COURSE OF ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY
INES-RUHENGERI
Department of Civil Engineering

LECTURER NAME: Ir. HARELIMANA VINCENT

PHONE: +250788657165/ +250728657165
E-MAIL: havayini06@yahoo.fr
 Assessment strategies
for geology course

10 Marks for attendance and participation

20 Marks for practical works ( presentations)
10 Marks for Assignments
20 Marks for CATs
40 Marks for Final examination
 CONTINUOUS ASSESMENT
1. FINAL EXAM ( ……../………/2016)

2. CHAPTERS FOR FIRST CAT: TO BE DETERMINED

3. The assignments should be given and done during

the time provided by a lecturer

4. CAT + ASSIGNMENT= 60 MARKS

5. THE FINAL EXAM = 40 MARKS

TATAL MARKS= 100

 Big Bang Theory

Nebula: space dust: a region or cloud of interstellar dust and gas

appearing variously as a hazy bright or dark patch
 Course outlines
Chp1.Introduction to geology and the origin of solar
system
Chp2.Physical Geology Concepts and Earth’s Interior
Chp3.Theory of Plate Tectonics, and Geologic Time
Chp4.Formation of volcanoes, and origin of Igneous
Rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.
Chp5.Introduction to weathering and soils
Chp6.General concept on Crustal deformation and
earthquakes.
 Course outlines cont…
Chp7. Introduction to geology of Rwanda
Chp8. Mountain Ranges and its construction
Chp9. Introduction to Erosion and slope stabilization
Chp10.General understanding to Earth Resources and
geologic hazards.
Chp11. Geology and Climate change.
 Learning Outcomes
• At the end of this course, the student will be able
to answer the following questions asked by
human being:
1) How did the Earth form? How do rocks form?
2) What is Plate Tectonic?
3) Why do earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur?
4) What factors provide for the best agricultural areas?
5) What governs the location of mountain ranges?
6) Where do we get energy resources from?
7) Where do we get drinking water from?
8) What causes global warming?
chap1 Introduction to geology and
the origin of solar system

1.1 Introduction to geology

The simple and understandable definition of the
term geology is the scientific study of the Earth.
Geology also may be defined as the science that
pursues an understanding of planet Earth.
Physical Geology is the study of Earth’s
materials, changes of the surface and interior of
the Earth, and the forces that cause those changes.
• Physical Geology examines the materials
composing Earth and seeks to understand the many
processes that operate beneath and upon its surface.
Historical Geology seeks an understanding of the
origin of Earth and its development through time.
• We also need to know about geology for practical
reasons, like choosing a safe place to construct
buildings where they will be safe from river
flooding, landslides, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and other potential natural disasters.
 Briefly, Practical Aspects of
Geology are:

• Natural resources
• Geological hazards
• Environmental protection
 Theory on the materials of the earth and
processes that operate the earth materials

• Physical geology is concerned with the materials

that make up the Earth as well as the processes that
operate on those materials, either at or beneath the
surface of the Earth.
• Materials of the earth are: elements, minerals,
rocks, water.
• The processes that operate the earth materials are:
Plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
mountain building, the action of rivers, glaciers,
oceans, and wind, and weathering and erosion.
 summary
• Geology - The scientific study of the Earth
– Physical Geology is the study of Earth’s
materials, changes of the surface and interior
of the Earth, and the forces that cause those
changes
• Practical Aspects of Geology
– Natural resources
– Geological hazards
– Environmental protection
 Practical Aspects of Geology
• Natural Resources
All manufactured objects depend on Earth’s
resources
Localized concentrations of useful
geological resources are mined or extracted
If it can’t be grown, it must be mined
Most resources are limited in quantity and
non-renewable
Damage from Northridge earthquake
(1/17/1994) apartment-15 died
 Resource Extraction and
Environmental Protection
• Coal Mining
– Careless mining can release acids
into groundwater

• Petroleum Resources
– Removal, transportation and waste
disposal can damage the
environment Alaska pipeline

• Dwindling resources can encourage disregard for

ecological damage caused by extraction activities
1.2 Origin of solar system
 1.2 Origin of solar system
• Geology is the study of the Earth and all its natural
component parts that impact on each other. Although we
have no reason to believe that the processes we see
happening around us today were any different to the
processes that have been occurring throughout Earth
history, we know these processes are very slow, which
raises the issue about exactly how old the Earth is.

• The earliest estimates of the age of the Earth were not

based in science at all, but were determined from biblical
interpretations. James Ussher, an Irish Anglican
archbishop, suggested in the early 17th century that the
Earth formed a mere in 4004 B.C.
Clearly, this estimate makes no sense scientifically as the
geologic processes that constantly modify the Earth are far too
slow for anything of any consequence to happen in so short a
time. Ussher's supporters, however, simply inferred that early
geologic events (such as the creation of mountains) must have
been extremely rapid and catastrophic (idea of catastrophism).

However, there is no geologic evidence to support such an

idea. With the advent of better scientific studies and
hypotheses, it became clear that the Earth is extremely ancient.
This idea was first promoted in the late 18th century by a
Scottish physician named James Hutton, often referred to as
the father of modern geology. He coined the famous phrase
regarding the age of the Earth: "no vestige of a beginning – no
prospect of an end."
In order to better understand the long complex
history of our planet, we must develop a strong
understanding of its geologic complexity. This
includes the evidence for how the Earth initially
formed, its internal structure, the material it is
made out of, the nature of the Earth's surface
and the natural processes that operate at the
surface, its dynamic characteristics such as
earthquakes and volcanoes, its resources, and its
physical, chemical, and biological history.
 Big Bang Theory

Nebula: space dust: a region or cloud of interstellar dust and gas

appearing variously as a hazy bright or dark patch
 Big Bang Theory
The “Big Bang”, there was a point which has
burst into a form of huge mass that was the
birth of the Universe, which produced H, He
and other elements. These elements formed
stars (nebula) which cluster in galaxies with
billions of stars; our galaxy, the Milky Way,
formed billions years ago.
The Earth is part of a larger system, called
the solar system, but the Earth itself is made
up of a number of interdependent systems.
Big Bang Theory
 chap2 Physical Geology
Concepts and Earth’s Interior
2.1 Physical Geology Concepts
Earth’s Systems
– Atmosphere: The gases that
envelop the Earth
– Hydrosphere (rivers, ocean,
glaciers, lakes): water on or near
the Earth’s surface
– Biosphere: all living or once-
living materials
– Geosphere: the solid rocky Earth
 Physical Geology Concepts
Earth’s Heat Engines
– External (energy from the Sun)
• Primary driver of atmospheric (weather)
and hydrospheric circulation
• Controls weathering of rocks at Earth’s
surface

– Internal (heat moving from hot interior to

cooler exterior)
• Primary driver of most geospheric
phenomena (volcanism, magmatism,
tectonism)
 2.2 Earth’s Interior
Compositional Layers
– Crust (~3-70 km thick)
• Very thin outer rocky shell of Earth
– Continental crust - thicker and less
dense
– Oceanic crust - thinner and more
dense
– Mantle (~2900 km thick)
• Hot solid that flows slowly over time;
Fe-, Mg-, Si-rich minerals
– Core (~3400 km radius)
• Outer core - metallic liquid; mostly iron
• Inner core - metallic solid; mostly iron
 Earth’s Interior
Mechanical Layers
– Lithosphere (~100 km thick)
• Rigid/brittle outer shell of
Earth
• Composed of both crust
and uppermost mantle
• Makes up Earth’s tectonic
“plates”
– Asthenosphere
• Plastic (capable of flow)
zone on which the
lithosphere “floats”
 2.3 Discussion about Formation of:
1. Formation of Mountains, Mountain Belt(chain)
and Mountain range.
2. Formation of Volcanoes
3. Formation of Island
4. Formation of Rift valley, Graben lake, and
seafloor
5. Subduction
• Within the interior surface, we have two
antagonists forces which are acting in opposite
direction (Gravitation force and buoyant forces).
• All topographical formations are done due to un-
equilibrium between gravitational forces (GF) and
Buoyant forces (BF).
 Chap3.Theory of Plate Tectonics, Igneous
Rocks and Formation of volcanoes.
• Continental Drift Hypothesis (Alfred
Wagner)
– Originally proposed in early 20th century to
explain the “fit of continents”, common rock
types and fossils across ocean basins, etc.
– Insufficient evidence found for driving
mechanism; hypothesis initially rejected
• Plate Tectonics Theory
– Originally proposed in the late 1960s
– Included new understanding of the seafloor and
explanation of driving force
– Describes lithosphere as being broken into plates
that are in motion
– Explains origin and locations of such things as
volcanoes, fault zones and mountain belts
3.1. Plate Tectonics
The theory of “plate tectonics” is the most important advancement in earth
sciences in the 20th century. It provides the framework for earth processes that
previously were known to exist, but it was unknown why these activities
occurred.
Because the portions of the earth's interior and differences between
continental and oceanic crust are an essential part of plate tectonics, it is worth
our while to review these concepts briefly:

Earth's crust (lithosphere) is composed of several elements crucial or important

to our existence. In order of their abundance, these eight (8) elements are:
1. Oxygen
2. Silicon
3. Aluminum
4. Iron
5. Calcium
6. Sodium
7. Potassium
8. Magnesium
Lithosphere and the solid earth: the solid earth lies beneath the
atmosphere and the oceans and composes 29% of the earth's
surface. It is divided into several distinct units or layers:
a. Lithosphere or crust: two (2) types of crust: oceanic and
continental with basic differences
*Oceanic crust is thinner and denser and usually darker in color
*Continental crust is lighter in weight, less dense, light in color,
and tends to float over oceanic crust
b. Mantle: beneath the crust; houses molten rock material
called magma
c. Outer core: composed of liquid iron and nickel; very dense
material
d. Inner core: composed of solid iron and nickel; extremely
dense material
The upper mantle and lower crust (lithosphere) are referred to
as the asthenosphere.
There is a distinct seismic discontinuity where seismic waves
slow down considerably due to the composition of molten
rock. This is located in the asthenosphere and is referred to
as the Mohorovicic discontinuity, after the Russian scientist
who discovered it. We refer to it as the "Moho".

History of Events Leading up to the Formulation of the

Theory of Plate Tectonics

*Note that plate tectonics is a theory. It is not something that

we can directly sample or touch, or for that matter prove.
That is why we will refer to it as a theory.

*In 1915, a Bavarian scientist named Alfred Wegener (later

referred to as the "Father of Plate Tectonics") noticed, while
working near the North Pole, that his compass needle did not
point to where north "should" have been. In other words,
true north and magnetic north were in two separate localities.
 Correlation of Africa and South America by Wegener

Evidence used by Wegener indicating the pre-existance of pengea:

1. Shape of continents fit like a jigsaw puzzle.
2. Similar fossils on both continents
3. Mountain belts line up
4. Mineral belts line up
Further evidence used
by Wegener to
support continental
drift hypothesis:

Mountains line up in
Northern
Hemisphere

North America, Europe,

South America, and
Africa all fit
together.
Explanation by
Wegener that
present-day
Africa, South
America,
India, and
Australia were
all once
glaciated.
• The theory of plate tectonics is that rigid
lithospheric plates move across the surface of the
earth. Some pull apart, some push together and
some move horizontally against each other.
The plate motion is driven by one or more of the
following mechanisms:
1. Convection -- heat transferred by movement of a
fluid (magma)
2. Conduction -- heat transfer by touching plates
3. Push-Pull Slab -- heavy slabs pull plates
downward and magma forced upward pushes
plates to the surface (upwelling)
*There are several geological processes that occur where plates
meet (called plate boundaries or margins):

1. Volcanoes tend to erupt at plate margins as a result of a

process called subduction .
2. Earthquakes occur where plates grind against or over one
other
3. Mountain building occurs as one plate is pushed over another
4. Seafloor spreading occurs where two oceanic plates pull apart.

There are three (3) major types of plate boundaries (margins):

1. Convergent -- plates move towards each other (compression)
2. Divergent -- plates move away from each other (tension)
3. Transform -- plates horizontally grind against one another
(strike-slip motion)
 3.2 Tectonic Plate Boundaries
• Divergent boundaries
– Plates move apart
– Magma rises, cools and forms new lithosphere
– Typically expressed as mid-oceanic ridges
• Transform boundaries
– Plates slide past one another
– Fault zones and earthquakes mark boundary
– San Andreas fault in California
• Convergent boundaries
– Plates move toward each other
– Mountain belts and volcanoes common
– Oceanic plates may sink into mantle along a subduction
zone, typically marked by a deep ocean trench
 Tectonic Plate Boundaries
• Divergent boundaries
– Plates move apart
– Magma rises, cools and forms new lithosphere
– Typically expressed as mid-oceanic ridges
• Transform boundaries
Plates slide past one another
Fault zones and earthquakes mark boundary
San Andreas fault in California
• Convergent boundaries
– Plates move toward each other
– Mountain belts and volcanoes common
– Oceanic plates may sink into mantle along a subduction
zone, typically marked by a deep ocean trench
 Plate Tectonics-contd.
• Top of a plate – consisting of oceanic crust,
continental crust or a part of each
• North American Plate is moving westward relative to
Europe – Plate’s divergent boundary is along mid-
oceanic ridge in the North Atlantic Ocean
• Transform Boundary: San Andreas Fault in CA is an
example – Earthquakes along the fault (rock
displacement) are a product of motion
• Convergent Plate Boundary: Less dense, more
buoyant continental plate will override the denser,
oceanic plate
A Map of Tectonic Plates
A Map of the Pacific Ocean
Plate Rifting and Divergence
Divergent Zones
Oceanic Plate Subduction
 Key Points
• Physical Geology
• Earth’s internal and external heat engines – driving factors
• Divisions of Earth’s layers
• Plate Tectonics – convergent, divergent, transform boundaries
• Crust – classification
• Age of the Earth and Universe
• Factors causing earthquakes
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
 3.3 Geologic Time
• “Deep” Time
– Most geologic processes occur gradually over millions of years
– Changes typically imperceptible over the span of a human lifetime
– Current best estimate for age of Earth is ~4.55 billion years

• Geologic Time and the History of Life

– Complex life forms became abundant ~544 million years ago
– Reptiles became abundant ~230 million years ago
– Dinosaurs became extinct (along with many other organisms)
~65 million years ago
– Humans have been around for only ~ 3 million years
• “Nothing hurries geology”
Chap4. Formation of volcanoes, and origin of Igneous
Rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.

4.1 Formation of volcanoes

Most volcanoes are formed by the movement
of tectonic plates on the surface of the earth.
These plates are basically huge pieces of
rock that ‘float’ on the mantle (a layer of the
earth that is sort-of liquid rock). The
tectonic plates are in constant motion, even
though very slow motion.
They sometimes move toward each other, other
times they’ll move apart, and still other times
one will sink while the other rises above it.
When a tectonic plate sinks, it sinks down into
the mantle and becomes very hot. So hot, in fact,
that the rock melts.

This molten rock will gradually make its way up

to the surface of the earth through a series of
cracks. When it reaches the surface of the earth,
we refer to it as lava. As layer upon layer of lava
builds up, a volcano is formed.
There are many factors that determine what kind of
lava flow will occur and what type of volcano it will
be. The amount of gas trapped in the lava, the kinds
of minerals making up the lava, and how much
pressure can be trapped in the area all affect the
eruption and formation of the volcano. You can read
about the types of lava and lava flows.
Steam or lava Volcanoes form at
escapes through. the edges of
tectonic plates.
PARTS OF
VOLCANO
1) Vent- An opening allowing the passage of air.
2) Ash Cloud- The powdery residue left after
burning.
3) Dike- The barrier or obstacle of a volcano.
4) Sill- Slab of stone at the foot of the volcano.
5) Flank- The side of a volcano.
6) Lava- Matter flowing from a volcano that
solidifies as it cools.
7) Crater- Mouth of a volcano.
8) Conduit- Channel or pipe conveying liquids such
as lava.
9) Summit- Highest point; apex
10)Throat- Entrance of a volcano.
4.2 Igneous Rocks, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic
rocks and their origin
All rocks can be put into one of three fundamentally
different types of rocks. They are 3 basic types of
rocks as follows:
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks
 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which cool from
magma: the liquid phase of solid rock. Magmas
occur at depth in the crust, and are said to exist in
"magma chambers," a rather loose term indicating
an area where the temperature is great enough to
melt the rock, and the pressure is low enough to
allow the material to expand and exist in the
liquid state. Many different types of igneous
rocks can be produced.
The key factors to use in determining which rock
you have are the rock's texture and composition.
 Texture
• Texture relates to how large the individual
mineral grains are in the final, solid rock. In most
cases, the resulting grain size depends on how
quickly the magma cooled. In general, the slower
the cooling, the larger the crystals in the final
rock.
• Because of this, we assume that coarse grained
igneous rocks are "intrusive" in that they cooled at
depth in the crust where they were insulated by
layers of rock and sediment.
• Fine grained rocks are called "extrusive" and are
generally produced through volcanic eruptions.
 Composition
• The composition of igneous magmas is directly
related to where the magma is formed. Magmas
associated with crustal spreading are generally
mafic (Rocks that are high in magnesium and
iron), and produce basalt if the magma erupts at
the surface, or gabbro if the magma never
makes it out of the magma chamber.
• It is important to remember that basalt and
gabbro are two different rocks based purely on
textural differences. They are compositionally
the same.
 Sedimentary Rocks
• In most places on the surface, the igneous rocks
which make up the majority of the crust are
covered by a thin veneer of loose sediment, and
the rock which is made as layers of this debris
get compacted and cemented together.
• Sedimentary rocks are called secondary,
because they are often the result of the
accumulation of small pieces broken off of pre-
existing rocks.
• There are three main types of sedimentary
rocks:
• Clastic: Small piece of rock: your basic
sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rocks
are accumulations of clasts: little pieces of
broken up rock which have piled up and
been “lithified=become rock”, by
compaction and cementation.
• Chemical: many of these form when
standing water evaporates, leaving dissolved
minerals behind. Thick deposits of salt and
gypsum can form due to repeated flooding
and evaporation over long periods of time.
• Organic: Any accumulation of sedimentary
debris caused by organic processes. Many
animals use calcium for shells, bones, and
teeth.
• These bits (small pieces of something) of
calcium can pile up on the seafloor and
accumulate into a thick enough layer to
form an "organic" sedimentary rock.
• Chemical processes can result in the relative
enrichment of more resistant (or inert)
minerals
quartz vs feldspar
 Metamorphic Rocks
• The metamorphic get their name from
"meta (change) and morph (form)”.
• Any rock can become a metamorphic rock.
All that is required is for the rock to be
moved into an environment in which the
minerals which make up the rock become
unstable and out of equilibrium with the
new environmental conditions.
• Here the original rock minerals change into
another kind of minerals.
• In most cases, this involves burial
which leads to a rise in temperature
and pressure. The metamorphic
changes in the minerals always
move in a direction designed to
restore equilibrium.
• Common metamorphic rocks
include slate, schist, gneiss, and
marble
Chap5 Introduction to weathering and soils
• Soil is the raw material required for almost all
agriculture activity, particularly in the third world.
In many ways it is the world's most valuable
natural resource.
• Soil is mixture of loose unconsolidated rocks or
minerals, called regolith, plus organic matter,
known as humus. Different types of soils vary in
the compositions and relative amounts of the
regolith and humus.
• Soil best suited for agriculture is known as loam.
They have a good balance between humus and
regolith of the right grain size.
• Soil production is controlled by a
combination of the local climate, organic
activity, topographic relief, and parent
material and time.
• Soil = f(Cl, O, R, P,T)

5.1 Weathering Processes and Soil

• Soil produced by a combination of three
weathering types, chemical, mechanical,
and biological.
There three (3types) of soil weathering:
chemical, mechanical and biological weathering
1) Chemical Weathering: Most intense in warm,
humid climate. Very little in cold, dry climates.
Many minerals are not stable at earth surface
conditions. They react with surface waters,
atmospheric gases, and dissolved compounds
(acids) and form a new set of minerals.
• Process also tends to remove, or leach (drain
away), elements and compounds from the
weathered rock and add them to the surface and
ground water.
• Carbonate minerals dissolve, silicate minerals
undergo hydrolysis (take up water) and form clay
minerals, and iron-bearing compounds oxidize
(rust). Some minerals, like quartz are resistant to
chemical weathering.
2) Mechanical Weathering: Physical breaking of
minerals or rocks. Make "little rocks out of big
rocks." Can be caused by a number of different
processes.
Freeze-thaw: Water gets into cracks in rock. When the
water freezes the ice expands pushing the sides of the
crack apart. Eventually causes the rock to crumble.
Potholes in roads are often due to freeze-thaw cycles
during the winter.
Contraction/expansion: Rocks expand when the
temperature goes up during the day and contract
when it falls at night. This constant working of the
rock eventually cracks it and causes it to crumble.
Most effective in environments where there is a big
temperature difference between day and night, as
in the desert.
Salt precipitation: When water evaporates in a
crack, salts crystallize from solution. The growth
of the crystals can slowly pry open the crack.
• All three processes (and others) may be involved.
Regardless of the process, mechanical weathering
dramatically increases the available surface area by
decreasing the size of the particles.
• This allows chemical weathering to proceed
more rapidly. The greater the chemical
weathering the weaker the rock and the easier
it is to mechanically weather. Both processes
help the other (a synergistic relationship).

3) Biological Weathering: A combination of

the first two. Organisms break down minerals
by both chemical (they secrete acids from
their roots) and mechanical (roots splits rocks
or burrowing animals mix soil) means.
 5.2 Soil Profiles and Horizons
• Soils are not homogenous with depth. They
usually are layered chemically and physically.
Exactly how varies, depending on local conditions
(Cl, O, R, P, T).
O horizon: Purely organic material or humus.
Sometime referred to as the leaf litter.
A horizon: Top layer of the soil. It is very rich in
organic material or humus. Dictates the fertility of
the soil. Also known as the topsoil. Water
percolating down reacts with minerals and leaches
material from this horizon.
B horizon: Layer where leached material from
above is deposited. Also known as the zone of
accumulation. Coarser grained and with less
organic material than A horizon.
C horizon: Very coarse and broken up rock.
Mostly just regolith with little or no organic
material. Very little chemical weathering occurs so
minerals are only slightly altered.
D horizon: Unaltered bedrock.

Notice: Each horizon may be subdivided further

than this; not all soils contain all horizons.
 5.3 Soil development and types
• Soil thickness is the result of the balance between
weathering processes (generate soil) and
erosional process (remove soil).

• Soils can be either generated in place (residual

soils) or brought in and deposited by wind, water,
glaciers, and volcanoes (transported soils).
Two broad types of soils:
Pedalfer
Pedocal
Pedalfer: Found in warm, humid
regions. Usually rich in iron and
aluminum. Rest of the material is largely
leached away by high rainfall.

Pedocal: Found in drier and cooler

regions. Less chemical weathering and,
therefore, less leaching of compounds.
Usually rich in calcium.

Modern classification schemes may have

thousands of sub-types
Laterite: The ultimate residual soil. A
pedalfer type, but with extreme leaching. Often
not much left other than Al and Fe. Laterites are
the source of bauxite, the ore for aluminum.

Laterites are typically found in hot, moist

tropical climates. This type of soils has a very
low fertility because of the extreme chemical
weathering

Tundra soils: Thin soils found in cold, dry

climates. Typically have very low organic
content. Very low levels of chemical weathering
 5.4 Expansive Soils
• Clay rich soils expand when wet and
contract when dried. This Problem is hard to
control. Can use chemicals, keep the soils
wet, remove the soils, or build specially
designed structures. Best method is
recognition and avoidance.
• Permafrost: Problems occur when human
activity causes thawing. Soil flows,
resulting in creep, landslides, and
subsidence. Try to build without disturbing
thermal balance.
 Chap6. General concept on Crustal
deformation and earthquakes.
• The Himalayas, the Rockies, and the Andes are some
of Earth’s most majestic mountain ranges. Mountain
ranges are visible reminders that the shape of Earth’s
surface changes constantly. These changes result from
deformation, or the bending, tilting, and breaking of
Earth’s crust.
6.1 Isostasy
• Deformation sometimes occurs because the weight of
some part of Earth’s crust changes. Earth’s crust is
part of the lithospheric plates that ride on top of the
plastic part of the mantle called the asthenosphere.
• When parts of the lithosphere thicken and
become heavier, they sink deeper into the
asthenosphere. If parts of the lithosphere thin and
become lighter, the lithosphere rises higher in the
asthenosphere.
• Vertical movement of the lithosphere depends on
two opposing forces .One force is the force due
to gravity, or weight, of the lithosphere pressing
down on the asthenosphere.The other force is the
buoyant force of the asthenosphere pressing up
on the lithosphere. When these two forces are
balanced, the lithosphere and asthenosphere are
in a state called isostasy.
• However, when the weight of the lithosphere
changes, the lithosphere sinks or rises until a
balance of the forces is reached again. The
movements of the lithosphere to reach isostasy
are called isostatic adjustments.

• Deformation can be defined as bending, tilting,

and breaking of Earth’s crust; the change in shape
or volume of rock in response to stress.
• Isostasy can be defined as a condition of
gravitational and buoyant equilibrium between
Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Isostatic Adjustments as a Result of Erosion
 6.2 Mountains and Isostasy
• In mountainous regions, isostatic adjustments
constantly occur. Over millions of years, the
rock that forms mountains is worn away by
the erosive actions of wind, water, and ice.

• This erosion can significantly reduce the

height and weight of a mountain range. As a
mountain becomes smaller and lighter, the
area may rise by isostatic adjustment in a
process called uplift.
 6.3Deposition and Isostasy
• Another type of isostatic adjustment occurs in
areas where rivers carrying large amounts of mud,
sand, and gravel flow into larger bodies of water.
When a river flows into the ocean, most of the
material that the river carries is deposited on the
nearby ocean floor. The added weight of the
deposited material causes the ocean floor to sink
by isostatic adjustment in a process known as
subsidence.
• This process is occurring in the Gulf of Mexico at
the mouth of the Mississippi River, where a thick
accumulation of deposited materials has formed.
 6.4 Glaciers and Isostasy
• Isostatic adjustments also occur as a result of
the growth and retreat of glaciers and ice sheets.
When a large amount of water is held in
glaciers and ice sheets, the weight of the ice
causes the lithosphere beneath the ice to sink.
Simultaneously, the ocean floor rises because
the weight of the overlying ocean water is less.
• When glaciers and ice sheets melt, the land that
was covered with ice slowly rises as the weight
of the crust decreases. As the water returns to
the ocean, the ocean floor sinks.
 6.5 Stress, Strain, folds, and faults
• Stress: the amount of force per unit area that acts
on a rock
• Strain: When stress is applied to rock, rock may
deform. Any change in the shape or volume of
rock that results from stress is called strain. Strain
can be defined as any change in a rock’s shape or
volume caused by stress.
• Fold: a form of ductile strain in which rock layers
bend, usually as a result of compression
• Fault a break in a body of rock along which one
block slides relative to another; a form of brittle
strain
 Folds
• When rock responds to stress by deforming in a
ductile way, folds commonly form. A fold is a
bend in rock layers that results from stress. A fold
is most easily observed where flat layers of rock
were compressed or squeezed inward.
• As stress was applied, the rock layers bent and
folded. Cracks sometimes appear in or near a fold,
but most commonly the rock layers remain intact.
Although a fold commonly results from
compression, it can also form as a result of shear
stress.
 Types of Folds
• To categorize a fold, scientists study the relative
ages of the rocks in the fold. The rock layers of the
fold are identified by age from youngest to oldest.
An anticline is a fold in which the oldest layer is in
the center of the fold. Anticlines are commonly
arch shaped.
• A syncline is a fold in which the youngest layer is
in the center of the fold. Synclines are commonly
bowl shaped. A monocline is a fold in which both
limbs are horizontal or almost horizontal.
Monoclines form when one part of Earth’s crust
moves up or down relative to another part.
The three
major types
of folds
 Faults
• Stress does not always cause rock to fold. Near Earth’s
surface, where temperatures and pressure are low,
stresses may simply cause rock to break. Breaks in
rock are divided into two categories.

• A break along which there is no movement of the

surrounding rock is called a fracture. A break along
which the surrounding rock moves is called a fault.

• The surface or plane along which the motion occurs is

called the fault plane. In a non vertical fault, the
hanging wall is the rock above the fault plane. The
footwall is the rock below the fault plane.
Normal Faults: is a fault in which the hanging
wall moves downward relative to the footwall.
Normal faults commonly form at divergent
boundaries, where the crust is being pulled apart
by tension.
Normal faults may occur as a series of parallel
fault lines, forming steep, step like landforms.
The Great Rift Valley of East Africa formed by
large-scale normal faulting.

Reverse Faults: When compression causes the

hanging wall to move upward relative to the
footwall, a reverse fault forms.
A thrust fault : is a special type of reverse
fault in which the fault plane is at a low angle
or is nearly horizontal. Because of the low
angle of the fault plane, the rock of the hanging
wall is pushed up and over the rock of the
footwall. Reverse faults and thrust faults are
common in steep mountain ranges, such as the
Rockies and the Alps.
 6.6 Earthquake
• Earthquake is defined as a sudden violent shaking
of the ground, typically causing great destruction,
as a result of movements within the earth's crust or
volcanic action. Earthquakes occur where plates
grind against or over one other.
• An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a
fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly
moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to
friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes
the friction, there is an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust
and cause the shaking that we feel.
In an earthquake, the pressure released
when a fault slips causes ground waves that
radiate out from the source. These waves
cause the ground shaking we experience as
an earthquake

The earth's crust is split up into pieces

called tectonic plates that fit together like a
jigsaw puzzle. The slow, steady movement
of tectonic plates causes earthquakes. Fault
lines occur at the boundaries of the different
plates
 Effects of earthquakes
• In movies, earthquakes often create large crevasses and
the dramatic potential to fall into the core of the Earth.
Real earthquakes do not cause the ground to open up along
a fault. In fact, the sides of a fault must push against one
another to create the friction needed to build pressure and
cause an earthquake in the first place. However,
earthquakes can cause some dramatic secondary events.
• Sandy water-saturated soil may become liquid-like during
ground shaking, like quicksand. This process, called
liquefaction, can create new ground formations and tilt or
sink structures or vehicles. Additionally, when an
earthquake shifts a large body of water, the water
displacement will trigger a large standing wave, or
tsunami.
Damages caused by earthquake
Damages caused by earthquake
Damages caused by earthquake
Seismic energy from an earth Earthquakes produce
various types of seismic waves cause rocks to vibrate
or shake as they propagate through the Earth. Waves
are characterized by a wavelength and amplitude.
Wavelength is also inversely related to frequency,
which is defined as number of cycles per second (Hz),
and period which is defined as the time between
successive crests.
Earthquake waves are recorded by a
seismograph or seismometer, which produces
a recording of the Earth’s vibrations called a
seismogram. Seismographs work by
dampening the motion of a recorder (a pen)
with a weight, so that the ground moves
relative to the pen during shaking.

Earthquakes produce both body waves,

which travel through the Earth, and surface
waves which only travel on its surface. Body
waves travel faster than surface waves.
Chap7. Introduction to geology of Rwanda
ASSIGNMENT
• Important points to be discussed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
 Chap8. Mountain Ranges and its
construction.

8.1 introduction
• A mountain is the most extreme type of
deformation. Mount Everest, whose elevation is
more than 8 km above sea level, is Earth’s
highest mountain. Forces inside Earth cause
Mount Everest to grow taller every year. Mount
St. Helens, a volcanic mountain, captured the
world’s attention in 1980 when its explosive
eruption devastated the surrounding area.
 Mountain Ranges and Systems
A group of adjacent mountains that are related to each
other in shape and structure is called a mountain
range.
Mount Everest is part of the Great Himalaya Range,
and Mount St. Helens is part of the Cascade Range. A
group of mountain ranges that are adjacent is called a
mountain system.
Mountain range
Mountain range can be defined as a series of
mountains that are closely related in orientation, age,
and mode of formation
 Plate Tectonics and Mountains

Both the circum-Pacific and the Eurasian-

Melanesian mountain belts are located along
convergent plate boundaries. Scientists think that
the location of these two mountain belts
provides evidence that most mountains form as a
result of collisions between tectonic plates.
Some mountains, such as the Appalachians, do
not lie along active convergent plate boundaries.
However, evidence indicates that the places at
which these ranges formed were previously
active plate boundaries.
 Collisions Between Continental and
Oceanic Crust
•Some mountains form when oceanic lithosphere
and continental lithosphere collide at convergent
plate boundaries. When the moving plates collide,
the oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the
continental lithosphere.
Some mountains at the boundary between
continental lithosphere and oceanic lithosphere may
form by a different process. As the oceanic
lithosphere subducts, pieces of crust called terranes
are scraped off. These terranes then become part of
the continent and may form mountains.
 Types of Mountains
• Mountains are more than just elevated parts of
Earth’s crust. Mountains are complicated
structures whose rock formations provide
evidence of the stresses that created the
mountains. Scientists classify mountains
according to the way in which the crust was
deformed and shaped by mountain-building
stresses.
• The following are the 4 types of mountain:
 Folded Mountains and Plateaus
The highest mountain ranges in the world
consist of folded mountains that form when
continents collide. Folded mountains form
when tectonic movements squeeze rock
layers together into accordion-like folds

Fault-Block Mountains and Grabens

Fault-block mountain a mountain that forms
where faults break Earth’s crust into large
blocks and some blocks drop down relative
to other blocks
 Dome Mountains
Dome mountain a circular or elliptical,
almost symmetrical elevation or
structure in which the stratified rock
slopes downward gently from the
central point of folding

Volcanic Mountains
Mountains that form when magma erupts
onto Earth’s surface are called volcanic
mountains
 Chap9. Introduction to Erosion and slope
stabilization.
9.1 Introduction
 Slope stability analysis is an interesting course
among the engineering courses. The erosion has
significant impact in slope stabilization because this
erosion can affect different parameters such as
properties of soil, slope angle and other parameters
used during the analysis of slope stability.
The process known as weathering breaks up
rocks so that they can be carried away by the
process known as erosion. Water, wind, ice, and
waves are the agents of erosion that wear away at
the surface of the earth.
• Although erosion helps for generating the soil, it is
also a major danger to soil. Soil can erode when
forests are cut down because tree roots help hold
soil in place. Erosion can wash soil away from
farmland. Planting trees along fields helps prevent
erosion. Farmers also plow their fields in ways that
help prevent erosion.
• Why is river water sometimes brown? The water
turns brown when it is full of mud. A brown river
is an example of erosion in action and this can
mostly affect the slope stability. Flowing water
carries away, or erodes, tiny bits of dirt and rock
from the ground it passes over.
• Erosion moves rock and dirt from place to
place. Earth’s surface can be greatly changed by
erosion. Over tremendously long periods of
time, erosion can carry whole mountains into
the sea! That is very dangerous to the slope
stability.
• When the slope is not stable, it is very difficult
to promote agriculture activities. This is
because the erosion can influence the slope
failure and therefore conduct to the land slides,
therefore this conduct to a barrier related to the
implementation of agriculture activities
 WHEN EROSION STARTS?
• Erosion starts with weathering. The dirt and pieces
of rock that erosion carries away come from
weathering. Weathering is the process by which
nature breaks rocks up.
• Heat from the Sun can make rock expand and
crack into pieces. Ice can also break up rock.
Water gets into cracks in the rock and freezes. Ice
expands when it freezes and breaks the rock. Plant
roots can also grow into rocks and crack them.
Rainwater can dissolve, or absorb, some rocks,
turning them into liquid. Rainwater can turn other
rocks into sand or clay.
• Once rocks break into pieces, erosion takes over.
Water, wind, and ice carry away the pieces left
behind by weathering.
 9.2 Concept of slope stability
• The term slope stability may be defined as the
resistance of inclined surface to failure by
sliding or collapsing.
• the main purpose for maintaining the slope
stability is to prevent the slope failure. Slope
failure referred to as mass wasting, is the down
slope movement of rock debris and soil in
response to gravitational stresses.
• Three major types of mass wasting are
classified by the type of down slope movement.
The types of movement are falls, slides, and
flows.
 9.3 Driving Forces
When is a slope not stable?
• Slope stability is based on the interplay between two
types of forces, driving forces and resisting forces.
Driving forces promote down slope movement of
material, whereas resisting forces deter movement.
So, when driving forces overcome resisting forces,
the slope is unstable and results in mass wasting.
• The main driving force in most land movements is
gravity. The main resisting force is the material's
shear strength. Does gravity act alone? NO!! Slope
angle, climate, slope material, and water contribute
to the effect of gravity
• Mass movement occurs much more frequently on
steep slopes than on shallow slopes.
• Water plays a key role in producing slope failure.
In the form of rivers and wave action, water erodes
the base of slopes, removing support,
which increases driving forces. Water can also
increase the driving force by loading.
• An increase in water also contributes to driving
forces that result in slope failure. The weight (load)
on the slope increases when water fills previously
empty pore spaces and fractures
 9.4 Resisting forces
Resisting forces act oppositely of driving forces.
The resistance to down-slope movement is
dependent on the shear strength of the slope
material. And shear strength is a function
of cohesion (ability of particles to attract and hold
each other together) and internal friction (friction
between grains within a material).

The ratio of resisting forces to driving forces is the

safety factor (SF):
 Conditions
• If SF > 1 then SAFE
• If SF < 1 then UNSAFE
• Slope stability is therefore a function of:
Material, Strength of rock or soil, Slope angle,
Climate, Vegetation &Time and erosion can
influence many among these factors.

R is the shear strength of the soil and this shear

strength is the one acts as resisting force.
• u is the pore pressure, c is cohesion, φ is
friction angle and σ is the normal stress of the
material.
• When erosion due to the rain fall occurs it
can affect for instance the pore pressure can
increase immediately and therefore the
resistance force can be reduced as you can
see on this formula.
• As pore pressure increase the resistance force
reduces, and this conduct to the failure of
slope, therefore land slide can occur.
 Land Slide
• Landslide can be defined as processes that
result in the downward and outward
movement of slope-forming materials.
Landslides usually move over a confined
area.
• Many kinds of events can trigger a landslide,
such as the over steepening of slopes by
erosion associated with rivers, glaciers, or
ocean waves; heavy snowmelt which
saturates soil and rock; or earthquakes that
lead to the failure of weak slopes.
 Translational Movement

Rotational Movement
 Rock fall
• Rock fall (free fall of rock) is an extremely rapid
process and occurs without warning. Rock fall is
typically the result of frost wedging. Frost wedging
is a process where water enters cracks in rocks,
freezes, expands, and breaks the rock apart.
 Cutbank
• Cutbanks are the result of stream erosion. A
stream undercuts the outer bend, which results
in the remaining overlying stream bank falling,
dropping into the moving water. This is an
example of soil fall.
 Soilfall
• Another example of soilfall is produced by
ocean waves undercutting cliff faces (high steep
rock face). The end result is loss of support!
This type of undercutting can also result in
slumping.
 The Human Impact for
Landslides
• Landslides are natural occurring phenomena.
Landslides, or slope failure, occur whether
people are there or not! But, human land-use
does have a major impact on slope processes.
• The combination of uncontrollable natural
conditions (earthquakes, heavy rainstorms,
etc.) and artificially altered landforms can
result in disastrous slope failures.
Illustration Photos
 Chap10. General understanding to Earth’s
Resources and geologic hazards.
10.1 Earth Resources
• The major resources on Earth are water, air,
living things, rocks (including minerals and
fossil fuels), soil and energy from the Sun.
Materials will move between different
reservoirs in Earth at different rates for different
periods of residence.
• Since the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere are all inter-connected, each is
of equal importance in maintaining
sustainability.
 Overview
• Economically important elements and compounds do
not occur in sufficient concentration in most rocks to
be extracted for profit.
• The forces of mantle convection and plate tectonics
bring magma to Earth's surface. The tectonic forces
also bury organic matter to form fossil fuels and
exhume buried reservoirs, rendering them accessible
to mining.
• Water heated by magma bodies dissolves minerals,
which precipitate out as valuable ores upon cooling.
The water in contact with magma becomes
superheated and can be used to drive steam turbines
to generate electricity.
• Coal and peat are formed from the burial of
many types of vegetation, including mosses,
ferns, algae, and trees.
• Petroleum results mainly from burial and
alteration of marine microorganisms.
• Fresh water is arguably Earth's most
important natural resource. Most potable
water is contained as groundwater in
fractures and pores in the crust.
• All of the requirements of modern industrial
society are either directly or indirectly tied to
materials derived from the Earth
• The increases in crop yields over the last 20 years
have required increasingly larger amounts of Earth
resources. For example, the farmer requires soil and
water to grow the grain.
• maximizing a harvest for a given amount of land also
requires the addition of fertilizers, e.g. N, P, K, as well
as other chemical compounds.
• To plant and harvest these grains, the farmer also
needs a tractor
1) the manufacture of this tractor requires a wide range
of metals and other Earth resources as well as a large
amount of energy
2) at the same time, operation of the tractor itself
requires additional amounts of energy.
 Classes of Earth Resources
• Earth resources can be broadly separated into two
main classes depending upon the time scales over
which they are replenished
Renewable resources are those that are
replenished (to restock depleted items or material)
on short time scales, e.g. months to years.
Examples include energy derived from wind, running
water or solar radiation.
Nonrenewable resources are those materials of
finite quantity and that are not replenished on
human time scales.
Examples include oil, gas, coal, copper, titanium, etc
• The formative processes for these materials are
either:
1) so slow that tens or hundreds of millions of
years are needed to make appreciable
accumulations, e.g. coal, oil, gas; or
2) no longer operative, i.e. elements, e.g. Fe, Cu,
formed only at the beginning of the universe.
• Most nonrenewable resources are also mineral
resource
• Mineral resources can be imprecisely defined as
any non-living, naturally occurring substance
useful to humans
Six types of Earth’s resources
• Mineral resources are conveniently divided into three broad
groups based on the manner in which they are utilized:
 Group Assignment
Share your findings with others in your group and
decide which resource (if any) is the most
important. As a group, prepare a short statement on
your findings and share that with the class.
 10.2 Geologic hazards
• Earthquakes
Shaking can damage buildings
and break utility lines (electric,
gas, water, sewer)

• Volcanoes
Ash flows and mudflows can
overwhelm populated areas
• Landslides, floods,
and wave erosion
 Geologic hazards
• Earthquakes
Shaking can damage buildings
and break utility lines (electric,
gas, water, sewer)

• Volcanoes
Ash flows and mudflows can
overwhelm populated areas
• Landslides, floods,
and wave erosion
 Geologic hazards
• Earthquakes
Shaking can damage buildings
and break utility lines (electric,
gas, water, sewer)

• Volcanoes
Ash flows and mudflows can
overwhelm populated areas
• Landslides, floods, and
wave erosion
 Chap11. Introduction to Climate change
11.1 Climate change
Climate change may be defined as the change in
global weather patterns: long-term alteration in
global weather patterns, especially increases in
temperature and storm activity, regarded as a
potential consequence of the greenhouse.
11.2 Ecosystem
An ecosystem is all the living and nonliving things
in a certain area. All the plants and animals, even
the microorganisms that live in the soil, are living
parts of an ecosystem. Air, water, and rocks are
nonliving parts of an ecosystem.
Why is climate change such an important issue
for agriculture?

Climate
Change:
Fitting the
pieces
together
 Climate change cont…
The topic of climate change is like a puzzle
with many different pieces. those pieces include
oceans, the atmosphere, ecosystems, polar ice,
natural and human influences.
 Scientists have been working on this puzzle for
more than a century, and while there are still
gaps in our knowledge, most experts feel we
have the puzzle is complete enough to show that
human activities are having an adverse effect on
our planet.
Scientists have a good understanding of what has
changed earth’s climate in the past:
 Incoming solar radiation is the main climate
driver. Its energy output increased about 0.1%
from 1750 to 1950, increasing temperatures by
0.2°F (0.1°C) in the first part of the 20th century.
In the distant past, drifting continents make a big
difference in climate over millions of years by
changing ice caps at the poles and by altering
ocean currents, which transport heat and cold
throughout the ocean depths.
Huge volcanic eruptions can cool Earth by
injecting ash and tiny particles into the
stratosphere.
Changes in the concentration of greenhouse gases,
which occur both naturally and as a result of human
activities, also influence Earth’s climate Change.
Sun’s output
Earth’s orbit
Drifting continents
Volcanic eruptions
Greenhouse gases
Earth’s surface absorbs heat from the sun and then
re-radiates it back into the atmosphere and to space.
Much of this heat is absorbed by greenhouse gases,
which then send the heat back to the surface, to
other greenhouse gas molecules, or out to space
Though only 1% of atmospheric gases are
greenhouse gases, they are extremely powerful
heat trappers. By burning fossil fuels faster and
faster, humans are effectively piling on more
blankets, heating the planet so much and so
quickly that it’s hard for Mother Nature and human
societies to adapt.
 The day after tomorrow
The day after tomorrow
 Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture
1) Direct impacts from temp/precipitation changes leads to the
following:
 Increased variability in weather
 Extreme conditions
 Sea level rise & ruining or destroying of coastal agricultural
lands
 CO2 fertilization
2) Indirect impacts:
 Changing crop-weed competition dynamics
 Range changes of pests & pathogens
 Expanded range predicted for many pathogens
 Less-cold winters allow increase in pests
 Different range changes between pests & pathogens and
natural controls
 Decreased biodiversity in natural ecosystems
Agriculture as part of the solution to
climate change
 Increasing carbon sequestration through land
management
 Agroforestry
 Rotations with cover crops (crop for soil
protection), green manure
 Conservation tillage
 Could reduce global CO2 emissions by 5-15%
 Organic farming (but limited benefits)
 Enhances carbon storage in soil
 Biogas digesters.
Other solutions and adaptations
 Reduce agrochemicals
(e.g., N fertilizers)
 Reduce pumped irrigation and mechanical power
 Reduce high energy-consuming feedstuffs for
livestock
 Adapt: Selective breeding, GMOs
Associated Climate Changes problems
• Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to
human activities continue to alter the
atmosphere in ways that are expected to
affect the climate
• Warming will be greater for winter than summer
• Warming will be greater at night than during the day.
• A 3oF rise in summer daytime temperature triples
the probability of a heat wave
• Growing season will be longer (8-9 days longer
now than in 1950)
• More precipitation
• Likely more soil moisture in summer
• More rain will come in intense rainfall events
• Higher stream flow, more flooding
 What can be done to day to improve the management of
climatic risks and improve the adaptation?
1. Identificate vulnerabilities and opportunities (with the
agriculture sector)
2. Reduce uncertities (learn from the past, monitor the
present and information for the future)
3. Identify technologies to reduce vulnerabilities
(Diversify, store and efficient use of water, genetics, etc.)
4. Identify institutional architecture and policy
interventions to reduce or transfer risks
• Systems for early alert and response systems
• Insurance, recovery loans, etc.
• Institutional arrangements & specific policies
 Potential Agricultural-Related Impacts
from Climate Change
Droughts and low water-tables leading to water
stress
Transport of water to other locations
Warmer temps leading to more pests and diseases
Changing seasons will lead to different crop
growth.
Soil temperatures will remain warmer
 Impacts
 biophysical impacts:
1. Physiological effects on crops, pasture, forests and
livestock (quantity, quality);
2. Changes in land, soil and water resources (quantity,
quality);
3. Increased weed and pest challenges

 socio-economic impacts:
1. Decline in yields and production;
2. Reduced marginal GDP from agriculture;
3. Fluctuations in world market prices;
4. Changes in geographical distribution of trade regimes;
5. Increased number of people at risk of hunger and food
insecurity;
6. Migration and civil unrest.
What causes Earth’s climate to change?
 Changes in the atmosphere
 Natural processes
1) Volcanoes
2) Tectonic plate movement
3) Changes in the sun
 Human activities – any activity that
releases “greenhouse gases” into the
atmosphere
Examples of green house gases are
methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide,
carbon dioxide etc.
End of the
PART-1
 PART-2: MINERALOGY AND
PETROGRAPHY

LECTURER NAME: Ir. HARELIMANA VINCENT

PHONE: +250788657165/ +250728657165
E-MAIL: havayini06@yahoo.fr
 Course outlines
Chap1. General introduction to Mineralogy
Chap2. Composition-Structure of the Earth
Chap3. General concept on minerals formation
Chap4. General Properties of Minerals
Chap5. Mineral Occurrences and Environments
Chap6. Classification of Minerals
Chap7. Minerals and soil fertility relationship
Chap8. Introduction to petroleum product
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, the student will be
able to:
Describe and explain the structure and
properties of minerals
Describe the process of mineral formation
Classify minerals
Describe their geographical distribution
and practical utilization
Chap1. General introduction to Mineralogy
1. Back ground of Minerals
• Minerals are a critical part of our everyday life.
They are used in the construction of our
buildings, homes, roads, and machines. They
are used to fertilize our crops, produce energy
for our homes, add flavor to our foods, and even
make many of our medicines.
• As civilizations progressed from the Stone Age
to the present, humans learned new and
different ways to use minerals and earth
materials to better their living conditions.
• Rocks are aggregates of one or more
minerals. Therefore, mineral identification
is also a crucial part of rock classification.

1.1 Definition of a Mineral

A mineral is a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid with a definite, but
generally not fixed, chemical composition
and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is
usually formed by inorganic processes.
• Naturally-occurring: means nonsynthetic.
This eliminates all unnatural man-made
substances like plastic and synthetic
compounds.
• Solid: This eliminates gases and liquids.
• Homogeneous: means the same kind: having
the same kind of constituent elements, or
being similar in nature. Another hand it
means having uniform composition: having a
uniform composition or structure.
• Ordered atomic arrangement: Means that atoms are
arranged in some geometric pattern. This eliminates
inhomogeneous solids such as glass. The ordered
atomic arrangement is reflected in the crystal form and
cleavage of the mineral (example - the rhombs of
calcite).
• Cleavage: Separation of something
• Rhombs: parallelogram or lozenge form
• Ordered atomic arrangement" also means
crystalline. Crystalline materials are three-dimensional
periodic arrays of precise geometric arrangement of
atoms. Glasses such as obsidian (jet-black volcanic
glass), which are disordered solids, liquids (e.g.,
water, mercury), and gases (e.g., air) are not minerals.
• Definite, but generally not fixed, composition"
means that atoms, or groups of atoms must occur in
specific ratios. For ionic crystals (i.e. most minerals)
ratios of cations to anions will be controlled by charge
balance, however, atoms of similar charge and ionic
radius may substitute freely for one another; hence
definite, but not fixed.

• Chemical composition which is fixed or which

varies within well-defined limits: All minerals are
characterized by a chemical formula" - Some minerals
have chemical substitutions in which ions of similar
size and charge freely substitute for each other (such
as the plagioclase series).
• Variations in Composition and Crystalline
Structure: Most minerals contain impurities
and several also display ionic substitution.
There are other minerals which have identical
chemical compositions, but different
crystalline structures due to the conditions
under which they crystallized.
• Impurities: Most minerals have non-
structural ions trapped or included in the
atomic structure during growth of the
structure.
Example - quartz - SiO2
Example of classification of Quartz based on its
impurity and color
• Ionic Substitution: variations in composition
resulting from a systematic substitution of
ions. There are several minerals which
display solid solution (solids which act like
solutions during crystallization and melting).

• The olivine group, forsterite (Mg2SiO4) -

fayalite (Fe2SiO4) is a good example. Both
Mg+2 and Fe+2 have the same charge (+2) and
about the same ionic size so that either can fit
into the olivine crystalline structure.
• Coupled Ion Substitution: The plagioclase
series - NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8 is an
example of a solid solution with coupled ion
substitution - The ions don't have the same
charge, but are able to substitute for one
another when coupled with another ion.
• Within the plagioclase crystal structure,
Ca+2and Al+3 with a combined charge of +5
substitute for Na+1 and Si+4 which also have a
combined charge of +5.
• Polymorphs: Minerals which have the identical
chemical composition, but different internal
structure. The best examples are the carbon
polymorphs, diamond and graphite, which are both
composed of pure carbon but have substantial
differences in their atomic packing and bonding.

• Inorganic processes: means that crystalline

organic compounds formed by organisms are
generally not considered minerals. However,
carbonate shells are minerals because they are
identical to compounds formed by purely inorganic
processes.
• An abbreviated definition of a mineral would be "a
natural, crystalline phase". Chemists have a precise
definition of a phase:
• A phase is that part of a system which is physically
and chemically homogeneous within itself and is
surrounded by a boundary such that it is
mechanically separable from the rest of the system.
• The third part of our definition of a mineral leads
us to a brief discussion of stoichiometry, the ratios
in which different elements (atoms) occur in
minerals. Because minerals are crystals, dissimilar
elements must occur in fixed ratios to one another.
• However, complete free substitution of very
similar elements (e.g., Mg+2 and Fe+2 which
are very similar in charge (valence) and
radius) is very common and usually results in
a crystalline solution (solid solution).
• For example, the minerals forsterite
(Mg2SiO4) and fayalite (Fe2SiO4) are
members of the olivine group and have the
same crystal structure, that is, the same
geometric arrangement of atoms
• Mg and Fe substitute freely for each other in this
structure, and all compositions between the two
extremes, forsterite and fayalite, may occur.
However, Mg or Fe do not substitute for Si or O,
so that the three components, Mg/Fe, Si and O
always maintain the same 2 to 1 to 4 ratio because
the ratio is fixed by the crystalline structure.
• These two minerals are called end-members of the
olivine series and represent extremes or "pure"
compositions. Because these two minerals have the
same structure, they are called isomorphs and the
series, an isomorphous series.
• In contrast to the isomorphous series, it is also
common for a single compound (composition) to
occur with different crystal structures. Each of these
structures is then a different mineral and, in general,
will be stable under different conditions of
temperature and pressure. Different structural
modifications of the same compound are called
polymorphs.
• An example of polymorphism is the different minerals
of SiO2 (silica); alpha-quartz, beta-quartz, tridymite,
cristobalite, coesite, and stishovite. Although each of
these has the same formula and composition, they are
different minerals because they have different crystal
structures.
• Each is stable under a different set of temperature
and pressure conditions, and the presence of one of
these in a rock may be used to infer the conditions
of formation of a rock. Another familiar example
of polymorphism is graphite and diamond, two
different minerals with the same formula, C
(carbon).
• Glasses (obsidian), liquids, and gases however, are
not crystalline, and the elements in them may
occur in any ratios, so they are not minerals. So in
order for a natural compound to be a mineral, it
must have a unique composition and structure.
 Definition of Ore
• Ore is mineral deposit. Mineral deposit is a geologic
term denoting simply a concentration of a mineral
within the Earth’s crust.
• An ore or ore deposit is a mineral deposit in which one
or more minerals can be extracted profitably. Hence
all ore deposits are mineral deposits but all mineral
deposits are not ore deposits.
• To form an ore deposit, an element must be
concentrated more than its average crustal value. The
enrichment factor is the ratio of an element in the crust
to that in a deposit. The enrichment factor at which a
deposit is profitable is a function of material price and
average crustal abundance
 Chap2. Composition-Structure of the Earth
2.1 introduction
The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways:
by mechanical properties such as rheology, or
chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided
into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric
mantle, outer core, and the inner core.
The interior of Earth is divided into 5 important
layers. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the
crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and
inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth
are at the following depths below the surface:
 • Compositional Layers
– Crust (~3-70 km thick)
• Very thin outer rocky shell of Earth
–Continental crust - thicker and less dense
–Oceanic crust - thinner and more dense
– Mantle (~2900 km thick)
• Hot solid that flows slowly over time; Fe-,
Mg-, Si-rich minerals
– Core (~3400 km radius)
• Outer core - metallic liquid; mostly iron
• Inner core - metallic solid; mostly iron
 • Mechanical Layers
– Lithosphere (~100 km thick)
• Rigid/brittle outer shell of Earth
• Composed of both crust and uppermost
mantle
• Makes up Earth’s tectonic “plates”
– Asthenosphere
• Plastic (capable of flow) zone on which
the lithosphere “floats”
 • Concept of an Ore
• To form an ore deposit, an element must be
concentrated more than its average crustal
value. The enrichment factor is the ratio of an
element in the crust to that in a deposit.
• In general, rarer crustal materials require
higher enrichment factors (gold or mercury).
More abundant metals such as iron and
aluminum require lower enrichment factors.
• If the price of a commodity increases, the
necessary enrichment factor decreases.
Mineral deposit is a geologic term denoting
simply a concentration of a mineral within
the Earth’s crust. This means that 95% of
minerals are located in the earth’ crust layer.
An ore or ore deposit is a mineral deposit in
which one or more minerals can be extracted
profitably, This means that all ore deposit
are located in that crust layer.
the reasons a mineral deposit of high
grade may not be classified as an ore are
varied and include:
1) Mining techniques required are too
expensive
2) Location produces prohibitively high
transportation costs
3) Legal and/or environmental barriers
4) Associated determinatial materials
5) Quantity that can be mined is too small
 Chap3.General concept on minerals
formation
Minerals form in a variety of ways:

1. Crystallization from magma

2. Precipitation from ions in solution
3. Biological activity
4. A change to a more stable state as in
metamorphism
5. Precipitation from vapor
Lava is melted rock that erupts onto Earth’s surface.
 3.1 Formation from Magma
• Imagine a rock that becomes so hot it melts. Many
minerals start out in liquids that are hot enough to
melt rocks.
• Magma is melted rock inside Earth, a molten
mixture of substances that can be hotter than
1,000°C.
• Magma cools slowly inside Earth, which gives
mineral crystals time to grow large enough to be
seen clearly.
• You can have a look to the following picture
which shows so minerals formation in different
kinds of crystals.
• When magma erupts on Earth's surface, it is
called lava. Lava cools much more rapidly than
magma. Crystals do not have time to form and are
very small.
• The chemical composition between minerals that
form rapidly or slowly is often the same, only their
size differs.
• Existing rocks may be heated enough so that the
molecules are released from their structure and can
move around.
• The molecules may match up with different
molecules to form new minerals as the rock cools.
This occurs during metamorphism.
3.2 Precipitation from ions in solution
• Formation from Solutions
• Water on Earth, such as the water in the
oceans, contains chemical elements mixed
into a solution. Various processes can
cause these elements to combine to form
solid mineral deposits.
• Minerals from Salt Water
• When water evaporates, it leaves behind a
solid precipitate of minerals, as shown
in Figure below.
When the water in glass A evaporates, the
dissolved mineral particles are left behind.
• Water can only hold a certain amount of dissolved
minerals and salts. When the amount is too great to
stay dissolved in the water, the particles come
together to form mineral solids, which sink.
• Halite easily precipitates out of water, as does
calcite. Some lakes, such as Mono Lake in
California or The Great Salt Lake in Utah, contain
many mineral precipitates.
• The following picture shows Tufa towers form
when calcium-rich spring water at the bottom of
Mono Lake bubbles up into the alkaline lake. The
tufa towers appear when lake level drops.
 Minerals from Hot Underground Water
• Magma heats nearby underground water, which reacts
with the rocks around it to pick up dissolved particles.

• As the water flows through

open spaces in the rock and
cools, it deposits solid
minerals.
The mineral deposits that
form when a mineral
fills cracks in rocks are Quartz veins formed
in this rock.
called veins.
(A) A quartz vein formed in this rock. (B) Geodes form
when minerals evaporate out in open spaces inside a rock.
• When minerals are deposited in open spaces, large
crystals form.
• Amethyst formed when large crystals grew in open
spaces inside the rock. These special rocks are called
geodes.
 Minerals Under Pressure
• In the last several years, many incredible discoveries
have been made exploring how minerals behave
under high pressure, like rocks experience inside the
Earth.
• If a mineral is placed in a special machine and then
squeezed, eventually it may convert into a different
mineral. Ice is a classic example of a material that
undergoes phase transitions as pressure and/or
temperature is changed.
• As the ice be transformed into different phases due to
pressure and temperature, this referred to the
transformation of existing mineral into an other one
due to the pressure and temperature.
A sample phase diagram for water.
3.3 Biological activity
• Some minerals are formed due to biological and
chemical process by transforming the existing
rocks into minerals. Mind you that this biological
activity has less impact in transforming rock into
minerals
3.4 A change to a more stable state as in
metamorphism
• Some rocks are transformed into minerals due to
metamorphic action. This is due to a combination
of chemical, mechanical and biological process.
• lava: Molten rock that has reached Earth's
surface.
• magma: Molten rock inside Earth's crust.
• vein: Minerals that cooled from a fluid and
filled cracks in a rock.
• Summary
Minerals form as magma cools.
Minerals form when they precipitate from hot
fluids that have cooled down.
Minerals form when the concentration of ions
gets too great in a fluid.
 Chap4. General Properties of Minerals
4.1 Mineral Properties in Hand Specimen
Learning to recognize hand specimens of
approximately 100 of the most common rock-
forming minerals is an important part of this
course.
This recognition is based on seven easily
examined properties plus a few unique
properties such as magnetism or radioactivity
that are strong clues to a mineral's identity.
These seven properties are:
These seven properties are:
1. Crystal form and habit (shape).
2. Luster and transparency
3. Color and streak.
4. Cleavage, fracture, and parting.
5. Tenacity
6. Density
7. Hardness
 4.2 Crystal form and habit (shape)
• Recognizing crystal forms (a crystal face plus
its symmetry equivalents) in the various crystal
systems is one of the reasons we spend some
time in lab studying block models. The crystal
faces developed on a specimen may arise either
as a result of growth or of cleavage.
• In either case, they reflect the internal symmetry
of the crystal structure that makes the mineral
unique. The crystal faces commonly seen on
quartz are growth faces and represent the
slowest growing directions in the structure.
• On the other hand, calcite rhomb faces and
mica plates are cleavages and represent the
weakest chemical bonds in the structure.
• There is a complex terminology for crystal
faces, but some obvious names for faces are
prisms and pyramids. A prism is a face that is
perpendicular to a major axis of the crystal,
whereas a pyramid is one that is not
perpendicular to any major axis.
• Crystals that commonly develop prism faces are
said to have a prismatic or columnar habit (
shape).
• Crystals that grow in fine needles are acicular;
crystals growing flat plates are tabular.
• Crystals forming radiating sprays of needles or
fibers are stellate.
• Crystals forming parallel fibers are fibrous, and
crystals forming branching, tree-like growths
are dendritic
 4.3 Luster and transparency.
• The way a mineral transmits or reflects light is a
diagnostic property. The transparency may be
opaque, translucent, or transparent.
• This reflectance property is called luster.
Native metals and many sulfides are opaque and
reflect most of the light hitting their surfaces
and have a metallic luster.
• Other opaque or nearly opaque oxides may
appear dull (not bright because of weather
conditions such as thick clouds), or resinous
(semisolid substance).
• Transparent minerals with a high index of
refraction such as diamond appear brilliant and are
said to have an adamantine luster, whereas those
with a lower index of refraction such as quartz or
calcite appear glassy and are said to have
a vitreous luster.
 4.4 Color and streak
• Color is fairly self-explanatory property
describing the reflectance. Metallic minerals
are either white, gray, or yellow.
• The presence of transition metals with
unfilled electron shells (e.g. V, Cr, Mn, Fe,
Co, Ni, and Cu) in oxide and silicate
minerals causes them to be opaque or
strongly colored so that the streak (band that
is a different color), the mark that they leave
when scratched on a white ceramic tile, will
also be strongly colored.
 4.5 Cleavage, fracture, and parting
• Because bonding is not of equal strength in all
directions in most crystals, they will tend to break
along crystallographic directions giving them a
fracture property that reflects the underlying structure
and is frequently diagnostic.
• A perfect cleavage results in regular flat faces
resembling growth faces such as in mica, or calcite. A
less well developed cleavage is said to be imperfect,
or if very weak, a parting.
• If a fracture is irregular and results in a rough surface,
it is hackly. If the irregular fracture propagates as a
single surface resulting in a shiny surface as in glass,
the fracture is said to be conchoidal.
 4.6 Tenacity
• Tenacity is the ability of a mineral to deform
plastically under stress. Minerals may be
brittle, that is, they do not deform, but rather
fracture, under stress as do most silicates and
oxides.
• They may be sectile (describes minerals that
can be cut so as to leave a smooth surface),
or be able to deform so that they can be cut
with a knife. Or, they may be ductile and
deform readily under stress as does gold.
 4.7 Density
• Density is a well-defined physical property
measured in g/cm3. Most silicates of light element
have densities in the range 2.6 to 3.5.
• Sulfides are typically 5 to 6. Iron metal about 8,
lead about 13, gold about 19, and osmium, the
densest substance, and a native element mineral, is
22.
• Density may be measured by measuring the
volume, usually by displacing water in a graduated
cylinder, and the mass. Specific gravity is very
similar to density, but is a dimensionless quantity
and is measured in a slightly different way.
• Specific gravity is measured by determining the
weight in air (Wa) and the weight in water
(Ww) and computing specific gravity from SG
= Wa / (Wa-Ww).
4.8 Hardness
• Hardness is usually tested by seeing if some
standard minerals are able to scratch others. A
standard scale was developed by Friedrich
Mohs in 1812.
• The standard minerals making up the Mohs
scale of hardness are enumerated as follow:
 4.9 Unique Properties
• A few minerals may have easily tested unique
properties that may greatly aid identification.
• For example, halite (NaCl) (common table salt)
and sylvite (KCl) are very similar in most of
their physical properties, but have a distinctly
different taste on the tongue, with sylvite having
a more bitter taste.
• Whereas it is not recommended that students
routinely taste mineral specimens (some are
toxic), taste can be used to distinguish between
these two common minerals.
• Another unique property that can be used to
distinguish between otherwise similar back opaque
minerals is magnetism.
• For example, magnetite (Fe3O4), ilmenite
(FeTiO3), and pyrolusite (MnO2) are all dense,
black, opaque minerals which can easily be
distinguished by testing the magnetism with a
magnet.
• Magnetite is strongly magnetic and can be
permanently magnetized to form a lodestone
(something that attracts others like a magnet);
ilmenite is weakly magnetic; and pyrolusite is not
magnetic at all.
 4.10 Other Properties
• There are numerous other properties that are
diagnostic of minerals, but which generally
require more sophisticated devices to measure or
detect.
• For example, minerals containing the elements U
or Th are radioactive (although generally not
dangerously so), and this radioactivity can be
easily detected with a Geiger counter (radiation
detector).
• Examples of radioactive minerals are uraninite
(UO2), thorite (ThSiO4), and carnotite
(K2(UO2)(VO4)2 rH2O).
• Some minerals may also be fluorescent (very
bright and dazzling in color) under ultraviolet
light, that is they absorb UV light and emit in
the visible.
• Other optical properties such as index of
refraction (change of direction of wave) and
pleochroism (differential light absorption)
require an optical microscope to measure.
• Electrical conductivity is an important physical
property but requires an impedance (consisting
of resistance and reactance) bridge to measure.
• In general native metals are good conductors,
sulfides of transition metals are semi-
conductors, whereas most oxygen-bearing
minerals (i.e., silicates, carbonates, oxides,
etc.) are insulators.
• Additionally, quartz (SiO2) is piezoelectric
(develops an electrical charge at opposite end
under an applied mechanical stress); and
tourmaline is pyroelectric (develops an
electrical charge at opposite end under an
applied thermal gradient).
Chap5. Mineral Occurrences and Environments
• In addition to physical properties, one of the
most diagnostic features of a mineral is the
geological environment in which it is occurs.
• Learning to recognize different types of
geological environments can be thus very
helpful in recognizing the common minerals.
• For the purposes of aiding mineral
identification, we have developed a very rough
classification of geological environments, most
of which can be visited locally.
 5.1 Igneous Minerals.
• Minerals in igneous rocks must have high melting
points and be able to co-exist with, or crystallize
from, silicate melts at temperatures above 800 º C.
Igneous rocks can be generally classed according to
their silica content.
• with low-silica (<< 50 % SiO2) igneous rocks being
termed basic or mafic, and high-silica igneous rocks
being termed silicic or acidic.
• Basic igneous rocks (BIR) include basalts,
dolerites, gabbros, kimberlites, and peridotites, and
abundant minerals in such rocks include olivine,
pyroxenes, Ca-feldspar (plagioclase), amphiboles,
and biotite.
• The abundance of Fe in these rocks causes them to
be dark-colored. Silicic igneous rocks (SIR)
include granites, granodiorites, and rhyolites, and
abundant minerals include quartz, muscovite, and
alkali feldspars.
• These are commonly light-colored although color
is not always diagnostic.
• In addition to basic and silicic igneous rocks, a
third igneous mineral environment representing the
final stages of igneous fractionation is called a
pegmatite (PEG) which is typically very coarse-
grained and similar in composition to silicic
igneous rocks (i.e. high in silica).
• Elements that do not readily substitute into
the abundant minerals are called
incompatible elements, and these typically
accumulate to form their own minerals in
pegmatites (coarse-grained igneous rock).

• Minerals containing the incompatible

elements, Li, Be, B, P, Rb, Sr, Y, Nb, rare
earths, Cs, and Ta are typical and
characteristic of pegmatites.
 5.2 Metamorphic minerals
• Minerals in metamorphic rocks have crystallized from
other minerals rather than from melts and need not be
stable to such high temperatures as igneous minerals.
• In a very general way, metamorphic environments may
be classified as low-grade metamorphic (LGM)
(temperatures of 60 º to 400 º C and pressures << .5 GPa
(=15km depth) and high-grade meta morphic (HGM)
(temperatures > 400 º and/or pressures > .5GPa).
• Minerals characteristic of low- grade metamorphic
environments include the zeolites, chlorites, and
andalusite. Minerals characteristic of high grade
metamorphic environments include sillimanite, kyanite,
staurolite, epidote, and amphiboles.
 5.3 Sedimentary minerals
• Minerals in sedimentary rocks are either stable in low-
temperature hydrous environments (e.g. clays) or are
high temperature minerals that are extremely resistant
to chemical weathering (e.g. quartz).
• One can think of sedimentary minerals as exhibiting a
range of solubilities so that the most insoluble
minerals such as quartz, gold, and diamond
accumulate in the coarsest detrital sedimentary rocks,
less resistant minerals such as feldspars, which
weather to clays, accumulate in finer grained silt
stones and mud stones, and the most soluble minerals
such as calcite and halite (rock-salt) are chemically
precipitated in evaporite deposits
• Accordingly, I would classify sedimentary
minerals into detrital sediments (DSD) and
evaporites (EVP).

• Detrital sedimentary minerals include

quartz, gold, diamond, apatite and other
phosphates, calcite, and clays.

• Evaporite sedimentary minerals include

calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite and
sylvite, plus some of the borate minerals.
 5.4 Hydrothermal minerals
• The fourth major mineral environment is
hydrothermal, minerals precipitated from hot aqueous
solutions associated with emplacement of intrusive
igneous rocks.
• This environment is commonly grouped with
metamorphic environments, but the minerals that form
by this process and the elements that they contain are
so distinct from contact or regional metamorphic rocks
that it us useful to consider them as a separate group.
• These may be sub-classified as high temperature
hydrothermal (HTH), low temperature
hydrothermal (LTH), and oxydized hydrothermal
(OXH).
• Metals of the center and right-hand side of the
periodic table (e.g. Cu, Zn, Sb, As, Pb, Sn, Cd,
Hg, Ag) most commonly occur in sulfide
minerals and are termed
the chalcophile elements.
• Sulfides may occur in igneous and metamorphic
rocks, but are most typically hydrothermal.
• High temperature hydrothermal minerals include
gold, silver, tungstate minerals, chalcopyrite,
bornite, the tellurides, and molybdenite.
• Low temperature hydrothermal minerals include
barite, gold, cinnabar, pyrite, and cassiterite.
• Sulfide minerals are not stable in atmospheric
oxygen and will weather by oxidation to
form oxides, sulfates and carbonates of the
chalcophile metals, and these minerals are
characteristic of oxidized hydrothermal
deposits.
• Such deposits are called gossans and are
marked by yellow-red iron oxide stains on
rock surfaces. These usually mark
mineralized zones at depth and are very
common in Colorado.
 Chap6 Classification of Minerals
• Minerals are classified on their chemistry,
particularly on the anionic element or
polyanionic group of elements that occur in
the mineral.
• An anion is a negatively charge atom, and a
polyanion is a strongly bound group of atoms
consisting of a cation plus several anions
(typically oxygen) that has a net negative
charge.
• For example carbonate, (CO3)2-, silicate,
(SiO4)4- are common poly anions.
• This classification has been successful because
minerals rarely contain more than one anion or
polyanion, whereas they typically contain several
different cations.
6.1 Native elements
• The first group of minerals is the native elements,
and as pure elements, these minerals contain no
anion or polyanion.
• Native elements such as gold (Au), silver (Ag),
copper (Cu), and platinum (Pt) are metals,
graphite is a semi-metal, and diamond (C) is an
insulator.
 6.2 Sulfides
• The sulfides contain sulfur (S) as the major
"anion".
• Although sulfides should not be considered
ionic, the sulfide minerals rarely contain
oxygen, so these minerals form a chemically
distinct group.
• Examples are pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite
(ZnS), and galena (PbS).
• Minerals containing the elements As, Se, and
Te as "anions" are also included in this
group.
 6.3 Halides
• The halides contain the halogen elements (F, Cl,
Br, and I) as the dominant anion.
• These minerals are ionically bonded and typically
contain cations of alkali and alkaline earth
elements (Na, K, and Ca). Familiar examples are
halite (NaCl) (rock salt) and fluorite (CaF2).
6.4 Oxides
• The oxide minerals contain various cations (not
associated with a polyanion) and oxygen.
Examples are hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite
(Fe3O4).
 6.5 Hydroxides
• These minerals contain the polyanion OH- as the
dominant anionic species. Examples include
brucite (Mg(OH)2) and gibbsite (Al(OH)3).
6.6 Carbonates
• The carbonates contain CO32- as the dominant
polyanion in which C4+ is surrounded by three O2-
anions in a planar triangular arrangement.
• A familiar example is calcite (CaCO3). Because
NO3- shares this geometry, the nitrate minerals
such as soda niter (nitratite) (NaNO3) are included
in this group.
 6.7 Sulfates
• These minerals contain SO42- as the major polyanion
in which S6+ is surrounded by four oxygen atoms in a
tetrahedron. Note that this group is distinct from
sulfides which contain no O. A familiar example is
gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O).
6.8. Phosphates
• The phosphates contain tetrahedral PO43- groups as
the dominant polyanion.
• A common example is apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH) a
principal component of bones and teeth. The other
trivalent tetrahedral polyanions, arsenate AsO43-, and
vanadate VO43- are structurally and chemically similar
and are included in this group.
 6.9 Borates
• The borates contain triangular BO33- or tetrahedral
BO45-, and commonly both coordinations may occur
in the same mineral. A common example is borax,
(Na2BIII2BIV2O5(OH)4 8H2O).

6.10 Silicates
• This group of minerals contains SiO44- as the dominant
polyanion. In these minerals the Si4+ cation is always
surrounded by 4 oxygens in the form of a tetrahedron.
• Because Si and O are the most abundant elements in
the Earth, this is the largest group of minerals and is
divided into subgroups based on the degree of
polymerization of the SiO4 tetrahedra.
 6.11 Orthosilicates
• These minerals contain isolated SiO44- polyanionic
groups in which the oxygens of the polyanion are
bound to one Si atom only, i.e., they are not
polymerized. Examples are forsterite (Mg-olivine,
Mg2SiO4), and pyrope (Mg-garnet, Mg3Al2Si3O12).
6.12 Sorosilcates
• These minerals contain double silicate tetrahedra in
which one of the oxygens is shared with an
adjacent tetrahedron, so that the polyanion has
formula (Si2O7)6-. An example is epidote
(Ca2Al2FeO(OH)SiO4 Si2O7), a mineral common
in metamorphic rocks.
 6.13 Cyclosilicates
• These minerals contain typically six-membered
rings of silicate tetrahedra with formula. (Si6O17)10-
. An example is tourmaline.
6.14 Chain silicates
• These minerals contain SiO4 polyhedra that are
polymerized in one direction to form chains. They
may be single chains, so that of the four oxygen
coordinating the Si atom, two are shared with adjacent
tetrahedra to form an infinite chain with formula
(SiO3)2-. The single chain silicates include the
pyroxene and pyroxenoid minerals which are common
constituents of igneous rocks.
• Or they may form double chains with formula
(Si4O11)8-, as in the amphibole minerals, which are
common in metamorphic rocks.
6.15 Sheet silicates
• These minerals contain SiO4 polyhedra that are
polymerized in two dimensions to form sheets with
formula (Si4O10)4-.
• Common examples are the micas in which the
cleavage reflects the sheet structure of the mineral.
 6.16 Framework silicates
• These minerals contain SiO4 polyhedra that are
polymerized in three dimensions to form a
framework with formula (SiO2).
• Common examples are quartz (SiO2) and the
feldspars (NaAlSi3O8) which are the most abundant
minerals in the Earth's crust.
• In the feldspars Al3+ may substitute for Si4+ in the
tetrahedra, and the resulting charge imbalance is
compensated by an alkali cation (Na or K) in
interstices in the framework.
Chap7. Minerals and soil fertility relationship
7.1 Soil Texture
• Soil particles are classified by size; from largest to
smallest they are called sand, silt, and clay
• Soil is stratified into layers called soil horizons
• Topsoil consists of mineral particles, living
organisms, and humus, the decaying organic
material
• Some minerals are good fertilizes to the soil and
other ones are not good to the cultivable soil.
• Most of fertilizes materials are made in minerals
whereas the others made in organic materials.
Organic fertilizes are better that mineral fertilizes
7.2 Soil horizon
 A horizon
• Top layer of the soil. It is very rich in organic
material or humus. Dictates the fertility of the soil.
Also known as the topsoil. Water percolating down
reacts with minerals and leaches material from this
horizon.
B horizon
• Layer where leached material from above is
deposited. Also known as the zone of
accumulation. Coarser grained and with less
organic material than A horizon.
 C horizon
• Very coarse and broken up rock. Mostly just
regolith with little or no organic material. Very
little chemical weathering occurs so minerals are
only slightly altered. The most fertilizes and non
fertilizes minerals in the soil are located in this
layer.
• After a heavy rainfall, water drains from the larger
spaces in the soil, but smaller spaces retain water
because of its attraction to clay and other particles.
• Loams are the most fertile top soils and contain
equal amounts of sand, silt, and clay
 7.3 Inorganic Components
• A soil’s composition refers to its inorganic (mineral) and
organic chemical components.
• Cations (for example K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) adhere to negatively
charged soil particles; this prevents them from leaching out
of the soil through percolating groundwater
 7.4 Fertilization
• Soils can become depleted of nutrients as plants and the
nutrients they contain are harvested.
• Fertilization replaces mineral nutrients that have been
lost from the soil.
• Commercial fertilizers are enriched in nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium.
• Organic fertilizers are composed of manure, fishmeal, or
compost.
7.5Adjusting Soil pH
• Soil pH affects cation exchange and the chemical form
of minerals.
• Cations are more available in slightly acidic soil, as H+
ions displace mineral cations from clay particles.
• Erosion of soil causes loss of nutrients
• Erosion can be reduced by
– Planting trees as windbreaks
– Terracing hillside crops
– Cultivating in a contour pattern
– Practicing no-till agriculture
Energy resources - coal, oil, natural gas,
uranium, geothermal energy.
Metallic mineral resources - iron, copper,
aluminum.
Nonmetallic mineral resources - salt,
gypsum, clay, sand, phosphates, water, soil.
 Chap8. Introduction to petroleum product

• Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: πέτρα (rock)

+ Latin: oleum (oil) is a naturally occurring,
yellow-to-black liquid found in geologic
formations beneath the Earth's surface, which is
commonly refined into various types of fuels.
• It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular
weights and other liquid organic compounds.

• The name petroleum covers both naturally

occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum
products that are made up of refined crude oil.
• A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of
dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are
buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to
intense heat and pressure.
• Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. This
comes after the studies of structural geology (at the
reservoir scale), sedimentary basin analysis, reservoir
characterization (mainly in terms of the porosity and
permeability of geologic reservoir structures).

• It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point,

into a large number of consumer products,
from gasoline (petrol) and kerosene to asphalt and
chemical reagents used to
make plastics and pharmaceuticals.
• Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety
of materials, and it is estimated that the world
consumes about 90 million barrels each day.
• The use of fossil fuels such as petroleum has a
negative impact on Earth's biosphere, releasing
pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and
damaging ecosystems through events such as oil
spills.
• Concern over the depletion of the earth's finite
reserves of oil, and the effect this would have on a
society dependent on it, is a concept known
as peak oil.
• Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of
different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules
are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic
hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes.
• Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which
define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.
Composition by weight
• Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules
appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each
varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of
each oil.
• Composition by weight for hydrocarbon
 6.1 Crude oil reservoirs
• Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs
to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material
buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it
into oil, a porous and permeable reservoir rock for
it to accumulate in, and a cap rock (seal) or other
mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the
surface.
• Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically
organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a
layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas
above it, although the different layers vary in size
between reservoirs
• Because most hydrocarbons are less dense than
rock or water, they often migrate upward through
adjacent rock layers until either reaching the
surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks
(known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above.
• However, the process is influenced by
underground water flows, causing oil to migrate
hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short
distances downward before becoming trapped in a
reservoir.
• When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap,
an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be
extracted by drilling and pumping.
• The most common distillation fractions of
petroleum are fuels. Fuels include (by increasing
boiling temperature range)
6.2 Common fractions of petroleum as fuels
 6.3 Other derivatives
 Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other
non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:
1) Alkenes (olefins) which can be manufactured into plastics or other
compounds
2) Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases,
adding viscosity stabilizers as required).
3) Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others.
4) Sulfur or Sulfuric acid. These are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric
acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor oleum, a byproduct
of sulfur removal from fuels.
5) Bulk tar
6) Asphalt
7) Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel.
8) Paraffin wax
9) Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in
other chemical production
End of the
course!!!!!!