction of
meter deflection.
8. If meter deflects downscale (towards lower scale), rotate FREQUENCY
control to position 2 (or next highest number) and repeat steps (6) and
(7). If necessary, repeat procedure using position 3 (or next highest
number) until deflection in the upscale direction is obtained.
9. Place sheet of ordinary writing paper (0.002 to 0.004 thickness) between
probe and article.
10. Slide paper out from under probe and note direction of meter deflection.
11. Rotate LIFT – OFF control in clockwise direction of note direction of
meter deflection.
12. Verify that meter deflection direction in step (11) is the same as in step
(10). If it is not the same, rotate FREQUENCY control to the next

96
 highest position number and adjust BALANCE control to obtain mid
range indication.
13. Repeat steps (9) through (12) until no meter deflection occurs when
paper is removed from under probe.
14. If desired, the sensitivity can now be reduced by rotating the
SENSITIVITY control in the clockwise direction. This reduces the spread
as displayed on the meter.

b) Detection:
Eddy current discontinuity detection, using the impedance method, is
a gross detection system based on the detection of changes from a
standard reference. The article, through the regular eddy current patterns
within the article, is the reference. As the eddy current test coil probe is
moved across the article’s surface, a meter deflection will indicate a change
from a standard reference. The reason for the change cannot be
determined by observing the meter deflection. The NDT specialist only
knows that something within the article has changed.

c). Interpretation:
Since a number of factors within the article affect the test coil, the
significance of the deflection change depends upon the specific test
application, the NDT specialist’s experience, and the availability of standard
references with artificial or natural discontinuities. It is also necessary to
keep in mind that the depth of penetration varies with the test frequency;
therefore, the depth of testing is not constant. One must also realize that
eddy current testing is basically a surface testing technique which is limited
by the depth of penetration. When the depth of the article is greater than the
depth of penetration (the normal case) 100 percent testing of the article is
not being accomplished throughout all areas of the article.

COATING / PLATING THICKNESS TESTING

1) GENERAL
Measuring the thickness of a coating or plating on the surface of an
article is another major eddy current application. Two approaches are

97
possible, depending upon whether the coating is conductivity or
nonconductive.

2) CONDUCTIVE COATINGS
If the coating (or plating) is conductive, the conductivity of both the
coating and the article can be measured by the use of an impedance
(conductivity) tester (Figure 4 – 1). The impedance (discontinuity) detector
(Figure 4 – 6) may also be used to detect changes in thickness. Since the
impedance (discontinuity) detector normally has a means of changing the
test frequency, the detector is superior to the discontinuity tester for certain
application. Through the use of the frequency selector the depth of eddy
current penetrations can be adjusted so that the depth is just slightly greater
than the thickness of the coating. Under this condition, maximum sensitivity
in the coating area is obtained, In normal practice, no calculation are
required since calibration curves (Figure 4 -7) are prepared which relate
thickness to meter indications. Such curves are prepared for each type of
measuring instruments, probe and coating. A group of articles with varying
thickness are prepared and used to establish the initial calibration curve. By
the use of the curves, it is only necessary to observe the meter indication,
locate the observed value on the curve, and note the thickness related to
this value on the curve. The validity of the test requires that the test
frequency be specified and the instrument is periodically calibrated. It
should also be realized that discontinuities may affect the meter indication.

98
 Figure 4-7: Typical Calibration Curves For Thickness Testing

3) NONCONDUCTIVE COATINGS
Although coatings may be classified as conductive or nonconductive
coatings do not have eddy currents, such coating cannot be measured by
the direct use of conductivity measurements. For such coatings, the lift – off
effect property of surface coils is used. Variations in the thickness of a
nonconductive coating cause a change in the distance between the test coil
(probe) and the conductive area of the article. A change in distance
produces a change in the output indication. The impedance (discontinuity)
detector (Figure 4 -6) may be used to sense such a change. Normally,
standard references with specific thickness are prepared to provide a basis
for comparison. The lift-off effect is a sensitive effect; therefore, it is
important to maintain constant pressure on the probe to ensure that the
probe pressure does not produce lift- out effects. Spring – loaded probes
are particularly useful in performing thickness measurements on
nonconductive coatings.

99
4) COATING CONDUCTIVITY VS BASE MATERIAL
CONDUCTIVITY
Although coatings may be classified as conductive or nonconductive,
the technique and accuracy of measurement is dependent upon the relative
degree of conductivity between the coating and its base material.

a. Metal coatings having a higher conductivity than the base metal, i.e.,
copper, zinc, cadmium on steel.
b. Metal coating having a lower conductivity than the base metal i.e.,
chromium or lead on copper.
c. Nonconductive coatings on a metallic base, i.e., anodize or paint on
aluminium alloy, organic coatings on metals, etc.
d. Metal coatings on a nonconductive base material, i.e., metallic film on
glass, ceramic or plastic, etc.

5) USE OF SPEICAL THICKNESS TESTING EQUIPMENT

Special eddy current equipment is available for determining coating
thickness. This equipment is normally limited to special applications (a
specific thickness) from micro inches to several thousands of an inch.

NONCONDUCTIVE ARTICLES
Through the lift – off effect is also possible to measure the thickness
of nonconductive articles. This is accomplished by placing the
nonconductive article on a conductive surface and inducing eddy currents
into the conductive surface. Special commercially available units are used
for this purpose and some units can measure up to 3 inches of
nonconductive material.

TESTING FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

When eddy current testing techniques are applied to magnetic,
trouble is experienced in resolving the measurement. The presence of
permeability greater than one interferes directly with the indications
because of the masking and opposing signal. It can be compared to a
perfect conductor where the depth of penetration is almost zero. This
permeability can be reduced to nearly one (air equivalent) by means of

100
saturation. Saturation can be accomplished by a DC magnetic field, or if the
test area is small, it is possible to use a saturating magnetic field from a
permanent magnet. Once the permeability factor is eliminated, eddy current
tests can proceed as if testing nonmagnetic materials (approximately the
same depth of penetration).

When elimination of the permeability variable is not necessary, it is

possible to interpret test indications by means of a cathode ray
presentation.

PHASE ANALYSIS

1) GENERAL
As described in Chapter 2, the technique of phase can be applied to
eddy current testing. The analysis can be performed by the NDT specialist
on a manual basis or it can be performed by phase analysis circuits which
are a part of the testing equipment. For NDT specialist interpretation, three
phase analysis methods have been identified; vector – point method, ellipse
method, and linear time – base method. These methods are described in
Chapter 2.

2) APPLICATION OF VECTOR – POINT METHOD

Figure 3 -18 illustrates a typical vector – point method. In this
method, the cathode ray tube indication is a dot of light and two sets of test
coils are used; one for the standard article and one for the test article.
Testing can be accomplished on either a manual or automatic basis.
Through controls it is possible to separate the conductivity variable from the
permeability and dimensional variables and to establish limits. Setup for the
vector – point method is a accomplished by using a test article with a
specific variation. The article is placed in the test coil and is compared with
the standard reference. Through equipment controls, the cathode ray tube
dot is positioned so that movement of the dot only reflects the desired
variation. That is, if by the equipment controls it was established that
conductivity variations in the test article move the point of light up and
down, any other variables will move the point horizontal. With the control,
the horizontal movements can be held to a minimum and the observer or
recorder will see only the vertical movement of the dot is established by the

101
test article, and through scaled on the CRT or though circuits within the
CRT equipment, any dot values greater than the maximum limits are the
basis for discrepancy evaluation of the test article. The dot indication can
be related to sorting gates which automatically separate the articles based
on the limits initially established by the article and indicated by the dot.

3) APPLICATIONS OF ELLIPSE METHOD

The ellipse method is described in chapter 3 and illustrated in Figure
3-19. Figure 4-8 shows typical CRT indications. Like the vector-point
method, the ellipse method uses two sets of test coils with the test article
being balanced by a reference standard. When both reference standard
and test article have the same properties, a condition of balance exists.
This is shown in view A of Figure 4-8.

a. Setup: Initial setup for test is accomplished by using a test article with
a known variable. This article is placed in the test coil and compared
with reference standard. Through controls in the CRT equipment, the
indication is adjusted so that a change in indication from view A Figure
4-8 to View C presents a dimensional change. This is the dimensional
change in the test article used established the initial setup.

b. Test: Test is a accomplished by manually or automatically passing test

articles through the test article coil observing the CRT indication.

c. Interpretation: The ellipse method provides indications of

two variables at the same time. A change in dimension is
indicated by the orientation of the ellipse. If the test article
has only a dimensional variation, the ellipse will be a straight
line which will be at some position (e.g., view c in Figure 4-8)
other than the horizontal position shown in view A. if the
article contains only a conductivity change, then the horizontal
straight line will change to an ellipse (view B). on the other
hand, when both a change in dimension as well as a change in
conductivity exists, then a display such as shown in view D will
be obtained. The orientations of the ellipse depends upon how
the initial conditions are established and the phase
relationships. Typical ellipse orientations are shown in Figure
4-9. The initial setup may establish the straight line indication

102
at some angle other than the horizontal position shown in view
A of Figure 4-8. since this angle can be related to the scales
on the front of the CRT, it is only necessary to establish a
reference position. Detail interpretation of ellipse patterns
depends upon the specific application; therefore, detail
interpretation information will not be provided in this
handbook.

Figure 4-8: Typical Ellipse Method Cathode Ray Tube Indications

103
 Figure 4-9: Typical Ellipse Orientations

4) APPLICATION OF LINEAR TIME – BASE METHOD

The linear time-base method is described in Chapter 3. Figure 4-10
shows typical CRT indications. In the linear time-base method two sets of
test coils are used. A reference standard is used to balance the properties
of the test article. In normal application, the reference standard may not
completely balance the test article; therefore, balance controls on the CRT
equipment are used to accomplish the final balance the coil containing the
reference standard and the coil containing the test article.

a. Setup: Because of equipment differences it is not possible to provide

details setup procedures in this handbook; only the general approach to
setup will be described. Setup is accomplished as follows:

1. Select two identical standard articles,

2. Place one standard article in the reference standard test coil. (Either test
coil may be used as the reference standard test coil; however, once this

104
 test coil has been established as the standard it should be retained as
the standard.)
3. By observing the CRT display and operating the CRT controls, obtain
the indication shown in Figure 4-11.
4. While observing the CRT display, showly move reference standard back
and forth in test coil. The center of the CRT display (view A) will move
up or down. Position reference standard so that center of curve moves
towards lower edge of CRT. As the reference standard passes through
the center of coil’s magnetic field, the curve will reverse its downward
movement and will begin moving upward. Since all testing should be
done with the reference standard in the centre of the coil’s field,
reposition the reference standard so that the CRT is as close as
possible to the point where the curve reverses and moves upward. If
necessary, secure the reference standard in this position by using tape,
clay, or wax.
5. At this point, a transparent sheet may be fitted to the CRT screen and
the test level for the particular test may be set by controls on the CRT
equipment. Normally, this will cause the bottom of the curve to drop out
of sight. This is normal.
6. Place a second reference standard in the second test coil. Position the
article so that it is in the same relative position as the article in the
reference standard test coil.
7. Observe CRT display. When article is properly positioned, the CRT
display should be a straight line as shown in Figure 4-12. for volume
testing, guides would be used to ensure proper positioning of the test
articles placed in the second test coil. The straight line is the result of
combining the properties of the two articles.
8. If the CRT display is not a straight line, the CRT balancing coils may be
used to balance the coils to develop the straight line. A slight ripple is
also acceptable.
9. At this point it is possible to perform various types of testing. Further,
setup procedures depend upon the type of test; therefore, final setup
procedure must be included in the specific test.

105
Figure 4-10: Typical Linear Time – Base CRT Indications

106
 Figure 4-11: Balanced Condition

Figure 4-12: Combined Properties of Two Articles

b. Material Sorting Test: This test is the process of sorting various types
of materials based on the displays and display limits shown on the
CRT. This sorting is based on each material having distinct properties.
Figure 4 -13 illustrates the results of passing three separate materials
through the same test coil. If a group of articles made from material A
are passed through a test coil, each article will develop a characteristics
display. This can be drawn on the transparent sheet covering the front
of the CRT screen. The result will be a band of variation as shown ir
Figure 4 – 13. The same procedure can be followed for articles from
materials B and C. If the bands do not overlap, it is possible to sort the
three materials based on the limits set for each band.

107
 Figure 4-13: Display of Three Different Materials

c. Article Sorting Test: A group of articles can be sorted following the

same procedure used for material sorting. When an article sorting test
is accomplished, the CRT display may be changed to fit the specific
test. This depends upon whether it is desirable to have the value at the
slit a zero value or a maximum value. Typical applications are details as
follows:

1. For a maximum slit value, two standard articles may be used to

establish the initial display shown in Figure 4 -12.

a. If test articles are then passed through the test coil a display such a
shown in view A Figure 4 – 14 may be obtained. Limits can be
established at the slit, and articles accepted or rejected based on
the limits. View, Figure 4 -14, indicates the band of variation which
can be drawn on the transparent sheet covering the CRT.

Figure 4-14: Band Variation

b. In some applications it may be desirable to use a definite display as

a basic for comparison. This is possible by using the CRT control to

108
 offset the initial balance between the test coils. When this is done, a
display such as shown in view A of Figure 4 -14 can be obtained.
This displays is drawn on the transparent screen, Figure (4 -15) in
front of the CRT and is used as a basis for comparison. When a test
is placed in the test coil, the display should match the display drawn
on the transparent screen. The NDT specialist evaluates the CRT
display drawn on the transparent screen. The NDT specialist or
rejects based on how well two displays match.

Figure 4-15: Transparent Screen Display

2. For a minimum slit value, two standard articles may be used to establish
the initial display shown in Figure 4 -12. In establishing a minimum value
at the slit, it is necessary to realize that a dimensional change or a
permeability change will produce a phase change that is 90 degrees out
of phase with the phase change produced by a conductivity change. The
value at the slit can be made to represent either a conductivity change
or a dimensional change (normally direct current saturation is used to
make the permeability variable as the value at the slit. By reversing the
values, the same procedure can be used to established the dimensional
variable as the value shown at the slit. The conductivity variable is
established at the slit as follows:

a. Select a test article with a dimension that is not the same as

the reference standard and position this article in the test coil.
b. Using the phase control on the CRT equipment, adjust the
display to obtain the display shown in Figure 4 – 16. The
value at the slit should be zero.

109
 Figure 4-16: Conductivity Display

c. Replace test article with article containing maximum

allowable value of conductivity. Observe and record the value
at the slit. Repeat procedure, using the article containing
maximum allowable value of conductivity.
d. With the slit values established, pass test articles through the
test coil and accept or reject based on established limits.
Articles are being tested for the conductivity variable only.

d. Interpretation: The linear time – base method provides a number of

specific indications. The actual display and the interpretation depends
upon the specific test. For many situations, the value at the slit can be
read directly so interpretation is simplified. It is only necessary to
ensure that the slit value limits are not exceeded. For the condition
where a definite display is used with a maximum value at the slit this
display is drawn on a transparent sheet to establish a standard;
interpretation is a matter of experience. The NDT specialist must know
to what extent the CRT display from a test article must match the
display on the transparent sheet.

MODUALTION ANALYSIS

1) GENERAL
The modulation analysis technique is described in Chapter 2. typical
indications are shown in Figure 4 -17. Figure 4 -18 illustrates a typical
modulation analysis unit with three recorder displays for the same test
condition. As shown in Figure 4 – 18, through the use of the FOURIER
CONTROL switch, the discontinuity can be separated from the other
variables which are affecting the test coil.

110
2) TEST SPEED
The modulation analysis technique is based on the relative motion
between the test article and the test coil. Normal movement through the test
coil is from 40 to 300 feet per minute: however, higher test speeds are
possible. Below 40 feet per minute, a loss in sensitivity occurs so it may not
be possible to use low speeds in some applications. Use of the modulation
analysis technique requires a constant speed motor to ensure that the
relative motion between the article and the test coil is constant. It should be
considered that the article speed through the coil does not exceed the
signal, that is “run away” from the particular test frequency used. The article
should be in the test coil long enough for the electromagnetic wave to travel
in depth for the required test and return a data signal to the coil. If the article
has passed the test coil before the return of data signal, the condition is
called “run away”. A choice of raising test frequency or reducing article
speed is necessary.

3) TEST COILS
In modulation analysis the test coil design is very important to
successfully produce usable indications. Any of the basic types of coils may
be used in an absolute technique, while both coils are used differentially to
test very small areas of the article. All of the test coil factors discussed in
Chapter 3 must be taken into account.

4) TEST FREQUENCY
Modulation analysis units are equipped with means of changing the
test frequency. For each test situation an optimum test frequency exists.
The selected frequency depends on the articles’s size and characteristics,
the test coil, the test speed, and the specific article characteristic being
tested. It is preferred in the selection of a test frequency to use the highest
frequency allowable to cause greater modulating effects from a given
discontinuity. Table 2 -1 illustrates how the depth of eddy- current
penetration varies with the nature of the material and test frequency.

5) TESTING CAPABILITY
Modulation analysis is a high speed testing technique capable to
providing over 120 responses per second. Discontinuities spaced 0.1 inch

111
apart can be detected. When performing discontinuity testing, the
modulation analysis technique is an area sensing form of testing. The depth
and length of the discontinuity around the circumference of the article does
not cause much change in the output indication. Table 4 .4 indicates typical
areas that can be sensed by the modulation analysis technique.

112
Figure 4-17: Typical Modulation Analysis Indications

113
Figure 4-18: Typical Modulation Analysis Unit with Indication
(Recording Section not Shown)

114
 Table 4 – 4. Typical Modulation Analysis Discontinuity
Detection Areas

B.W.GAGE WALL DEPTH LENGTH OF AREA

THICKNESS DISCONTUITY DISCONTINUITY (LENGTH
(INCHES) (INCHES) TIMES
DEPTH)

24 0.022 0.001 0.050 0.00006

20 0.035 0.001 0.060 0.00006

18 0.049 0.002 0.060 0.0001

16 0.065 0.003 0.060 0.0002

14 0.083 0.0035 0.060 0.0002

12 0.109 AND 4 % OF WALL 0.060 ….

HEAVIER

AND
HEAVIER

6) PHASE ANALYSIS /MODUALTION ANALYSIS

INTERNATIONSHIP
The technique of phase analysis is normally incorporated into
modulation analysis equipment and is used to suppress certain variables.
The equipment generally contains a bridge circuit, and it is possible to
establish various bridge balancing conditions through the X and R controls.
(see Figure 4 -17). Like the other phase analysis techniques covered in this
chapter, either the dimensional variable or the conductivity variable can be
suppressed in order to emphasize the variable of interest. Since the
modulation analysis capability of the equipment is related to the bridge
balance, this means that the phase analysis settings must be specified in
addition to the modulation analysis settings.

7) MODULATION ANALYSIS TESTING

115
 Because of equipment differences detailed testing procedures are
not provided; therefore the following discussion will present only a general
approach to modulation analysis testing.

a. Calibration: Calibration is the process of setting the equipment controls

in accordance with an approved procedure and by passing a reference
standard through the test system. The reference standard must be an
acceptance quality control standard. Where calibrating the equipment
the resulting indication must correspond to the indications established
by the approved reference standard. An approved standard should be
available for each type of article to be tested. The approved standard
test article (standard) should be prepared with discontinuities that would
represent the acceptable or unacceptable limits of the test. The
reference standard should be applied to the test equipment prior to and
after performing tests on a specific group of articles. This assumes that
the equipment remains calibrated during the entire test period.
b. Setup: In addition to performing calibration procedures, several factors
are related to the task of establishing the initial conditions for test.
1. Since modulation analysis is a moving system, special attention must be
given to adjusting the rollers. The rollers must be aligned horizontally
and vertically so that the article passes smoothly through the rollers
without bouncing or impacting the rollers. Such conditions will cause
false indications.
2. Recording adjustments must also be made to ensure that the recorder
properly reflects the output of the test coil.
3. In addition, the marking pen must be adjusted to ensure that
discontinuities are properly identified.
4. Some modulation analysis equipment uses prepunched cards to
establish the initial conditions for test. Through the use of these card,
the limits for the test are automatically established for a given test
condition. This also establishes the acceptance/rejection criteria for the
test. Other equipment accomplishes this same task by simple integrated
controls in the equipment. The length of the discontinuity and the
number of discontinuities allowed per foot can be set by the controls.
This, in addition to setting the test frequency, automatically establishes
the initial conditions for test.

116
c. Test: Since modulation analysis is a moving system, the NDT
specialist’s actions are generally limited to the task of ensuring that the
articles is passing freely through the test system. The recorder may or
may not be operating, depending upon the nature of the test.
d. Interpretation: when the recorder is used, the recording results can be
compared with previous results. If a significant change exists, retesting
can be accomplished and, through the controls on the equipment,
further analysis can be made.
e. Special Factor: Two factors merit special consideration. First, the
article must always be passed through the test coil in the same
direction because of the directional characteristics of some coils. And
second, long seams and laps may not be not detected by the encircling
coil technique. This problem can be solved by the use of a rotating
surface coil which seams the circumference of the article.

RELATING INDICATIONS TO DISCONTINUITIES

1) GENERAL
The nature of eddy current is such that a clear relationship does not
exist between the indication and the depth, and shape of a discontinuity
within an article. In general, it is not possible to accurately visualize the
discontinuity based on the output indication

2) HOW EDDY CURRENTS SENSE A DISCONTINUTIY

In discontinuity sensing, the discontinuity disrupts the normal eddy
currents paths within the article. The disruption varies with the depth,
volume and nature of the discontinuity.

a. Test Coil’s Magnetic Field Distribution Within Article : The test

coil’s magnetic field distribution within an article is a variable which
depends upon the coil’s shape, the coil’s position, and the nature of the
article. Thus the distribution is a variable and varies within an article,
However, for a specific article, the distribution does form a pattern
which can be used as a reference.

b. Eddy Current Paths: The paths formed by the eddy currents are
directly related to the pattern formed by the coil’s magnetic field. The

117
 result is an eddy current pattern which, like the coil’s magnetic field, is
unique to the particular testing system and test article. This eddy
current pattern is used as a reference for sensing discontinuities.

3) STATIC TESTING CONDITIONS

A static testing condition can be defined as a situation in which a surface

coil is located on the surface of an article and is slowly moved across the
surface. The output equipment might be a simple discontinuity detector
which provides an out-put indication in the form of a meter scale. The
presence of discontinuities will cause the indicated value on the mter to
change. If no discontinuities are present, the indicated value will remain
constant. When the presence of a discontinuity causes a change in the
output indication, the problem arises as to the meaning of this indication
change. In some cases, the answer can be found by relating the observed
value to a reference standard with known discontinuities. This approach is a
comparison method and provides only an approximation. No present
means exists for providing exact results. At this point, one course of action
would be to use another form of nondestructive testing and / or
metallurgical analysis to evaluate the discontinuity.

4) DYNAMIC TESTING CONDITION

An article moving steadily through a test coil represents a typical dynamic

testing condition. The output indication can be a cathode ray tube or a
recording strip. Since phase and modulation testing provides the greatest
amount of information, the following statements apply to this form of testing.

a. Eddy Current Pattern As an article moves through a test coil, it is

convenient to visualize the article as being by a small field of eddy
currents within the article. This field will be affected by the presence of
a discontinuity. Because the density of eddy currents varies within the
article, the density of the field will not be the same across the field. The
NDT technician should also realize that the output indication is related
to the density of the eddy current field in the area that is intercepted by
the discontinuity as well as by the size of the discontinuity.

b. Position of Discontinuity with Respect to Eddy Current Field As

the article moves through the test coil, the discontinuity may fall
completely or only partially within the field due to the lack of eddy
current penetration. In, doing so, it should be remembered that eddy

118
 currents will flow around. The discontinuity and this causes a change in
the output indication.

c. Depth of Discontinuity Figure 4 – 19 illustrates three indications

appearing on a recording strip used in modulation analysis testing
indications were obtained from an article with three holes having the
same diameter Based on these indications, it might be supposed that
the depth of a discontinuity can be related to the output indication. In
actual practice this is not true because the area, as well as the depth, of
the discontinuity varies.

Figure 4-19: Recording Chart Showing Response to Three Number 80

Drill Holes

d. Area Sensing: In a dynamic system, eddy current testing is an area

sensing system in which the area is composed of the depth and the
length of the discontinuity. Since the article is moving through the coil
at a steady speed, area sensing is directly related to the specific test
speed and the ability of the equipment to resolve adjacent
discontinuities. This resolution characteristic is a function of the specific
equipment. In a typical case, three small discontinuities spaced 0.1
inches apart along a length of tube can be resolved at a test speed of
50 feet per minute. The discontinuities were 0.014 inch diameter drill
holes (#80) drilled to a depth of 0.010 inches in a 1-inch, 0.109 inch
wall, 304 stainless steel tube. This amounts to resolving discontinuity
impulses spaced 10 milliseconds apart.

e. Phase Delay: The output indication is also affected because the

electromagnetic waves will move through the conductors at different
speeds. The velocity of the wave is defined by the formula V=fλ, which

119
 shows that the wave velocity decreases as the frequency decreases or
as the wave length decreases.

f. Significance of Phase Delay: Since the article is moving through the

test coil at a relatively high speed (40 to 300 feet per minute), phase
delays can affect the value of the output indication. Also, discontinuities
at different depths produce different phase delays. Most equipment
contains phase circuits which can be adjusted for specific test
conditions. Against this is a characteristic of particular test equipment.
The use of reference standards that can be applied to all eddy current
testing equipment.

5) OUTPUT INDICATION
In general it can be said that the relationship between the output
indication and the actual discontinuity characteristics (size, location,
configuration and depth) within an article cannot be accurately visualized on
the output indication. However, by the use of artificial or natural reference
standards and specific test equipment a qualitative comparison of the
discontinuity can be made.

TECHNIQUES

1) GENERAL
Eddy current testing and variables that effect eddy currents are
identified in the following paragraphs.

2) EDDY CURRENT VARIABLES

A number of variables affect eddy currents. Since they
change the eddy current indication, many can be measured or detected by
eddy current testing. Those which affected by currents are listed as follows:

a. Discontinuities.
b. Article dimensions, including diameter thickness, eccentricity, and
coatings, where applicable.
c. Electrical conductivity of article as affected by alloy composition, heat
treatment, and effects of cold working (dislocations and orientations).

120
d. Internal stresses in metals.
e. Vibrations and other changes in the coupling distance between the
article and the test coil during testing.
f. Noise pickup (power lines, radio and electronic interference).
g. Temperature.

3) TESTING CAPABILITES
Eddy current testing can be applied to round, flat, and irregular
shaped conductive articles. It is also possible to measure the thickness of
both conductive and nonconductive coating. The thickness of a
nonconductive article may be measured by backing the article with a
conductive article and using the lift – off effect to measure the thickness of
the test article. Variables that can be measured or detected by eddy current
testing are:

a. Conductivity (varies with materials characteristics).

b. Hardness ( conductivity value is related to the stress characteristics of
the article.
c. Strength (conductivity value in heat treatment cause variations in
conductivity).
d. Heat treatment (variations in heat treatment cause variations in
conductivity).
e. Dimensions (dimensional changes cause changes in lift – off or fill –
factor between the article and the coil.)
f. Coating thickness (thickness in conductivity exist between a conductive
coating and an article; nonconductive coating varies the lift – out
between the coil and the conductive area of the article).
g. Discontinuities (cracks, inclusions, etc. cause changes in output
indications)
h. Temperature (conductivity changes with temperature).

4) ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

121
 Eddy current testing, like other forms of nondestructive testing, has
specific advantages and limitations.

a. The main advantage of eddy current testing are:

1. High speed testing.

2. Accurate measurement of conductivity.
3. Discontinuities at or near the surface of the article can be reliably
detected.
4. High sensitivity to small discontinuities.
5. Accurate thickness measurements.

b. The main limitations of eddy current testing are:

1. Limited penetration into article.

2. Several variables simultaneously affect output indication.
3. Discontinuities are qualitative, not quantitative, indications.

5) CYLINDERS
Cylinders are generally tested by using the differential coil
arrangement shown in Figure 4 – 20. in this arrangement, the secondary
coils are connected so that the output of one coil oppose the output of the
other coil. If the conditions in the area under each coil are the same, no
output indication exists.

a. Assumptions: In using the differential coil arrangement it is assumed

that discontinuities do not extend over both coils.
b. Small Discontinuity: The appearance of a small discontinuity under
one coil generates an unbalanced condition between the two coils and
an output indication will exists.

122
 Figure 4-20: Differential Coil Arrangement for Cylinder Testing

c. Location of Discontinuity on Circumference: when the encircling coil

arrangement is used, it is not possible to determine the position of the
discontinuity on the circumference of a cylinder. A surface coil can be
used to locate the position of the discontinuity on the circumference.
d. Seam Parallel to Surface: A long seam parallel to the cylinder’s
surface cannot be detected by the differential coil arrangement because
the seam extends, under both coils and is oriented in the same way.
Since no difference exists, no output indication will be obtained.
e. Long Discontinuity Perpendicular and parallel to the Surface: A
long discontinuity (crack) may extend under both test coils. Since the
discontinuity is both perpendicular and parallel to the surface, each test
coil will produce a different output. Under this condition an output
indication can be obtained even though the discontinuity extends under
both coils.
f. Conductivity Measurements: Since the conductivity of one area of the
cylinder is being compared with the conductivity of another area of the
cylinder, differences in conductivity can be obtained.
g. Dimensional Changes: When dimension is the variable of interest, it is
possible to adjust the system so that dimension differences can be
detected.
h. Saturation: Direct current saturation coils must be used when
permeability effect must be cancelled.

123
i. Depth of Testing: Since the depth of eddy current penetration depends
upon the test frequency, the cylinder’s conductivity and permeability,
the NDT specialist must realize that the depth of testing depends upon
the specific conditions.
j. Fill – Factor: The diameters of the test coil and the cylinder determine
the fill – factor for a specific test application. To ensure consistent
testing, the proper test coil must be used with a specific cylinder under
test.
k. Roller Adjustment: To minimize the generation of additional variables
and to ensure consistent testing, the rollers that position and guide the
cylinder through the test coil must be carefully adjusted.
l. Reference Standards: A cylinder which has been previously tested
and established as a reference standard is passed through the test
system to ensure proper adjustment and performance of the system.
m. Center of a Cylinder: The NDT specialist should realize that eddy
currents are not developed at the center of the cylinder; therefore,
discontinuities can not be detected in this area.
n. Sensitivity to Discontinuity Orientation: Discontinuities may be
oriented circumferentially (parallel to the circumference) or axially (from
the center to the surface). Since the direction of the eddy current
parallel the current flowing through the test coil, maximum sensitivity is
oriented towards axially oriented discontinuities. The encircling coil
system is, therefore, relatively insensitive to circumferentially oriented
discontinuities.

6) TUBING
Much of what has been stated about cylinders also applies to tubing.
Testing of tubing however, presents unique problems.

a. Wall Thickness: The wall thickness is the key factor in applying eddy
current testing to tubing. This thickness may be greater than the depth
of eddy current penetration or it may be less. If the wall thickness is
greater than the depth of penetration, inside test coils may be used to
complete the testing of the tubing wall. 100 % testing is possible with a
single coil where the wall thickness does not exceed depth of
penetration.

124
b. Diameter Testing: In tubing the diameter may be the variable of
interest, rather than wall thickness. Through phase control adjustments,
it is possible to suppress the wall thickness variable (conductivity) and
emphasize the dimensional changes of the tubing’s diameter.
c. Location of Discontinuity on Circumference: When the encircling
coil arrangement is used, it is possible to determine the position of the
discontinuity on the circumference of a tube. A surface coil can be used
to locate the position of the discontinuity on the circumference.
d. Seam Parallel to Surface: A long seam parallel to the tubing’s surface
cannot be detected by the differential coil arrangement because the
seam extends under both coils and is oriented in the same way. Since
no difference exists, no output indication will be obtained.
e. Long Discontinuity Perpendicular and Parallel to the Surface: A
long discontinuity (crack) may extend under both test coils. Since the
discontinuity is both perpendicular and parallel to the surface, each test
coil will produce a different output. Under this condition, an output
indication can be obtained even though the discontinuity extends under
both coils.
f. Conductivity Measurements: Since the conductivity of one area of the
tube is being compared with the conductivity of another area of the
tube, differences in conductivity can be obtained.
g. Saturation: Direct current saturation coils must be used when
permeability effects must be cancelled
h. Fill-Factor: The diameters of the test coil and the tube determine the
fillfactor for a specific test application. To ensure consistent testing, the
proper test coil must be used for the specific tube under test
i. Roller Adjustments: To minimize the generation of additional variables
and to ensure consistent testing, the rollers that position and guide the
tube through the test coil must be carefully adjusted.
j. Reference Standard: A tube which has been previously tested and
established as a reference standard must be used to ensure proper
adjustment and performance of the system.
k. Sensitivity to Discontinuity Orientation: Discontinuities may be
oriented circumferentially (parallel to the circumference) or axially (from

125
 the center to the surface). Since the direction of the eddy current
parallels the current flowing through the test coil, maximum sensitivity is
oriented towards axially oriented discontinuities. The encircling coil
system is, therefore, relatively insensitive to circumferentially oriented
discontinuities.
l. Corrosion Testing; Since eddy current testing is basically a near-
surface testing system, sensitivity is greatest at or near the surface. In
tubing, corrosion may be located on the inner or outer surface and
therefore be detected by eddy currents.

7. SHEETS
Sheets (or plates) are tested for material properties, discontinuities,
and thickness. Testing can be accomplished manually or automatically. In
some instances, flat-type encircling coils can be used and the sheeting can
be automatically passed through the coil’s slot. For most cases, use of a
surface coil is required. Again, this can be automated to provide scanning.
Like thin-walled tubing, thickness can be accurately measured, using the
conductivity properties of the material.

8. IRREGULAR ARTICLES
Irregular articles can be tested by comparing specific areas on the
test article against identical areas on a reference standard. Special fixtures
are often used to ensure that positioning of the surface coil is standardized
in specific areas.

9. COATINGS
As previously pointed out in this chapter eddy current testing
provides a means of measuring the thickness of coatings (or platings) on
articles. This applies to cylinders and tubing, as well as to sheets. The
coating may be either conductive or nonconductive. Depending upon the
nature of the coating, either conductivity or lift-off is used to perform the
test. Special equipment can be used to indicate thickness directly in terms
of physical units of measurement. An alternative is the use of curves which
relate indications to physical units of measurement.

126