Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 455–458

Communication
Workability and mechanical properties of alkali activated slag concrete
F.G. Collins *, J.G. Sanjayan
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
Manuscript received 13 November 1998; accepted manuscript 3 December 1998

Abstract
This paper reports the results of an investigation on concrete containing alkali activated slag (AAS) as the binder, with emphasis on
achievement of reasonable workability and equivalent one-day strength to portland cement concrete at normal curing temperatures. Two
types of activators were used: sodium hydroxide in combination with sodium carbonate and sodium silicate in combination with hydrated
lime. The fresh concrete properties reported include slump and slump loss, air content, and bleed. Mechanical properties of AAS concrete,
including compressive strength, elastic modulus, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and creep are contrasted with those of portland cement
concrete. © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Granulated blast-furnace slag; Alkali activated cement; Workability; Mechanical properties; Shrinkage

Slag is often used in concrete as a supplementary cementi- ability beyond 45 min [13,15]. Similarly, a range of one-day
tious material and partial replacement to portland cement strengths of sodium hydroxide activated slags are reported
(OPC). The major advantages of slag replacement of OPC in [9,10,11,12,13,18]. The combination of NaOH 1 Na2CO3 as
making concrete is the superior durability and lower heat of the slag activator (H/C) yields comparable one-day strength
hydration as compared to 100% OPC binder. However, the for the AAS and OPC pastes and concretes [5,11,18].
low early strength of these concretes is a limitation in many ap-
plications. The problem of low early strength can be overcome
1. Experimental programme
by using alkali activated slag (AAS) as the type of binder
which can potentially yield early high-strength concrete. The chemical composition and properties of the cementi-
Talling and Brandstetr [1] provide a comprehensive state-of-the- tious binders are summarised in Table 1. The binders used are
art summary of concrete containing 100% AAS binder. ground granulated blast furnace slag (Slag) and OPC. The
Equivalent one-day concrete strength has been achieved term water/binder (w/b) ratio is used instead of the conven-
for OPC concrete and concrete based on AAS binder, using el- tional water/cement ratio to include both the binders men-
evated temperature curing [2,3,4,5] and steam curing [6,7,8]. tioned above. The slag is supplied with gypsum (2% SO3)
However, these curing conditions necessitate specialised that is blended with the slag. The activators and adjuncts in-
equipment and facilities and require attendance by staff. The vestigated were: (1) powdered and liquid sodium silicate; (2)
aim of this investigation was to evaluate the use of AAS con- hydrated lime (L); (3) liquid sodium hydroxide (NaOH); and
crete which would yield one-day strength equivalent to OPC (4) sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).
concrete at normal curing temperatures (238C), while having The dry powdered sodium silicate activator was pre-
reasonable workability. blended with the slag in the dry form prior to use for concrete
A range of one-day strength results have been reported [6– manufacture. The liquid sodium silicate was treated with ad-
17] for sodium silicate activated slags cured at normal curing dition of NaOH to achieve identical chemical composition to
conditions. Workability and early strength are sensitive to the dry powdered sodium silicate activator. The liquid so-
dosages of NaOH, Ms (SiO2/Na2O, i.e., silicate modulus), and dium silicate, NaOH, and the hydrated lime (1% lime in wa-
the composition and fineness of the slag. In most cases high ter slurry form) were added to the mix with the mixing water.
one-day strengths were accompanied with rapid loss of work- The coarse aggregate consisted of 14-mm maximum size
basalt with a specific gravity of 2.95 and 24-h water absorp-
tion of 1.2%. The fine aggregate consisted of river sand
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 61-3-9905-4958; Fax: 61-3-9905-4944; with a specific gravity of 2.65, 24-h water absorption of
E-mail: frank.collins@eng.monash.edu.au. 0.5%, and a fineness modulus of 2.19.
0008-8846/99/$–see front matter © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 0 8 - 8 8 4 6 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 2 3 6 - 1
456 F.G. Collins, J.G. Sanjayan/Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 455–458

Table 1 • Cylinders in accordance with AS1012, Part 8 (100-mm

Properties of cementitious materials diameter and 200-mm height) for creep testing in ac-
Constituent /property Slag OPC cordance with AS1012, Part 16. Following demould-
SiO2 (%) 35.04 19.9 ing, a duplicate set of specimens were subject to seven
Al2O3 (%) 13.91 4.62 days of bath curing followed by 21 days of exposed
Fe2O3 (%) 0.29 3.97 curing at 238C and 50% RH prior to loading at 40% of
MgO (%) 6.13 1.73
CaO (%) 39.43 64.27
the 28-day compressive strength.
Na2O (%) 0.34 • Flexural strength prisms in accordance with AS1012,
TiO2 (%) 0.42 Part 8 (150 3 150 3 500 mm). Following demoulding,
K2O (%) 0.39 0.57 a triplicate set of specimens were subject to bath cur-
P2O5 (%) ,0.1
ing for 28 days. Flexural strength testing was con-
MnO (%) 0.43
Total sulphur as SO3 (%) 2.43 2.56 ducted in accordance with AS1012, Part 11.
Sulphide sulphur as S22 0.44 • Cylinders in accordance with AS1012, Part 8 (100-mm
Cl (p.p.m) 80 diameter and 200-mm height). Following demoulding,
Fineness (m2/kg) 460 342 a triplicate set of specimens were subject to bath cur-
Loss on ignition (%) 1.45 2.9
Time to initial set (h) N/A 2.0
ing for 28 days and tested for elastic modulus in accor-
Strength (MPa) of 75 3 75 3 75 mm dance with AS1012, Part 17.
mortar cubes (MPa)
3 Days N/A 32.7 Properties of the fresh concretes including slump and air
7 Days N/A 42.0 content were also determined in accordance with AS1012,
28 Days N/A 54.1 Parts 3 and 4, respectively.

The concrete mixture proportions are summarised in Table 2. Fresh concrete properties
2. The materials used for concrete making, the method of pre-
Slump loss versus time is summarised in Fig. 1 Slag acti-
paring concrete mixes in the laboratory, and the tests for fresh
vated by powdered sodium silicate and lime slurry (AAS1)
and mechanical concrete properties reported in this paper
demonstrates considerably better workability than the other
were in accordance with the Australian standard AS1012.
concrete mixes, including OPC. At 30 min, AAS1 demon-
Samples were made for subsequent laboratory testing as fol-
strates better slump than the initial slump; this is most likely
lows:
due to further dissolution of the powdered sodium silicate
• Cylinders in accordance with AS1012, Parts 8 and 9 into the mixing water. At 120 min, the slump loss of the
(100-mm diameter and 200-mm height) for compres- AAS1 concrete is minimal compared with the other con-
sive strength testing in triplicate at 1, 3, 7, 28, 56, and cretes. This result contrasts with slag activated by liquid so-
91 days (following demoulding, subject to “bath” cur- dium silicate and lime slurry (AAS2), also reported elsewhere
ing at 238C, “exposed” curing at 238C and 50% RH, [6–16], that were based on liquid rather than powdered so-
and “sealed” curing involving storage in two polythene dium silicate activators. It is postulated that the powdered so-
bags and a sealed container at 238C). dium silicate has a slower release of alkali into the cement
• Shrinkage prisms tested in accordance with AS1012, system (as opposed to liquid sodium silicates) and leads to a
Part 13 (75 3 75 3 285 mm). The exposure conditions slower rate of initial reaction. Similar to AAS2, H/C concrete
following demoulding for a triplicate set of samples showed significant loss of workability, with minimal slump at
were seven days of bath curing followed by exposed 60 min. The activated slag concretes entrain more air than
curing at 238C and 50% RH. OPC concrete, as shown in Table 2. The bleed of the acti-

Table 2
Summary of concrete mixture proportions (kg/m3)
Constituents OPC H/C AAS1 AAS2
OPC 360 — — —
Slag — 360 360 360
Free water* 180 180 180 180
w/b 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Fine aggregate 830 830 830 830
Coarse aggregate
14 mm 1130 1130 1130 1130
Air content % 0.5 1.2 1.2 1.1

*Adjustments made for water in aggregates (to saturated surface dry

condition), NaOH, Na2CO3, lime slurry, and sodium silicate. Fig. 1. Slump loss versus time; w/b 5 0.5.
 F.G. Collins, J.G. Sanjayan/Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 455–458 457

Fig. 2. Compressive strength development of concrete subject to bath cur-

ing, w/b 5 0.5.

Fig. 4. AAS1 concrete subject to different curing, w/b 5 0.5.

vated slag concretes was measured as zero at 2 h from the
time of mixing. The OPC concrete had a bleed of 0.45% (ex-
pressed as % of mixing water). Due to rapid loss of workabil- bath curing followed by a considerably higher rate of drying
ity, further work with AAS2 was discontinued. shrinkage when exposed, as compared with OPC concrete.
The implications of higher drying shrinkage are that under re-
3. Compressive strength strained conditions, it may lead to a higher incidence of crack-
ing. Adequate provision for joints and minimization of re-
Fig. 2 shows strength development with time following straints should be allowed, although this is not always
bath curing. All concrete types show almost identical one- practical. Drying shrinkage of H/C concrete is similar to OPC
day strength. The H/C concrete show rapid early strength de- concrete up to 56 days; however, it is considerably greater be-
velopment, followed by lower strength than AAS1 and OPC yond 56 days. It is worth noting that the Australian Standard
concrete at later ages. AAS1 concrete shows higher strength for determination of drying shrinkage is based on 56-day test
than OPC concrete at all ages. Between 56 and 91 days, the results; this would lead to a false indication of drying shrink-
strength of OPC concrete levels out, whereas AAS1 concrete age in the case of H/C concrete. Further investigation is under-
continues to gain strength. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the effects way on AAS1 concrete to compare drying shrinkage of prisms
of various curing environments on the development of com- with that measured in larger structural members and also to de-
pressive strength. There is a significant difference in strength termine appropriate means of mitigation of drying shrinkage.
between samples subjected to exposed curing and sealed/
bath curing, with AAS1 showing greater sensitivity to lack
of curing. 5. Flexural strength, elastic modulus, and creep
Beyond 28 days, AAS1-exposed concrete strength levels The 28-day flexural strength and elastic moduli of vari-
out. Further work is currently underway to assess the longer ous concretes are shown in Table 3. Overall strain due to
term strength of AAS concrete subjected to exposed curing. creep following 112 days loading is shown in Fig. 6. OPC
concrete shows higher initial creep than AAS1 concrete
4. Drying shrinkage during the first three days. However, after 112 days loading
AAS1 shows a slightly higher creep strain (42 microstrain/
Results of drying shrinkage is summarised in Fig. 5. AAS1 MPa compared with 36.7 microstrain/MPa). The net effect
concrete shows a minor expansion during the first seven days of greater creep, greater flexural strength, and lower elastic
modulus of AAS1 may be reduction of the risk of cracking

Fig. 3. OPC concrete subject to different curing, w/b 5 0.5. Fig. 5. Drying shrinkage of various concretes.
458 F.G. Collins, J.G. Sanjayan/Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 455–458

Table 3
28-Day flexural strength and elastic modulus of various concretes
Parameter OPC H/C AAS1
Flexural strength
(MPa) 5.57 4.77 7.18
Flexural strength/
compressive strength 0.12 0.14 0.15
Elastic modulus
(31000 MPa) 41.7 36.5 36.7

due to drying shrinkage under restrained conditions and this

is currently being investigated. Fig. 6. Creep of OPC and AAS1 concretes.

6. Conclusions
The results of this investigation indicate: Jeff Doddrell, Roger Doulis, and Peter Dunbar are also
gratefully acknowledged.
1. At w/b 5 0.5, concrete containing slag activated by
powdered sodium silicate showed minimal slump loss
over 2 h, whereas concrete containing slag activated by References
liquid sodium silicate shows considerably less initial
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workability and demonstrates significant slump loss. H/ Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Trondheim, Norway, ACI SP 114, 2
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to OPC concrete, with AAS1 showing superior strength zolans in Concrete, Trondheim, Norway, ACI SP 114, 2 (1989) 1501.
[3] C. Qing-Hua, S. Sarkar, Adv Cem Based Mat 1 (1994) 178.
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[4] B. Talling, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Fly Ash, Slag, and Natural Poz-
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[8] C. Shi, R.L. Day, Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Flyash, Silica Fume, Slag,
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[11] C. Jolicoeur, M.A. Simard, T.C. To, J. Sharman, R. Zamojska, M.
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Acknowledgments [13] S.D. Wang, Alkaline activation of slag, PhD dissertation, Imperial
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The financial support for this project is jointly provided
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Dr. Ihor Hinczak for the guidance and support. The enthusi-
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