TEXTILE DICTIONARY

The following apparel glossary contains terms that are generic to clothing and the
garment industry and some that are specific to sustainable and organic clothing and
eco-fashion.  We are working to create a reference that explains many terms that you
might encounter when purchasing clothing to help buyers better understand what
they are purchasing.  This is especially important when buying over the Internet
where you have to rely more on descriptions.
Fabric and Fashion Glossary Index
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L |
| M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z |
A
Abaca – A vegetable leaf fiber derived from the Musa textilisplant. It is mainly grown in
the Philippines but is also found, in smaller amounts, in Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia and
Costa Rica. The fiber is obtained from the outer layer of the leaf. Processing occurs
when it is separated mechanically into lengths varying from 3 to 9 feet. Abaca is very
strong and has great luster. It is very resistant to damage from salt water.
Abrasion Resistance - The ability of a fiber or fabric to withstand surface wear and
rubbing.
Absorbency - The ability of a fabric to take in moisture. Absorbency is a very important
property, which effects many other characteristics such as skin comfort, static build-up,
shrinkage, stain removal, water repellency, and wrinkle recovery.
Acetate - A manufactured fiber formed by a compound of cellulose, refined from cotton
linters and/or wood pulp, and acetic acid that has been extruded through a spinneret
and then hardened.
Acrylic - A manufactured fiber derived from polyacrylonitrile. Its major properties
include a soft, wool-like hand, machine washable and dryable, excellent color retention.
Solution-dyed versions have excellent resistance to sunlight and chlorine degradation.
A-line gown - Form fitting bodices that flare out from the waistline to a full skirt.  These
gowns have a seamless waist.
A-line skirt - A skirt that is fitted at the waist and flares out in an A-line or tulip shape at
the hem.
Alpaca - True alpaca is a hair fiber from the Alpaca animal, a member of the Ilama
family of the South American Andes Mountains. Alpaca is imitated in wool, wool and
alpaca blends, rayon, mohair and rayon or cotton blends, and in synthetics fabrics. 
Alpaca is fine, silk-like, soft, light weight and warm. It is very rich and silky with
considerable luster and resembles mohair. If guard hairs are used, it is inclined to be
"boardy".  It is strong and durable. True alpaca is expensive and is often blended with
other fibers or imitated by synthetic fibers. Alpaca is found in white, black, fawn or gray.
The fibers are less coarse than those of the llama but are higher in tensile strength. 
Alpaca is most commonly used in fabrics made into sweaters, dresses, coats, and
bedding batting.
Alpaca (Organic) - Free range roaming, pasture rotation, distribution of the Alpaca’s
manure as fertilizer, fed no hormones, no chemical dipping for ticks and parasites, no
chemicals ingredients are permitted on the land or animals. Finer than cashmere,
smoother than silk, softer than cotton, stronger than mohair, warmer than goose down
and synthetic fabrics, and breathes better than thermal knits.  The fibers do not have
lanolin or other oils.  Luxuriously soft on your skin.  Hypoallergenic and naturally fire
resistant and dust mite resistant.

Alpaca (Undyed) - The Natural Alpaca fiber comes in the whitest white, to the most
intense black, including around twenty brown and gray tones. Therefore, undyed color
combinations are very plentiful. By using undyed Natural Alpaca a step is made to
decrease the amount of chemical runoff into the world’s water tables.
Angora - The hair of the Angora goat or the Angora rabbit. The clipped fiber from a
living animal is also known as Angora mohair.  Scoured mohair appears smooth and
white. It varies in fineness and is highly resilient, very strong and has high luster. Its
value is determined by its luster and not its softness.  The Angora rabbit is indigenous to
Asia Minor and Turkey. It is often blended and mixed with wool to lower the price of the
finished.  Angora rabbit hair is long, very fine, light weight, extremely warm and fluffy. It
has a tendency to shed and mat with time. According to the U.S. Federal Trade
Commission, any apparel containing Angora rabbit hair must be labeled as "Angora
rabbit hair" on the garment.
Appliqué - A cutout surface decoration that is sewn or embroidered to a larger piece of
material.
Armure - Cotton, silk, wool, rayon, synthetics, and blends.  The weave can be plain,
twill, or rib, background often has a small design either jacquard or dobby made with
warp floats on surface giving a raised effect.  Design is often in two colors and raised.
The name was derived from original fabric which was woven with a small interlaced
design of chain armor and used for military equipment during the Crusades.  Often used
in elegant evening gowns, draperies, or upholstery.
Art Linen – A linen woven with even threads that are especially good for embroidery. It
is very easy to "draw" the yarns for drawn thread work. Comes bleached, or colored.
Has a soft finish.  Has been use for needlework.
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B
Back Coating - Fabric treated with sizing on the back only to give added weight,
strength and opacity.
Back Drape - A length of material attached either at the shoulder or the waist that flows
over the back to floor length.  In some cases it is removable.
Back yoke - A fitted or shaped piece at the top of a skirt or at the shoulder of various
garments.
Ball Gown - Characterized by a very full skirt that begins at the waist and continues to a
formal length.  The skirt waist is seamed and can be of various styles.
Ballerina Neckline - This is a low neckline that usually occurs with strapless or
spaghetti strapped dresses.
Bamboo - A natural, renewable resource that can be made into fabrics.  Bamboo grows
very quickly and does not require fertilizers or pesticides.
Barathea – A broken ribbed weave from silk, rayon or acetate.  The fabric has granular
texture achieved by the short broken ribs in the filling direction. It is a rich soft-looking,
fine fabric.
Basket Weave - A variation of the plain weave construction, formed by treating two or
more warp yarns and/or two or more filling yarns as one unit in the weaving process.
Yarns in a basket weave are laid into the woven construction flat, and maintain a
parallel relationship. Both balanced and unbalanced basket weave fabrics can be
produced. Examples of basket weave construction includes monk cloth and oxford
cloth.
Basque waist / V-waist - This dropped waist starts at or just below the natural waistline
and dips in the center creating a "V" shape.
Bast Fiber - Strong, soft, woody fibers, such as flax, jute, hemp, and ramie, which are
obtained from the inner bark in the stems of certain plants.
Bateau Neck / Boat Neck - A high, wide, straight neckline that runs straight across the
front and back, meeting at the shoulders with the same depth in the front and back.
Batiste – A medium-weight, plain weave fabric. Generally made from cotton, but can
also be made from rayon and wool.   Named after Jean Baptiste, a French linen weaver.
Light weight, soft, semi-sheer fabric which resembles nainsook, but finer. It belongs to
the lawn family; almost transparent. It is made of tightly twisted, combed yarns and
mercerized finish. Sometimes it is printed or embroidered. In a heavier weight, it is used
for foundation garments and linings in a plain, figured, striped, or flowered design.
Considered similar to nainsook but finer and lighter in weight. Now usually made of
100% polyester distinguished by slubs in filling direction.
Bayadere – Silk in a crosswise rib (plain or twill weave).  Has brightly colored stripes in
the filling direction. Often black warp. The color effects are usually startling or bizarre.
Mostly produced in India. Name derived from the Bajadere dancing girl of India,
dedicated from birth to a dancing life. The Bayadere costume includes the striped
garment, a flimsy scarf or shawl, jeweled trousers, spangles, sequins, anklets. Used in
blouses, dresses, and evening wear.
Beaded - This refers to any style of fabric that has beads embroidered into the design.
Beading can be done at the time the lace is made or can be re-embroidered after the
lace is made.
Bengaline - A fabric with a crosswise rib and warp faced made from silk, wool, rayon,
synthetics and cotton, often in combination.  Bengaline was first made of silk in Bengal,
India. Ribs are round and raised. Often has wool or cotton dilling in the ribs which
doesn't show.  It is difficult to make bound buttonholes in it. Has a tendency to slip at the
seams if too tightly fitted. Grosgrain and Petersham is bengaline cut to ribbon widths.
Besom Pockets - A pocket sewn inside the garment with access through a welted slit-
type opening.
Bias Cut - Cut diagonally across the grain of a fabric.  Used to create garments that
follow the body curves closely.  A bias cut is any direction in the fabric which does not
exactly flow in the direction of the weft yarn (vertical yarns) or warp yarns (horizontal
yarns) of a fabric.  A true bias makes an angle of 45 degrees across the length and
width of a fabric.  Fabric cut on a bias has maximum stretch.
Bike Tards - A close-fitting, one-piece garment from the top of the torso to be hem of
the shorts.
Birdseye - Cotton and Linen or blend of rayon staple and cotton, usually in a dobby
weave with a smooth, clear finish and small diamond-shaped figures with a dot in the
center of each.  The pattern suggests the eye of a bird.  It is very soft, light-weight, and
absorbent.  Birdseye is woven with a loosely twisted filling to increase absorbency and
launders well. No starch is applied because the absorption properties must be of the
best. Material must be free from any foreign matter. It is also called "diaper cloth" and is
used for that purpose as well as very good toweling. Often used as a summer dress
fabric. 
Blanket Stitch - A closely spaced stitch that forms a line of closely spaced loops at the
edge. It is used in embroidery for purely decorative purposes.
Blazer - A long-sleeved sports jacket with labels.
Bleaching - Necessary process to remove the natural and artificial impurities in fabrics
to obtain clear whites for even dyeing and printing.  Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide is
the most environmentally friendly way to whiten fabrics.  Hydrogen peroxide can help
produce a white fabric but not a bright white fabric.
Blend - A term applied to a yarn or a fabric that is made up of more than one fiber. In
blended yarns, two or more different types of staple fibers are twisted or spun together
to form the yarn. Examples of a typical blended yarn or fabric is polyester/cotton.
Bolero Jacket - A loose, waist-length jacket open at the front.
Boot-Cut - Cut below the belly button and slightly flares from the knee to the ankle.
Boucle - A knit or woven fabric made from a rough, curly, knotted boucle yarn. The
fabric has a looped, knotted surface and is often used in sportswear and coats.  Made
from wool, but also in rayon, silk, cotton, linen, blends, and some hair fibers.  The name
is French for "buckled" or "ringed". A drawn out or ringed, looped yarn is used to give it
a kinky appearance at intervals.   Boucle yarns are usually in both the filling and the
warp. The fabrics are usually springy to handle on account of the highly twisted yarns
used to achieve the boucle effect. Often ravels easily.
Bourdon Stitching - A close, narrow row of decorative raised stitching such as a
monogram, finished edge or accent.
Box-pleated - Two folds of fabric brought together to form a pleat.
Broadcloth – Can be manufactured from cotton and silk, and rayon which are very
different than wool broadcloth.  A plain weave tightly woven fabric, characterized by a
slight ridge effect in one direction, usually the filling. Most cotton broadcloths are made
with a very fine crosswise rib weave.  In cotton it is made from either carded or combed
yarns. The filling is heavier and has less twist. It is finer than poplin when made with a
crosswise rib and it is lustrous and soft with a good texture. Thread count ranges from
high quality 144 x 6 count down to 80 x 60. Has a smooth finish. May be bleached,
dyed, or printed; also is often mercerized. Broadcloth tends to wear very well.  If it is not
of a high quality or treated it wrinkles very badly. The finest quality is made from
Egyptian or combed pima cotton - also sea island.  Uses include shirts, dresses,
particularly the tailored type in plain colors, blouses, summer wear of all kinds.
Brocade - A heavy, exquisite, jacquard-type fabric with an all-over raised pattern or
floral design, generally made from silk, rayon, and cotton in a Jacquard and dobby
weave..  Cotton brocade often has the ground of cotton and the pattern of rayon and
silk. Pattern is in low relief.  Rich, heavy, elaborate design effect. Sometimes with
colored or metallic threads making the design usually against a satin weave
background. This makes the figures stand out.  The figures in brocade are rather loose,
while in damask the figure threads are actually bound into the material. The pattern may
be satin on a twill ground or twill on a satin ground and is often reversible. The motifs
may be of flowers, foliage, scrollwork, pastoral scenes, or other designs. The price
range is wide.  Brocade is believed to come from the Latin name "brocade" which
means to figure.   It is used in all types of evening wear, church vestments, interior
furnishings, and state robes. 
Brocatelle - Originally supposed to be an imitation of Italian tooled leather.  Brocatelle,
made from silk, rayon, cotton, and synthetics, has a satin or twill pattern on plain or
satin ground.  It has a Jacquard weave on double or backed cloth.  It is recognized by a
smooth raised figure of warp-effect, usually in a satin weave construction, on a filling
effect background. True brocatelle is a double weave made of silk and linen warp and a
silk and linen filling. Present-day materials may have changed from the 13th and
14th century fabrics, but they still have the embossed figure in the tight, compact woven
warp-effect. While brocatelle is sometimes classed as a flat fabric, it shows patterns
which stand out in "high relief" in a sort of blistered effect.
Broomstick - A skirt or dress that is characterized by numerous pleats and crinkled
material.
Buckram – Made from cotton, linen, and synthetics in a plain, cheap, low-textured,
loose weave that is heavily sized and stiff.  Also, two fabrics are glued together.   One is
an open weave and the other much finer.  Buckram is also made in linen in a single
fabric.  Buckram is also called crinoline book muslin or book binding.  Named from
Bokhara in Southern Russia, where it was first made. It softens with heat and can be
shaped while warm
Burn-out - A brocade-like pattern effect created on the fabric through the application of
a chemical, instead of color, during the burn-out printing process. (Sulfuric acid, mixed
into a colorless print paste, is the most common chemical used.) Many simulated eyelet
effects can be created using this method. In these instances, the chemical destroys the
fiber and creates a hole in the fabric in a specific design, where the chemical comes in
contact with the fabric. The fabric is then over-printed with a simulated embroidery stitch
to create the eyelet effect. However, burn-out effects can also be created on velvets
made of blended fibers, in which the ground fabric is of one fiber like a polyester, and
the pile may be of a cellulosic fiber like rayon or acetate. In this case, when the
chemical is printed in a certain pattern, it destroys the pile in those areas where the
chemical comes in contact with the fabric, but leave the ground fabric unharmed.
Butcher Linen – Plain weave.  It was originally made with linen but is now created with
cotton or manufactured fibers. It launders well, sheds dirt, and is exceptionally durable.
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C
Calendering - A process for finishing fabrics in which such special effects as high
luster, glazing, embossing, and moiré are produced.
Calico – Cotton fabric with a low-count, plain weave.  It originated in Calcutta, India,
and is one of the oldest cottons.   Calico is rather coarse and light in weight.  The
pattern is printed on one side by discharge or resist printing so it generally isn’t color
fast.  It is often sized for crispness but washes out and requires starch each time.
Designs are often geometric in shape, but originally elaborate designs of birds, trees,
and flowers.  Calico is usually inexpensive and similar to percale.  Very little true calico
is on the market to-day, but the designs are still in use on other fabrics and sold as
"calico print". 
Cambric - A fine, thin, white linen or cotton fabric that is soft, closely woven, and light
and has been treated to give it a slight gloss.  It is either bleached or piece dyed and is
highly mercerized and lint free. It is calendered on the right side with a slight gloss.
Lower qualities have a smooth bright finish. It is similar to batiste but is stiffer and with
fewer slubs.   Cambric launders very well, has good body, and sews and finishes well. 
It was originally made in Cambria, France of linen and used for Church embroidery,
table linens, handkerchiefs, underwear, slips, nightgowns, children's dresses, aprons,
shirts and blouses. Normally used for pillow and duvet shells.
Camisole - A short, sleeveless garment for women.
Camocas – Another largely historic fabric that was popular in the 14th and 15th
centuries. It was a very beautiful fabric which was often stripped with gold or silver. It
had a satin base and was diapered like fine linen.
Camp Pockets - Pockets that are sewn to the outside of the garment, usually squared
off and characterized by seaming.
Candlewick Fabric - Made from cotton and sometimes wool.  An unbleached muslin
bed sheeting (also called Kraft muslin) used as a base fabric on which a chenille effect
is formed by application of candlewick (heavy plied yarn) loops, which are then cut to
give the fuzzy effect and cut yarn appearance of true chenille yarn.  True chenille is a
cotton, wool, silk, or rayon yarn which has a pile protruding all around at slight angles
and stimulates a caterpillar. Chenille is the French word for caterpillar.  Used in
bedspreads, drapes, housecoats, beach wear.
Canton Flannel – made from cotton with a four harness warp-faced twill weave.  The
filling yarn is a very loosely twisted and soft and later brushed to produce a soft nap on
the back, the warp is medium in size. The face is twill and the fabric is heavy, warm,
strong and absorbent. Named for Canton, China where it was first made. Comes
bleached, unbleached, dyed, and some is printed.  Used in interlinings, sleeping
garments, linings, coverings, work gloves.
Canvas - A strong, durable, closely woven cotton fabric.
Cap Sleeve - A small, short sleeve which sits on the shoulder, either forming a stiff cap
or falling on to the arm to provide minimal coverage.
Capri Pants - Fairly straight-cut pants, tapered to the mid-calf.
Cardigan Jacket - A usually collarless sweater or jacket that opens the full length of the
center front.
Carding - A process of cleaning fibers by separating and laying them parallel to each
other.
Cargo - Characterized by sporting a large pocket usually with a flap and a pleat.
Carpenter pants / shorts - Five-pocket pants characterized by a "hammer holder," a
stretch of material connecting the outside seam to the back pocket.
Cashmere (Kashmir) - A luxury fiber obtained from the soft, fleecy undergrowth of the
Kashmir goat of Tibet, Mongolia, China, Iran, Iraq, and India.  Most commonly used in
sweaters, shawls, suits, coats, and dresses.  The fiber is cylindrical, soft and silken and
is more like wool than any other hair fiber. Has a very soft silky finish and is very light in
weight. It doesn't stand up to hard wear because of its extremely soft downy finish. The
natural fiber is white, black, brown or gray but can be died a variety of shades. It comes
in different weights.
Cathedral Train - Also known as a monarch train.  A cascading train extending six to
eight feet behind the gown.  Often used on wedding dresses.
Cellulose - A material derived from the cell walls of certain plants such as hemp, flax,
bamboo and also trees.  Cellulose is used in the production of many vegetable fibers,
as well as being the major raw material component used in the production of the
manufactured fibers of acetate, rayon, triacetate, and lyocell.
Chambray - A plain woven fabric that can be made from cotton, silk, or manufactured
fibers, but is most commonly cotton. It incorporates a colored warp (often blue) and
white filling yarns.   Typically has a plain weave or dobby designs on a plain-weave
ground and is made with a dyed warp and a white or unbleached filling.  Both carded
and combed yarns used. Has a white selvedge. Some chambray is woven with
alternating white and colored warp.  Naturally has a "faded" look and very soft coloring. 
Some is made with stripes, checks or embroidered. Smooth, strong, closely woven, soft
and has a slight luster.  It wears well, is easy to sew, and launders well. It wrinkles
easily.  Chambray riginated in Cobrai, France, where it was first made for sunbonnets
and is used for children's wear, dresses, shirts and blouses, aprons, all kinds of
sportswear.
Chamois Cloth – A plain woven cotton fabric that is napped, sheared, and dyed to
simulate chamois leather. It is stiffer than kasha and thicker, softer and more durable
than flannelette. Must be designated as "cotton chamoise-color cloth".
Chamoisette – A fine, firmly knit fabric made from cotton and sometimes rayon and
nylon in a knitted, double knit construction.  It has a very short soft nap and wears well.
Nylon chamoisette is more often called "glove silk" and often used in gloves.
Chantilly lace - This lace has a net background, and the pattern is created by
embroidering with thread and ribbon to create floral designs. The pattern has areas of
design that are very dense, and the pattern is often outlined with heavier cords or
threads.
Chapel Train - The most popular of all train lengths.  It flows from three to four feet
behind the gown.
Charmeuse - A lightweight, drapey fabric with is woven with a satin weave where the
warp threads cross over three or more of the backing weft threads.  This causes the
front side to have a shiny, satiny finish and the back side to be more dull.  Finer quality
charmeuse is made of silk and rayon or polyester are used in lesser quality charmeuse.
Originated as a French lightweight silk that was recognized for it's supreme luster and
drapability. It is found in a variety of solids and prints.
Cheesecloth – Plain woven cotton fabric originally used as a wrapping material for
pressing cheese. It is loosely woven, thin, light in weight, open in construction, and soft.
Carded yarns are always used. It is also called gauze weave.  When an applied finish is
added, it is called buckram, crinoline, or bunting.
Chemise / Skimmer - Simply a straight unbelted dress with varying sleeves and length.
Chenille - Soft, fuzzy yarns stand out around a velvety cord on this fabric, whose name
comes from the French word for caterpillar and the fabric looks "hairy."   Generally
made from cotton but can also be made from other fibrics.  Filling of chenille yarns (has
a pile protruding all around at right angles). Do not confuse with tufted effects obtained
without the use of true Chenille filling.
Cheviot – Originally made of wool in a twill weave from the Cheviot sheep but now it is
also made of blends, spun synthetics, crossbred and reused wools.  It is very rugged
with a harsh, uneven surface that does not hold a crease and sags with wear. It
resembles serge but is much more rugged and coarse and will not shine because of the
rough surface.  Cheviot is often sold as a homespun but true homespun has a plain
weave and very heavy.  Cheviot is also sold as a tweed.
Chinchilla – Usually made from wool but can also be made in cotton, and some
manmade and synthetics.  It has a sateen or twill construction with extra fillings for long
floats.  Thankfully, it does not resemble true chinchilla fur but has small nubs on the
surface of the fabric which are made by the chinchilla machine. It attacks the face and
causes the long floats to be worked into nubs and balls. Cotton warp is often used
because it cannot show from either side.  Chinchilla takes its name from Chinchilla
Spain where it was invented,
Chiffon - A plain, woven, lightweight, extremely sheer, transparent, airy, and soft silk
fabric, containing very fine, highly twisted filament yarns. The fabric, used mainly in
evening dresses and scarves, can also be made from rayon and other manufactured
fibers.  The tightly twisted yarns could be either in the filling or the warp or both. It is
very strong, despite filmy look. Wears very well. It is very difficult to handle when sewing
and it is best to baste the pieces over tissue to make it easier. It has slightly bumpy
look. It is best suited to shirring, draping, gathering, tucking, etc., because it is so limp. 
Chiffon is French for "rag".
China Silk - Originally hand woven in China of silk from the Bonabyx mori.  China silk is
very soft and extremely lightweight but fairly strong. Irregularities of threads caused by
the extreme lightness and softness are characteristic of the fabric.
Chinchilla – A cotton, wool, and even synthetic fabric of a sateen or twill construction
with extra fillings for long floats.  Thankfully, it does not resemble true chinchilla fur. It
has small nubs on the surface of the fabric which are made by the chinchilla machine. It
attacks the face and causes the long floats to be worked into nubs and balls. Cotton
warp is often used because it cannot show from either side. It is made in medium and
heavy weights and is a very warm and cozy fabric. It takes its name from Chinchilla
Spain where it was invented.
Chino – A cotton fabric of a left-handed twill.  Combined two-ply warp and filling. Has a
sheen that remains. Fabric was purchased in China (thus the name) by the U.S. Army
for uniforms. Originally used for army cloth in England many years before and dyed
olive-drab. Fabric is mercerized and sanforized. Washes and wears extremely well with
a minimum of care.  Now you know the history of the popular chino slacks.
Chintz - A usually glazed printed cotton fabric with bright figures, large flower designs,
birds and other designs. It also comes in plain colors. Chintz can use several types of
glaze. This glazed cotton is often printed with figures and large flower designs. The wax
and starch glaze produced by friction or glazing calendars will wash out. The resin glaze
finish will not wash out and withstand dry cleaning. Also comes semi-glazed. Unglazed
chintz is called cretonne.  It is named after the Indian word "Chint" meaning "broad,
gaudily printed fabric". Used widely in upholstery fabric.
Chite - Painted linens that originated in Chitta (India) in the 17thcentury.
Column skirt / straight skirt - Also referred to as a pencil skirt, this skirt is a straight
line with no flare or fullness at the hem or waistline.
Combing - A process for removing short fibers. The process enables cotton to be spun
into very fine, lustrous yarns for high quality fabrics.
Comfort Stretch - The term given to the freedom of movement experienced in the
wearing of a garment that contains spandex, or has stretch engineered into a yarn
through mechanical stretch construction.
Composite Fabric – In performance garments, an engineered fabric made from two or
more components. One component is often a strong fiber such as fiberglass, Kevlar®,
or carbon fiber that gives the material its tensile strength, while another component
(often called a matrix) is often a resin, such as polyester or epoxy that binds the fibers
together.
Compression Fabric – In performance garments, high tenacity stretch fabric which,
when in a close fitting garment, provides muscles with a firm compression fit that
lessons vibrations, reduces fatigue, and keeps muscles energized. The fabric is usually
made in a knit construction, using a series of gradient fibers with an open knit inner
surface to create a moisture transfer environment.
Compression Stretch - The name given to the expansive stretch that is created by the
spandex fibers used in the development of a compression fabric for performance
garments.
Convertible Collar - A rolled collar that can be worn open or closed.  Sewn directly to
the neckline.
Cool Colors  Blue, violet and green are cool or light colors.  They are reducing in
nature, as seen by the eye they move away from the object thereby increasing its size. 
Cool colors have a calm and restful effect.
Corduroy – Typically made of cotton but can be made of rayon and other textiles.  It
has a filling pile with a plain or twill back and is made with an extra filling yarn. Corduroy
is in the velvet family of fabrics and it has narrow medium and wide wales, also thick
and thin or checkerboard patterns. Wales have different widths and depths. Corduroy
has to be cut all one way with pile running up. Most of it is washable, wears very well,
and has a soft luster.
Corset top / boned bodice - a form-fitting, usually strapless bodice with boning and
either laces or snap closures, styled in the fashion of the ladies undergarment of the
same name.
Cotton - A unicellular, natural fiber that grows in the seed pod of the cotton plant. Fibers
are typically 1/2 inch to 2 inches long. The longest staple fibers, longer than 1-1/2 inch,
including the Pima and Egyptian varieties, produce the highest quality cotton fabrics.  It
is one of the world's major textile fibers.  There are four main types of cotton: American
Upland, Egyptian, Sea Island and Asiatic. The flowers from which these different types
of cotton are obtained vary in color and texture, thus providing each type of cotton with
varying characteristics. Cotton, in general, is very elastic. It can withstand high
temperatures, is very washable and is very susceptible to dyes.
Cotton (Color grown) - Cotton plants that are specifically bred to take advantage of
their natural coloring in shades of white, brown and green.  Fabrics are then created
that use the natural coloring and are completely free of dyes.  Color grown cotton can
be grown in beautiful natural colors such as honey, sage, and mocha.  Ancient Indians
in South America were known to have used color grown cotton. In the past decade,
these color grown cotton fibers have become available once again for apparel
manufacturing.  With the limitations of lower yields and shorter, weaker fibers, color-
grown cotton varieties have had to go through an extensive breeding program to
improve their yield, fiber quality, color intensity and color palette.  Color grown fabrics
may contain certain natural variations in color, light fastness and shrinkage.

Cotton (Green) - A marketing term referring to cotton that is unbleached and undyed
but grown using toxic pesticides. Green cotton has not been subjected to the harsh,
toxic chemicals used during the processing period.  Because green cotton has been
grown using toxic insecticides, herbicides and fertilizers, it is still a contributor to the
environmental damage and the damage done to the health of the farm workers and
those that live in the nearby areas.

Cotton (Organic) - Cotton grown without any harmful pesticides, herbicides or artificial
fertilizers using biologically based and sustainable growing methods such as crop
rotation rather than with highly synthetic and destructive fertilizers.  Organic cotton is
grown using biologically based growing methods rather than toxic synthetic fertilizers,
soil additives or defoliants. It is also free of formaldehyde finishes. Organic Cotton
wears well and is extremely breathable, unlike synthetics that pill, emit static electricity,
prematurely age, and trap perspiration. Cotton is commonly portrayed as natural, yet
conventional cotton is cultivated in a highly toxic process, which contaminates
groundwater and ultimately drinking water and poisons the food chain. While it takes
approximately one pound of chemicals to grow three pounds of conventional cotton,
organic cotton is grown chemical free.
Cottagora - An extremely soft and environmentally sound material made from a
combination of Angora rabbit hair and organic cotton. Unlike traditional Angora,
cottagora can be machine washed and dried. It is also the warmest natural fiber
available and more durable than any other elite wool. This is because the Angora rabbit
itself has three to four times as many hairs per weight unit as sheep's wool. Cottagora is
also a breathable fabric, allowing the body to maintain its natural temperature. It is ideal
for travel, as it is both versatile and wrinkle free.
Cowl Neck - A neckline featuring a piece of material attached to a garment at the neck,
which may be used as a hood or draped loosely in a swag from shoulder to shoulder at
the front neckline or back.
Crash – A linen that is very rugged and substantial in feel. Comes in white or natural
shades or could be dyed, printed, striped, or checked. The yarn is strong, irregular in
diameter but smooth. Has a fairly good texture.
Crepe - Used to describe all kinds of fabrics--wool, cotton, silk, rayon, synthetics and
blends-that have a crinkle, crimped or grained surface.  Made from worsted cotton,
wool, silk, man-made synthetics.  Has a crinkled, puckered surface or soft mossy finish.
All crepes have a pebbled, rough feel and appearance due to the yarns having a high
twist in the filling or the warp or both. Crepe comes in different weights and degrees of
sheerness. Dull with a harsh dry feel. Woolen crepes are softer than worsted. If it is fine,
it drapes well.  Crepe has very good wearing qualities and a slimming effect in
garments.  Most crepes launder well with care.
Crepe back satin - A satin fabric in which highly-twisted yarns are used in the filling
direction. The floating yarns are made with low twist and may be of either high or low
luster. If the crepe effect is the right side of the fabric, the fabric is called satin-back
crepe.  Satin weave on the face and a crepe effect on the back obtained with twisted
crepe yarns in the filling - 2 or 3 times as many ends as picks per inch. It is a soft fabric
which is reversible. It is usually piece dyed. Very interesting effects can be obtained in a
garment by using both sides in different parts of the garment, such as using the crepe
side for the body and trim or binding with the satin part up.
Crepe de Chine - Silk warp and crepe twist silk filling with more ends than picks per
inch. Has a soft hand, considerable luster, launders well, and is fairly sheer.  Made of
raw silk or rayon, it is easy to manipulate and handle and very long wearing.  Could be
piece dyed or printed. Has a slight rippled texture. Heavy crepe de chine is called
"Canton crepe" which is slightly ribbed and now mostly made in rayon.
Crepe (Georgette Crepe) - Lightweight, sheer fabric that is more stiff and with body
giving an exellent wear. Has a dull, crinkled surface achieved by alternating S and Z
yarns in a high twist in both warp and filling directions. Georgette has a harder, duller,
more crinkled feel and appearance than crepe de chine.
Crepe (Flat Crepe) - Also called French Crepe or Lingerie Crepe but not exactly the
same. It is the flattest of all the crepes with only a very slight pebbled or crepe effect
hard twist alternating 25 x 22 in filling; warp has ordinary twist. It is very soft and pliable,
which makes it good for draping. It is very light weight - 2 times as many ends as picks.
Most of it launders well and is often used in accessories, blouses, dress goods,
negligees, pajamas and other pieces of lingerie and linings.
Crepe (Moss Crepe or Sand Crepe) - Has a fine moss effect created by plain weave
or small Dobby. Made with a spun-rayon warp and a filament rayon filling. The two-ply
warp yarn is very coarse and bulkier than the filling. Mostly made in rayon and
synthetics but some in silk.
Crepon - Crepe effect appears in direction of the warp and achieved by alternate S and
Z, or slack, tension, or different degrees of twist.  Originally a wool crepe but now made
of silk and rayon. It is much stouter and more rugged than the average crepe. Has a
wavy texture with the "waves" running in a lengthwise direction. Mostly used for prints in
dresses and ensembles.
Crettone – Made from cotton, linen, rayon in a plain or twill weave.  Quality and price
vary a great deal. The warp counts are finer than the filling counts which are spun rather
loose. Strong substantial and gives good wear. Printed cretonne often has very bright
colors and patterns. The fabric has no luster (when glazed, it is called chintz). Some are
warp printed and if they are, they are usually completely reversible. Designs run from
the conservative to very wild and often completely cover the surface.
Crew Neck - A round neck with ribbed banding that fits close to the base of the neck.
Crinkled - Forming many short bends or ripples.
Crinoline - A very loosely woven fiber with high rigidity. It is smooth, stiff, and has
excellent strength. It's comes in a variety of shades from white to black.
Crocheted - Loose, open knit made by looping thread with a hooked needle. Used for
light, summer sweaters.
Cropped top / jacket - Hem is cut just above the waist.
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D
Damask - Made from linen, silk, rayon, cotton, synthetics, wool, worsteds and is woven
on a Jacquard loom that has an alternating satin and matte texure.  Originally made of
silk, that came to us from China via Damascus. In the XIII Century, Marco Polo gave an
interesting tale about it. It is one of the oldest and most popular cloths to be found
today. Very elaborate designs are possible. Cloth is beetled, calendared and the better
qualities are gross-bleached.  It is very durable, reversible fabric that sheds dirt.  In
Damask fabric, the firmer the texture, the better the quality.  It launders well and holds a
high luster - particularly in linen.  The quality of Damask depends on the yarn used and
the thread count. - If the same quality and thread count are used, single is better than
double because the shorter floats are more serviceable and the yarns hold more firmly.
Double damask with less than 180 thread count is inappropriate for clothing. 
LotusOrganics.com has some excellent pajamas made from Damask manufactured by
Fisher-Henney.
Denier - A system of measuring the weight of a continuous filament fiber. In the United
States, this measurement is used to number all manufactured fibers (both filament and
staple), and silk, but excludes glass fiber. The lower the number, the finer the fiber; the
higher the number, the heavier the fiber. Numerically, a denier is the equivalent to the
weight in grams of 9,000 meters of continuous filament fiber.
Denim - True denim is a twill-weave, cotton-like fabric made with different colored yarns
in the warp and the weft. Due to the twill construction, one color predominates on the
fabric surface.  Name derived from French "serge de Nimes".  Long wearing, it resists
snags and tears. Comes in heavy and lighter weights.
Diamond Neck - A diamond-shaped cutout that fastens at the front or back neckline.
Dimity – Cotton fabric made of combed yarn that comes in a plain weave with a
crosswise or lengthwise spaced rib or crossbar effect. A thin sheer with corded spaced
stripes that could be single, double or triple grouping.  Has a crisp texture which
remains fairly well after washing.  It is easy to sew and manipulate and launders well. 
Dimity will crease unless treated to become crease-resistant. May be bleached, dyed, or
printed and often printed with a small rose-bud design. It is mercerized and has a soft
luster.
Dobby - Woven on a dobby loom, this fabric can be made with a dot or geometric
design. A decorative weave, characterized by small figures, usually geometric, that are
woven into the fabric structure. Dobbies may be of any weight or compactness, with
yarns ranging from very fine to coarse and fluffy. Standard dobby fabrics are usually flat
and relatively fine or sheer. However, some heavyweight dobby fabrics are available for
home furnishings and for heavy apparel.
Doeskin – Made from wool and also rayon in a harness satin weave or a twill weave
that is napped on one side.  Doeskin has a very smooth, lustrous surface made with a
slight short nap and compact weave to look like fine leather.  The weave is not visible
because of napping.  Very high quality wool is used.  Doeskin needs care in handling.
Generally applied to a type of fabric finish in which a low nap is brushed in one direction
to create a soft suede-like hand on the fabric surface. End-uses include billiard table
surfaces and men's' sportswear.
Dolman Sleeve - Cut as an extension of the bodice, the dolman sleeve is designed
without a socket for the shoulder, creating a deep, wide armhole that reaches from the
waist to a narrowed wrist.  Also called a batwing sleeve.
Domett Flannel – A cotton fabric in a plain or twill.  Can also be spelled domet.
Generally made in white. Has a longer nap than on flannelette. Soft filling yarns of
medium or light weight are used to obtain the nap. The term domett is interchangeable
with "outing flannel" but it is only made in a plain weave. Both are soft and fleecy and
won't irritate the skin. Any sizing or starching must be removed before using. Outing
flannel is also piece-dyed and some printed and produced in a spun rayon also.
Donegal Tweed – A medium to heavy of plain or twill weave fabric in which colorful
yarn slubs are woven into the fabric. Made from wool but can also be made from rayons
and cottons.  It is mostly made from a plain weave but can also be made in twill. 
Donegal was originally a homespun woven by the peasants in Donegal, Ireland and is a
rough and ready fabric that stands much hard wear. End-uses include winter coats and
suits. Yarns are coarse with thick slubs and colored nubs. Now made in other places as
well - particularly England.
Dotted Swiss – A lightweight, sheer cotton or cotton blend fabric with a plain weave
with a small dot flock-like pattern either printed on the surface of the fabric, or woven
into the fabric. Dots could be a single color or multicolored. Placed regularly or
irregularly on a semi-sheer usually crisp fabric which may or may not be permanent.
First made on hand looms in Switzerland and some still is. It is made in 32" widths. The
lappet is the most permanent. When hand woven with a swivel attachment the dots are
tied in by hand on the back of the cloth. End-uses for this fabric include blouses,
dresses, baby clothes, and curtains.
Double-Breasted - Having one-half of the front lapped over the other.  Usually has a
double row of buttons and a single row of buttonholes.
Double Cloth - A fabric construction, in which two fabrics are woven on the loom at the
same time, one on top of the other. In the weaving process, the two layers of woven
fabric are held together using binder threads. The woven patterns in each layer of fabric
can be similar or completely different.
Doubleknit - A woven fabric construction made by interlacing two or more sets of warp
yarns with two or more sets of filling yarns. A weft knit fabric in which two layers of loops
are formed that cannot be separated. Made from cotton, wool, worsted, silk, rayon, and
synthetics with a circular or flat-needle bar type.  A two faced cloth, either face may be
utilized as the right side. The fabric originated in Milan and Florence. Can be stabilized
for shrinkage control and dry cleans satisfactorily. A double knit machine, which has two
complete sets of needles, is required for this construction.
Double-Tee Top - A layered look with one T-shirt over another.
Double Weave - The most common double weave fabrics are made using a total of
either four or five sets of yarns.
Doupion, Douppioni - Silk yarns made from the cocoon of two ilk worms that have
nested together. In spinning, the double strand is not separated so the yarn is uneven
and irregular with a large diameter in places.  The fabric is of silk made in a plain weave
but is very.  It is imitated in rayon and some synthetics, and one such fabric is called
"Cupioni". Dupion yarns also used in shantung, pongee. It tailors very well.
Draped Bodice - An extra piece of material is draped over the bustline.

Drill – Cotton twill. Left-hand twill.   It has closer, flatter wales that ganardine. Medium
weight and course yarns are used. Also made in some other weights. Some left in the
gray but can be bleached or dyed. When dyed a khaki color, drill is also called "khaki".
Dropped Shoulders - Characterized by the shoulder / sleeve seam falling off the
shoulder.
Dropped Waist / Low Waist - A waistline that is sewn below the body's natural
waistline.
Duck - A tightly woven, heavy, plain-weave, bottom-weight fabric with a hard, durable
finish. The fabric is usually made of cotton, and is widely used in men's and women's
slacks, and children's playclothes.
Dupioni - Similar to shantung, this textured fabric is recognized by irregular-sized, thick
fibers woven into the base fabric. Fibers that create the texture, are thicker and heavier
than those used in shantung.
Durability - The ability of a fabric to resist wear through continual use.
Durable Press - A treatment applied to the fabric in the finishing process in which it
maintains a smooth attractive appearance, resists wrinkling, and retains creases or
pleats during laundering.
Duvetyn(e) – A  good quality wool. If it is made in cotton, it is usually called suede
cloth.  Duvetyn has a close satin weave that is brushed, singed, and sheared to conceal
the weave.  It has a smooth plush appearance resembling a compact velvet and is
similar to wool broadcloth but heavier and thicker. Has a good draping quality, soft and
wears well if looked after. Spots easily and care must be taken when handling it. Back is
often slightly napped also. Name derived from the French word "duvet" meaning
"down".
Dyes (Fiber Reactive) -   The molecules of fiber reactive dyes actually react and bond
to the fiber molecules.  These dyes are the best quality and most ecologically sound
synthetic dyes available.  They contain no heavy metals or other known toxic
substances.  The colors are brighter, richer, and exhibit superior colorfast properties. 
Very little residual dye comes out in the waste water.  Significantly more costly than
using conventional direct dyes but the quality and ecological benefits are far superior.
Dyes (Low Impact) - Dyes that are more environmentally friendly than conventional
dyes because they contain no metals, low salt, AZO & dioxazines compound free. 
Called "Low Impact" because they use less water to disperse the dye, so less dye is
used and waste water is carefully filtered to remove as many of the dye particles as
possible. Low impact dyes require significantly less water for the dyeing process so
there is much less polluted runoff than from the conventional dye process.  Organic
cotton and most other fabrics can be successfully colored with all natural or fiber-
reactive low impact dyes. They are the highest quality, most ecologically friendly dyes
available, producing colors that are both richer and brighter than conventional dyeing
practices. These dyes reduce water and electricity consumption and discharge 60%
less toxic runoff into the waste stream. They promote healthy ecosystems by using
fewer resources and less energy while providentially allowing greater adherence of the
dye to the garment. 

Dyes (Natural) - Pigments are derived from organic materials such as vegetables,
berries, bugs, clay, indigo, and other plant extracts to dye fabric.  The weakness of
natural dyes has been that many natural dyes are not color-fast and wash out of the
garments quickly.  Clay dyes are some of the best in retaining their color across
repeated washings.
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E
Eco Fashion - The term has been coined to refer to fashionable and stylish clothing
that has been manufactured using environmentally- friendly processes under Free
Trade conditions.  Eco fashion clothing can use recycled clothing and even recycled
materials such as eco-fleeced produced from recycled  plastic soda bottles.  Eco
fashion is not necessarily made from organic fibers and is not necessarily healthy for
people with chemical sensitivities.
Eco-fleece - A nubby, soft fabric made from recycled soda bottles. Every time you
purchase something from eco-fleece you are contributing to saving another piece of the
earth, which would otherwise be used as landfill.  Of course, you are also wearing
plastic from old soda bottles.
Eco Wool – Sheared from free range roaming sheep that have not been subjected to
toxic flea dipping, and have not been treated with chemicals, dyes, or bleaches.  Eco
wool comes in natural tones of white, grey and black.
Elasticity - The ability of a fiber or fabric to return to its original length, shape, or size
immediately after the removal of stress/tension.
Elastin - A protein that is similar to collagen and is the chief constituent of elastic fibers.
Embossing - A pressure process using engraved rollers and heat application to
produce raised or relief patterns on the surface of the fabric.
Embroidered - An embellishment of a fabric or garment in which colored threads are
sewn into the fabric to create a design. Embroidery may be done either by hand or
machine.
Embroidery - An embellishment of a fabric or garment in which colored threads are
sewn on to the fabric to create a design. Embroidery may be done either by hand or
machine.
Empire Bodice - A bodice that ends just below the bust, sometimes low-cut and
gathered.
Empire Seams - A seam that is sewn directly below the bustline.
Empire Waist - This waistline begins just below the bust.
Eolienne - It's name comes from the term Eolus, which is Greek for God of Winds. This
airy fiber has a low thread count and is very delicate. It is lightweight and is very
lustrous.
Eponge (Souffle) – A fabric of wool, also of rayon and silk.  The name is derived from
the French term eponge for "spongy".  It is a very soft and sponge-like fabric in a variety
of novelty effects with loose weave.  It is also known as ratine in cotton.  The fabric in
rayon and silk is soft, loose, and spongy, something like terry cloth.  It does not have
surface loops.  Many stores now call eponge "boucle".
Etamine – A twill originally made of wool, cotton or linen and used for sifting. It is now a
worsted fabric with a very short nap and light in weight used for clothing.
Eyelet - A style of decorative fabric stitched with small cut out openings. A type of fabric
which contains patterned cut-outs, around which stitching or embroidery may be applied
in order to prevent the fabric from raveling.
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F
Face - The right side or the better-looking side of the fabric.
Facing - A piece of fabric that is sewn to the collar, front opening, cuffs, or arms eye of
a garment to create a finished look.
Faconne - Silk or rayon with a figured weave or "burnt-out" finish.  Faconne in French,
means fancy weave. It has small designs all over the fabric.  Fairly light in weight, and
could be slightly creped.  Background is more sheer than the designs, therefore the
designs seem to stand out.  It is very effective when worn over a different color and it
drapes, handles, and wears well.
Fagotting - an embroidery produced by pulling out horizontal threads from a fabric and
tying the remaining cross threads into groups of an hourglass shape.
Faille - A glossy, soft, finely-ribbed, silk-like woven fabric made from cotton, silk, or
manufactured fibers, especially rayon.  It has a crosswise rib weave and the soft
material drapes well. It is finer than grosgrain and with flatter ribs.  It is difficult to
launder but will give good wear if handled properly. Has a lustrous finish.
Faux fur - Artificial fur made from synthetic material.
Felt – Made from wool, reprocessed wool, reused wool, or scrap fiber, and can be
mixed with other such as fibers, cotton, or rayon.  Felt fabric is not woven but felted.  It
is a very compact fabric in various weights and thicknesses and has grain so can be cut
any way.  Felt needs no hemming or finishing because it does not fray.  It has many
industrial uses such as piano hammers and in the printing industry.
Fiber - The basic entity, either natural or manufactured, which is twisted into yarns, and
then used in the production of a fabric.
Fiberfill - Specially engineered manufactured fibers, which are used as filler material in
pillows, mattresses, mattress pads, sleeping bags, comforters, quilts, and outerwear.
Filament - A manufactured fiber of indefinite length (continuous), extruded from the
spinneret during the fiber production process.
Filling - In a woven fabric, the yarns that run cross the fabric from selvage to selvage,
and which run perpendicular to the warp or lengthwise yarns. Also referred to as the
weft.
Findings - Any extra items attached to a garment during the manufacturing process.
This can include trims, buttons, hooks, snaps, or embellishments.
Finished Fabric - A fabric that has gone through all the necessary finishing processes,
and is ready to be used in the manufacturing of garments.
Fishtail Train - Fitted around the hips and flares out from the knee to the hemline.
Fitted Point Sleeve - A long, narrow sleeve that tapers to a point which rests against
the back of the hand.
Flame Resistant - A term used to describe a fabric that burns very slowly, or has the
ability to self-extinguish upon the removal of an external flame.
Flame Retardant - A chemical applied to a fabric, or incorporated into the fiber at the
time of production, which significantly reduces a fabric's flammability.
Flannel - A warm, soft fabric of wool, worsted, cotton or rayon made in tightly woven
twill or plain weave and finished with a light napping.  Flannel originated in Wales and
has a soft, napped surface that partially cancels the weave.   Has a dull finish and is
made in a variety of weights.  It is more loosely woven than worsted flannel with a
higher nap and bulkier hand.  Flannel shrinks if not pre-shrunk and sags with wear,
unless underlined. Does not shine or hold a crease. Watch pressing - if pressed too
hard, it flattens in the nap. Flannel comes in many colors, weights, and fancy effects.
Sometimes has a prickly feel when worn.
Flannel (Worsted) – It has a twill weave a is made in a variety of weights.  It is more
closely woven and harder than wool flannel and can have a very slight nap on one side. 
It tailors and presses very well and holds a hard crease.
Flannelette - A heavy, soft cotton material with a napped finish, usually only on one
side. In cheaper qualities the nap comes off. Launders well, easy to manipulate and is
warm to wear. There are many types on the market. It may be bleached, dyed, printed,
or woven in colored stripes.
Flax - Flax is taken from the stalk of the Linum usitaatissimum plant. It is a long, smooth
fiber and is cylindrical in shape with a length varying from 6 to 40 inches but averaging
between 15 and 25 inches. The color is usually off-white or tan and due to it's natural
wax content, flax has excellent luster. It is considered to be the strongest of the
vegetable fibers and is highly absorbent, allowing moisture to evaporate with speed. It
conducts heat well and can be readily boiled. It is very washable but has poor elasticity
and does not easily return to its original shape after creasing. When processed into a
fabric it is called linen
Fleece - A soft, bulky, deep-piled knitted or woven fabric of wool or cotton in a plain,
twill, pile or knitted weave.  Fleece has a deep, soft nap or pile obtained by heavily
napping with wire brushes or with a pile weave. This provides air space giving good
insulating properties without too much weight. The inter-lacing space is covered by the
nap. The nap wears out in time, but good quality cloth gives good wear. Range from
cheap to expensive clothes. Material is often cumbersome and bulky, therefore it may
be difficult to manipulate.
Flocking - A type of raised decoration applied to the surface of a fabric in which an
adhesive is printed on the fabric in a specific pattern, and then finely chopped fibers are
applied by means of dusting, air-brushing, or electrostatic charges. The fibers adhere
only to the areas where the adhesive has been applied, and the excess fibers are
removed by mechanical means.
Foil - A thin piece of material put under another material to add color or brilliance.
Foulard – A twill weave in silk, rayon, or very fine, worsted cotton.  A very soft, light
fabric that is noted for its soft finish and feel. It is usually printed with small figures on a
dark or light background and is similar to Surah and Tie Silk, but finer. It was originally
imported from India to be used in dresses, robes, scarves, and neckwear of all kinds.
Frise – Often made from rayon but can also be made from mohair, silk and synthetics.
The ground or backing yarns are usually made of cotton. Sometimes jute or hemp is
combined with the cotton.  It has a pile (looped) weave with uncut loops.  It can be
patterned by shearing the loops at different lengths. Some made with both cut and
uncut loops in the form of a pattern.  Typically used in upholstery,  Frise is also spelled
Frieze but frieze really refers to a rough, fuzzy, rizzy, boardy woolen overcoating fabric
which originated in Friesland Holland. Often used for overcoating material for soldiers.
Irish frieze is quite popular and more reliable and is called "cotha more".
Flat-Front Pants - Straight pants, often seamless and without pockets.
Form-Fitting / Slim Fit - Straight from waist to ankle except for a slight curve around
the hip.
Forte of a garment - The strong point of the garment.
Frey - Threads which come out from the fabric during handling.
Frog Closure - Chinese closing of decorative cording or braid.  A soft ball of cording or
a button is used to complete the closure.
Fustian - Cotton or cotton with linen or flax in a cross woven weave.  It was originally
made in Fustat near Cairo, from which it gets its name.
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G
Gabardine - A tightly woven, twilled, worsted fabric in cotton, rayon or a blend   with
slight diagonal lines on the face and a raised twill.  Wool gabardine is known as a year-
round fabric for business suits and wears extremely well.  It has a clear finish, tightly
woven, firm, durable, rather lustrous, but it can be given a dull finish. Inclined to shine
with wear and is hard to press properly.  Used in men's and women's tailored suits,
coats, raincoats, uniforms, and men's shirts.
Gattar – A satin made with a cotton filling and a silk warp. It is only found in solid colors
and is known for its elegant luster and excellent drapability. It is famous for elegant
evening wraps.
Gauge - A measurement most commonly associated with knitting equipment. It can
mean the number of needles per inch in a knitting machine. However, in full fashioned
hosiery and sweater machines, the number of needles per 1-1/2 inches represents the
gauge.
Gauntlets - Dress gloves extending above the wrist.
Gaucho - Wide-legged pants or divided skirt reaching mid-calf and worn with boots.
Gauze - A thin, sheer plain-weave fabric made from cotton, wool, silk, rayon, or other
manufactured fibers. End-uses include curtains, apparel, trimmings, and surgical
dressings.
Georgette - A sheer lightweight fabric, often made of silk or from such manufactured
fibers as polyester, with a crepe surface. End-uses include dresses and blouses.  It is
characterized by crispness, body and outstanding durability. It is sheer and has a dull
face.
Geotextiles - Manufactured fiber materials made into a variety of fabric constructions,
and used in a variety civil engineering applications.
Gingham – A medium-weight, plain-weave fabric with a plaid or check pattern made
from cotton or synthetics fibers.  The word is derived from Italian "Ging-gang" meaning
"striped".  Medium or fine yarns of varying quality are used to obtain the checks, plaids,
stripes, and plain effects. The cloth is yarn dyed or printed. The warp and the filling are
usually balanced and if checks of two colors, usually same sequence in both the warp
and the filling. It is strong, substantial, and serviceable. It launders well but low textured,
cheap fabric may shrink considerably unless preshrunk. Has a soft, dull luster surface
that wrinkles easily. Tissue or zephyr ginghams are sheer being woven with finer yarns
and a higher thread count.
Glass Fiber - An inorganic fiber which is very strong, but has poor flexibility and poor
abrasion resistance. Glass will not burn and will not conduct electricity. It is impervious
to insects, mildew, and sunlight. Today, the primary use of glass fiber is in such
industrial applications as insulation or reinforcement of composite structures.
Grain - Another word used for the length-wise (weft yarn) or the cross-wise / horizontal
(warp yarn) threads of the fabric.
Granada – A twill whose name is derived from the Latin word Granum, which refers to
the grainy quality of the textile. This granular quality is achieved by a broken twill weave.
It is made of a cotton warp and alpaca or mohair filling. This fiber is exceptionally fine.
Greige Goods (pronounced "gray") - An unfinished fabric, just removed from a knitting
machine or a loom. Loom state of cloth that has not received dry and wet finishing.
Grenadine - A fine fiber originated in Italy. It can be made in various fibers such as
cotton, wool, silk or synthetics. It is well know for its stiffness and often used women's
clothing.
Gusset - Refers to mattress depth.
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H
Halter Top  - A sleeveless bodice with a high choke or wrap neck that may be backless.
Hand - The way the fabric feels when it is touched. Terms like softness, crispness,
dryness, silkiness are all terms that describe the hand of the fabric.
Handkerchief Style - The hem of a blouse or skirt that is gently jagged to form flowing
points.
Haute Couture - French (of course) that literally means "high fashion".  Haute couture
garments are always one-off, one-of-a-kind.  They're extravagant, often irrational,
always unique and totally unaffordable.  Famous eco haute couture designers include
Linda Loudermilk, Katharine Hamnet, and Deborah Lindquist.
Heather - A yarn that is spun using pre-dyed fibers. These fibers are blended together
to give a particular look. (For example, black and white may be blended together to
create a gray heathered yarn.) The term, heather, may also be used to describe the
fabric made from heathered yarns.
Hemp - Hemp is a bast fiber that was probably used first in Asia. The fiber is dark tan or
brown and is difficult to bleach, but it can be dyed bright and dark colorrs. The hemp
fibers vary widely in length, depending upon their ultimate use. Industrial fibers may be
several inches long, while fibers used for domestic textiles are about 3/4 inch to 1 inch
(1.9 to 2.54 cm) long. The elongation (1 to 6 percent) is low and its elasticity poor. The
thermal reactions of hemp and the effect of sunlight are the same as for cotton. Hemp is
moth resistant, but it is not impervious to mildew. Coarse hemp fibers and yarns are
woven into cordage, rope, sacking and heavy-duty tarpaulins. In Italy, fine hemp fibers
are used for interior design and apparel fabrics.  Hemp is a very durable fiber that holds
its shape. It grows without the use of pesticides, herbicides or chemical fertilizers and
can withstand harsh growing seasons. Hemp cultivation does not exhaust, but rather
continuously fertilizes the soil by shedding its leaves throughout its growing period. In
this way, it actually returns nutrients to the soil, helping to reduce the energy demand on
the Earth. It is also naturally UV resistant and dries quickly.
Hem Stitching - A decorative stitching along the stitching lines of hems and borders to
create an open weave pattern.
Henequinn - It is obtained from the leaves of the Agave fourcroydes plant, which is
native to Mexico. It is produced by mechanically decorticating the leaves into strands
from 4 to 5 feet.
Henrietta – A twill originally consisting of worsted filling and silk warp. Today, it can be
found in a variety of blends. It has excellent drapability. Its weight and quality vary with
fibers, however, when created with silk and wool it is lustrous and soft. Often used for
dress goods.
Herringbone Twill - A variation on the twill weave construction in which the twill is
reversed, or broken, at regular intervals, producing a zig-zag effect. Named after the
skeleton of the Herring fish as this is what the fiber pattern resembles. It is usually
created in wool and has varying qualities. It is also known as Arrowhead and is
commonly used in suits, top coats and sport coats.
Hickory Cloth – A twill known for its excellent durability. It is warp striped and comes in
a variety of colors. It usually is created with cotton and found in work clothes.
High Loft - General term for a fiber structure containing more air than fiber. In general,
higher loft retains more warmth.
Hip Pockets - Pockets sewn on the front of a garment at hip height.
Hollywood Waistband - Characterized by a full elasticized back and a side zipper /
button closure.
Homespun - Cotton or wool in plain weave with coarse, rugged yarn. Originally an
undyed woolen cloth spun into yarn and woven in the home, by peasants and country
folk the world over. Has substantial appearance and serviceable qualities. Homespun is
made with irregular, slightly twisted uneven yarns. Has a spongy feel with a hand-
loomed tweedy appearance. Genuine homespun is produced in a very limited quantity
and powerloom cloth is often sold as genuine homespun. Many qualities of homespun
cloth are made but the best is an ideal rough-and-ready type of cloth.
Honey Comb A float weave made in many fabrics.  The name comes from a French
word meaning birds nest. Its patterns are regular and open.  Honey comb fabric is also
known as Diamond Weave.  It is found in draperies, jackets and women's clothing.
Hong Kong - A ribbed fabric usually found in plain colors. It comes in a variety of
qualities but the best type is made out of silk.
Hook & Eye Closure - a two-part fastening device consisting of a metal hook that
catches over a bar or into a loop
Hopsacking – Can be made from cotton, wool, linen, rayon, silk, hemp, or jute in a
basket weave and made with coarse yarn. Has a rather rough texture and is quite
durable and often bulky.
Houndstooth – Commonly made with wool with a broken twill weave that has been
woven into an irregular check of a four pointed star.
Houndstooth Check - A variation on the twill weave construction in which a broken
check effect is produced by a variation in the pattern of interlacing yarns, utilizing at
least two different colored yarns.
Huckaback – Made from linen or cotton in a dobby or basket weave.  It is strong, but
rough in the surface finish.  Has variation in weaves but most have small squares on the
surface that stand out from the background.  The motif is made from a series of floats,
some of them rather long, which gives a loose effect in certain areas. This, if well
spaced, acts as a good absorbing agency.  Mostly used for towels.
Hydrophilic Fibers - Fibers that absorb water easily, take longer to dry, and require
more ironing.
Hydrophobic Fiber - Fibers that lack the ability to absorb water.
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I
Illusion Bodice - A bodice made of sheer material giving the illusion of no bodice.
Illusion Sleeve - A sleeve made of sheer material giving the illusion of no sleeve.
Intarsia - A colored design knitted on both sides of a fabric.
Interlining - An insulation, padding, or stiffening fabric, either sewn to the wrong side of
the lining or the inner side of the outer shell fabric. The interlining is used primarily to
provide warmth in coats, jackets, and outerwear.
Interfacing - Fabrics used to support, reinforce and give shape to fashion fabrics in
sewn products. Often placed between the lining and the outer fabric., it can be made
from yarns or directly from fibers, and may be either woven, nonwoven, or knitted.
Some interfacings are designed to be fused (adhered with heat from an iron), while
others are meant to be stitched to the fashion fabric.
Interlock - The stitch variation of the rib stitch, which resembles two separate 1 x 1
ribbed fabrics that are interknitted. Plain (double knit) interlock stitch fabrics are thicker,
heavier, and more stable than single knit constructions.
Ixtle - Made from linen or cotton with a dobby or basket weave.  It is strong. Rough in
the surface finish but finer, shinier than cotton huckaback. Has variation in weaves but
most have small squares on the surface that stand out from the background.  It comes
in white, colors, or colored borders, and stripes. The motif is made from a series of
floats, some of them rather long, which gives a loose effect in certain areas. This, if well
spaced, acts as a good absorbing agency.
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J
Jacquard - Woven fabrics manufactured by using the Jacquard attachment on the
loom. This attachment provides versatility in designs and permits individual control of
each of the warp yarns. Thus, fabrics of almost any type or complexity can be made.
Brocade and damask are types of jacquard woven fabrics. The loom produces
elaborate cloth weaves such as tapestries, brocades, and damask fabrics.
Jacquard Knit - A weft double knit fabric in which a Jacquard type of mechanism is
used. This device individually controls needles or small groups of needles, and allows
very complex and highly patterned knits to be created.
Jersey - The consistent interlooping of wool, worsted, silk, cotton, rayon, and synthetics
yarns in the jersey stitch to produce a fabric with a smooth, flat face, and a more
textured, but uniform back.  Jersey fabrics may be produced on either circular or flat
weft knitting machines.  Right side has lengthwise ribs (wales) and wrong side has
crosswise ribs (courses).  Jersey is very elastic with good draping qualities and has
special crease-resistant qualities due to its construction.  It is knitted plain or has many
elaborate tweed designs and fancy motifs as well as printed designs.  It can look very
much like a woven fabric. Jersey wears very well and, if washable, it washes very well.
Jersey was first made on the Island on Jersey off the English coast and used for
fisherman's clothing. Stretch as you sew.
Jersey Fabric - The consistent interlooping of yarns in the jersey stitch to produces a
fabric with a smooth, flat face, and a more textured, but uniform back. Jersey fabrics
may be produced on either circular or flat weft knitting machines.
Jersey Stitch - A basic stitch used in weft knitting, in which each loop formed in the knit
is identical. The jersey stitch is also called the plain, felt, or stockinet stitch.
Jewel Neck - A high round neckline resting simply at the base of the neck.
Jusi Banana Fabric - Not all Jusi is made out of banana leaves.  Some Jusi is made
from silk worm cocoons.
Jute and Burlap
Jute is used in textiles for interiors, especially for wall hangings and a group of bright,
homespun-effect draperies and wall coverings. Natural jute has a yellow to brown or
gray color, with a silky luster. It consists of bundles of fiber held together by gummy
substances that are pectinaceous in character. It is difficult to bleach, so many fabrics
are bright, dark, or natural brown. Jute reacts to chemicals in the same way as do
cotton and flax. It has a good resistance to microorganisms and insects. Moisture
increases the speed of deterioration but dry jute will last for a very long time. Jute works
well for bagging, because it does not extend and is somewhat rough and coarse. This
tends to keep stacks of bags in position and resist slippage.
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K
Kangaroo Pocket - A pocket formed by sewing a piece of cloth over the garment
leaving two open ends.
Kapok - A short, lightweight, cotton-like, vegetable fiber found in the seed pods of the
Bombocaceae tree. Because of its brittle quality, it is generally not spun. However, its
buoyancy and moisture resistance makes it ideal for use in cushions, mattresses, and
life jackets.
Kasha (Casha) - Made from either a blend of cashmere and wool or a very fine wool.
Kenaf - A bast fiber obtained from the Hibiscus cannabinusplant. The stalk of this plant
varies in height from 8 to 12 feet and is about half an inch in diameter. Kenaf is mostly
produced in India and Pakistan but also grows in Africa, South East Asia, Indonesia,
Russia, Mexico, the Philippines, and Cuba.  Used as a substitute for Jute.
Keyhole Neck - A tear shaped or round cutout that fastens at the front or back neckline.
Kimono - A long Japanese robe with wide sleeves traditionally worn with a broad sash.

Knit - Fabrics made from only one set of yarns, all running in the same direction. Some
knits have their yarns running along the length of the fabric, while others have their
yarns running across the width of the fabric. Knit fabrics are held together by looping the
yarns around each other. Knitting creates ridges in the resulting fabric. Wales are the
ridges that run lengthwise in the fabric; courses run crosswise.
Knit-de-knit - A type of yarn texturizing in which a crimped yarn is made by knitting the
yarn into a fabric, and then heat-setting the fabric. The yarn is then unraveled from the
fabric and used in this permanently crinkled form.
Knit Fabrics - Fabrics made from only one set of yarns, all running in the same
direction. Some knits have their yarns running along the length of the fabric, while
others have their yarns running across the width of the fabric. Knit fabrics are held
together by looping the yarns around each other. Knitting creates ridges in the resulting
fabric. Wales are the ridges that run lengthwise in the fabric; courses run crosswise.
Knitted - Formed by interlacing yarn or thread in a series of connected loops with
needles.
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L
Lace - An ornamental braid for trimming.
Lambswool - This is the wool that is taken from sheep before they reach the age of 7
months.  It is soft, slippery, resilient and smooth and has superior spinning properties. It
is used in fine grade woolen fabrics.
Lame like glotique - A woven fabric using flat silver or gold metal threads to create
either the design or the background in the fabric.
Latex - Used to provide stretch to fabrics.  100% natural latex contains no synthetic
ingredients.  Blended latex, also know as Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR), is produced
with petrochemicals and doesn't not have the resilience properties that 100% natural
latex has.  In Europe, anything that has at least 20% natural latex is considered natural.
Lawn - A light, fine cloth made using carded or combed linen or cotton yarns in a plain
weave. The fabric has a crease-resistant, crisp finish.  The name derived from Laon, a
city in France, where linen lawn was manufactured extensively. It is light weight, sheer,
soft, and washable. It is crispier than voile but not as crisp as organdy. When made with
fine high count yarns, it has asilky feel.  Comes in white or may be dyed or printed.
When made with combed yarns with a soft feel and slight luster, it is called nainsook.
Leatherette - Simulated leather.
Leno Weave - A construction of woven fabrics in which the resulting fabric is very
sheer, yet durable. In this weave, two or more warp yarns are twisted around each other
as they are interlaced with the filling yarns; thus securing a firm hold on the filling yarn
and preventing them from slipping out of position. Also called the gauze weave. Leno
weave fabrics are frequently used for window treatments, because their structure gives
good durability with almost no yarn slippage, and permits the passage of light and air.
Light Weight - Having an airy weave. Used as a light weight base layer in apparel for
aerobic activities and cool weather.
Linen - A fabric made from linen fibers obtained from inside the woody stem of the flax
plant.  Linen fibers are much stronger and more lustrous than cotton. Linen fabrics are
very cool and absorbent, but wrinkle very easily, unless blended with manufactured
fibers.
Linen (Non-crushable) – A specially treated linen that is washable, durable and  highly
resistance to wrinkling. This finish provides greater resilience and elasticity.
Lining - A fabric that is used to cover the inside of a garment to provide a finished look.
Generally, the lining is made of a smooth lustrous fabric.
Llama – Llamas are found mainly in South America and the color of their hair may vary
from white to brown and black. This fiber has impressive luster and warmth and is very
light weight.
Lock Stitch - A type of stitch consisting of two threads that are interlocked at short
intervals. A lock-stitched terry does not pull easily.
Loft - High loft is thick and fluffy, low loft is thin and dense. The higher the loft, the
better the insulation characteristic.
Longcloth – A soft, high quality cotton and cotton blend fabric with a moderate luster.
Loom - A machine used for weaving fabrics.
Lycra - A DuPont trademark for its spandex fiber. Any time you see this fiber listed on a
label, expect comfort, movement, and shape retention that won't wash away.  Lycra
increases the life of a garment, making it more sustainable. It adds stretch and
versatility and contributes to a wider array of fashion fabrications.
Lyocell Fiber - A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose. Lyocell has a
similar hand and drape as rayon, but is stronger, more durable, and in many cases
machine washable. It has a subtle luster and is rich in color. Lyocell possesses low
shrinkage characteristics, as well as good absorbency and wrinkle resistant qualities.
Luster Fabric - Created using warp threads of cotton or synthetic fibers with high luster
such as worsted or mohair yarn.
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M
Mackinaw – Historically, it was made from an ordinary grade of wool that often had
shoddy re-used or remanufactured wool mixed in.  A twill weave where the weave is
concealed.  Mackinaw is heavily fulled or felted and napped on both sides to conceal
the weave. Much of the fabric is in a plaid or large check design or brightly colored, or
with different colors on each side.  Mackinaw is heavy and thick, very similar to melton. 
It is named after MacKinac Island, Michigan and is also called snow cloth.  It was used
by miners, lumbermen, hunters, trappers, fishermen, and cowboys in jackets,
mackinaws and coats.  It was also used for blankets, shirts, and some heavy
sportswear,  and windbreakers.  Mackinaw is another fabric that has been replaced by
more modern, lighter and warmer synthetics and blends.
Macrame – A hand woven and knotted lace originally made in Arabia but later made in
Italy.  Macrame was popular during the ‘60s and early 1970s for pot hangers, curtains,
shawls and scarves.
Madras – A lightweight plain weave cotton fabric with a striped, plaid, or checked
pattern. A true madras will bleed when washed. This type of fabric is usually imported
from India. End-uses are men's and women's shirts and dresses. Generally cotton
although can also be made from rayon and silk.  Plain weave or can be a dobby or
jacquard weave used for designs.  Originated in Madras (now called Chenia), India and
it is a very old cloth. Much of it has a plain colored background with stripes, plaid,
checks, or designs on it. Has a high thread count.  Madras is made with combed or
carded yarns depending on the quality. Some is mercerized to make it lustrous and
durable. Often the dyes are not fast and with each washing, color changes take place.
Maillot - A woman's one-piece bathing suit.
Mandarin Collar - A short, stand-up collar, adopted from the close-fitting Asian collar.
Marabou - A thrown silk usually dyed in the gum or a fabric made of this silk.
Marble Cloth - Originally made of silk and wool. Today it is produced with natural and
synthetic fibers
Marocain - A ribbed fabric from silk, wool or synthetics with a wavy look, resembling
crepe.
Marquisette - Silk, cotton, rayon, or synthetic fibers in a gauze or lino weave that is a
very lightweight, open, sheer, or mesh fabric. Wears very well and launders very well.
Typically has a swivel dot or clip spot (marquisette).
Marseilles - Named after it's city of origin in France. It is identified by its raised woven
pattern. This double-faced textile has a quilted appearance that is very elegant. Usually
found in white, but other colors can also be used.
Matelasse – French for "cushioned or padded" and is made on a jacquard or dobby
loom, in double cloth weave.  This term refers to the type of weave. It is a triple-woven
medium to heavyweight luxury fabric fabric made in a double cloth construction to
create a blistered or quilted surface. The pattern stands out and gives a "pouch" or
"quilted" effect to the goods. Crepe yarn in double weave shrinks during finishing
causing a blistering effect.  Gives good wear and drapes well. If washable, it must be
laundered with care. It is very attractive and suits quite plain styles.  Some cotton
matelasse is used for bedspreads, dresses, suits, or ensembles.
Matte - Lacks luster or gloss and has a usually smooth even surface free from shine or
highlights.
Melton - A heavyweight, dense, compacted, and tightly woven wool or wool blend fabric
used mainly for coats.
Mercerization – A finishing process of treating a cotton yarn or fabric, in which the
fabric or yarn is immersed in a caustic soda solution (sodium hydroxide) and later
neutralized in acid. The process causes a permanent swelling of the fiber, resulting in
an increased luster on the surface of the fabric, an increased affinity for dyes, and
increased strength.
Merino - A type of wool that originates from pure-bred Merino sheep. The best Merino
wool comes from Italy.
Mermaid - This skirt hugs the body until it reaches the knees or just below and then
ends in a dramatic flare.
Mesh - A type of fabric characterized by its net-like open appearance, and the spaces
between the yarns. Mesh is available in a variety of constructions including wovens,
knits, laces, or crocheted fabrics.
Metallic Fiber - An inorganic fiber made from minerals and metals, blended and
extruded to form fibers. The fiber is formed from a flat ribbon of metal, coated with a
protective layer of plastic, which reduces tarnishing. Metal used in apparel fabric is
purely decorative.
Microclimate - The temperature and humidity of the space between your skin and the
base layer of clothing.
Microfibers - Generic term for any synthetic fiber finer than silk. Fabrics made with
micro fibers are soft, lightweight, breathable and durable.  Currently popular in outdoor
activewear. Fibers made using microfiber technology, produce fibers which weigh less
than 1.0 denier. The fabrics made from these extra-fine fibers provide a superior hand,
a gentle drape, and incredible softness. Comparatively, microfibers are two times finer
than silk, three times finer than cotton, eight times finer than wool, and one hundred
times finer than a human hair. Currently, there are four types of microfibers being
produced. These include acrylic microfibers, nylon microfibers, polyester microfibers,
and rayon microfibers.
Microfleece - A soft, luxorous fabric with a velvety feel.
Microporous - A coating on a fabric that breathes through microscopic pores.
Modacrylic Fiber - A manufactured fiber similar to acrylic in characteristics and end-
uses. Modacrylics have a higher resistance to chemicals and combustion than acrylic,
but also have a lower safe ironing temperature and a higher specific gravity than acrylic.
Mohair - From the clipped angora goat. Some mohair fabric has a cotton warp and
mohair filling (sometimes called brilliantine). Imitation mohair is made from wool or a
blend.  The weave can be plain or twill or knitted.  The Angora goat is one of the oldest
animals known to man. It is 2 1/2 times as strong as wool. Angora goats are raised in
South Africa, Western Asia, turkey, and neighboring countries. Some are in the U.S.A.
but give a fabric that is smooth, glossy, and wiry. The angora goat has long wavy hair.
Mohair is also made in a pile fabric of cut and uncut loops similar to frieze with a cotton
and wool back and mohair pattern.  It is similar to alpaca.
Moire - Silk, rayon, or cotton in a plain or crosswise rib weave.  It has a watermarked
finish that is fairly stiff with body in most cases. It is produced by passing the fabric
between engraved cylinders which press the design into the material, causing the
crushed and uncrushed parts to reflect the light differently. The pattern is not
permanent, except on acetate rayon.
Moisture Regain - The amount of water a completely dry fiber will absorb from the air
at a standard condition of 70 degrees F and a relative humidity of 65%. Expressed as a
% of the dry fiber weight.
Moisture Transport - The movement of water from one side of a fabric to the other,
caused by capillary action, wicking, chemical or electrostatic action.
Monk's Cloth – Made from wool, cotton, linen, silk, rayon, or synthetics. In a basket
weave.  Monk’s cloth is heavy due to its construction. It is difficult to sew or manipulate
as the yarns have a tendency to slide, stretch and fray. It may sag in time depending on
the compactness of the weave. It can also be made in other basket weaves. Monk’s
cloth is rough in texture.
Monofilament - A single filament of a manufactured fiber, usually made in a denier
higher than 14. Monofilaments are usually spun singularly, rather than extruded as a
group of filaments through a spinneret and spun into a yarn. End-uses include hosiery
and sewing thread.
Montagnac - This luxurious textile is soft and lustrous. It is mainly created with
Cashmere or Camel hair.
Mousseline de Soie – A silk muslin that is sheer, open, and lightweight. It is something
like chiffon but with a crisp finish produced by sizing. It does not wear well and it does
not launder. Used in evening wear, and bridal wear.
Muslin - Cotton sheeting fabric with thread count of less than 180 threads per square
inch.
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N
Nainsook – A fine, lightweight cotton in a plain weave that is produced in the finishing
processes from the same gray goods as used for batiste, cambric, lawn. Soft and has a
slight luster in the better qualities (mercerization).  It is slightly heavier than batiste. Like
lawn but not as crisp. Soft, lacks body. Usually found in white but also comes in pastel
colors and some printed.  Often tucked or embroidered, in blouses, night wear, lingerie,
and infant's wear.
Nano-fiber - Nano refers to 1 billionth of a meter, or 1 x 10-8 centimeter. 150,000
strands of a nano-fiber can fit across a human hair.
Nano-technology - Complex technology that involves nano-size materials and
combines science such as biology, chemistry and physics and engineering.
Napped Fabrics - Cotton fabrics which have been dry finished by raising fibers on the
surface to produce a fuzzy fur-like feel and appearance created when fiber ends extend
from the basic fabric structure to the fabric surface. The fabric can be napped on either
one or both sides. Cotton flannel is an example.
Natural Fibers - Materials that grow in nature such as cotton, flax, hemp, alpaca, wool
and silk.  The processing natural fibers into organic clothing is done with as few
chemicals and harmful impact on the environment as possible.
Natural Waist - A seam or waistband that secures or falls at the natural curve of the
body, which is the indentation between the hips and the ribcage.
Net - An open fabric of silk, rayon, cotton, synthetics, or nylon, that is created by
connecting the intersections in a woven, knitted, or crocheted construction to form a
mesh-like appearance that won't ravel.  It is a knotted, mesh fabric made on a lace
machine or gauze or leno weaves in a variety of geometric-shaped meshes of different
sizes and weights. It is very open and light. It forms the foundation for a great variety of
laces, curtains, millinery, fancy pillows, trims, evening and bridal wear.
Ninon - A lightweight, plain weave, made of silk or manufactured fibers, with an open
mesh-like appearance. Since the fabric is made with high twist filament yarns, it has a
crisp hand. End uses include eveningwear and curtains.
Nonwoven Fabric - Fabrics made directly from individual fibers that are matted
together by forming an interlocking web of fibers either mechanically (tangling together)
or chemically (gluing, bonding, or melting together).
Nylon - The first completely synthetic fiber developed in 1938. Known for its high
strength and excellent resilience, nylon has superior abrasion resistance and high
flexibility. Known for its high strength and excellent resilience, nylon has superior
abrasion resistance and high flexibility.
Nytril - A manufactured fiber, most often used in sweaters or pile fabrics, where little or
no pressing is recommended, as the fiber has a low softening or melting point.
However, it has also been successfully used in blends with wool for the purpose of
minimizing shrinkage and improving the shape retention in garments.
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O
Off-The-Shoulder Neck - A neckline that lies gently hovering across the top of the
bust-line with the shoulders uncovered or able to be seen through the sheer yoke of net
or organza attached to a high collar.
Oilcloth - Originally, textiles such as cotton were coated in oil to create resistance to
moisture. Now, resins from plastics are used instead of oil. Olefin is a very versatile fiber
with excellent flexibility. In the past, oilcloth was used for waterproof garments.  Oilcloth
is another historical fabric that has been replaced by synthetics and more modern
fabrics.
Olefin (also known as polyolefin and polypropylene) - A manufactured fiber
characterized by its light weight, high strength, and abrasion resistance. Olefin is also
good at transporting moisture, creating a wicking action. End-uses include activewear
apparel, rope, indoor-outdoor carpets, lawn furniture, and upholstery.
Ondule - The name is derived from a French word meaning wavy. This wavy effect is
created by weaving the warp irregularly. It is created in silk, cotton and manufactured
fibers.
Organdy – Plain cotton made with tightly twisted yarns. Crispness is due to a finish with
starch and calendaring which washes out, or a permanent crispness obtained with
chemicals (Heberlein process).  Organdy wrinkles badly unless given a wrinkle-free
finish (bellmanizing). May be bleached, dyed, printed, frosted, flocked, embroidered, or
plisse.
Organza - A crisp, sheer, lightweight plain-weave fabric, with a medium to high yarn
count, made of silk, rayon, nylon, or polyester. The fabric is used primarily in evening
and wedding apparel for women.  It has a very wiry feel. It crushes or musses fairly
easily, but it is easily pressed.  Organza is a dressy type of fabric that sometimes has a
silvery sheen.
Osnaberg - A medium to heavyweight coarse fabric that is characterized by its strength
and durability.  May or may not be treated with a finish. If it is finished, it is also know as
Hopsacking or Crash.
Ottoman – Originated in Turkey, this is a tightly woven, plain-weave, ribbed fabric with
a hard, slightly shiny surface. The ribbed effect is created by weaving a finer silk or
manufactured warp yarn with a heavier filler yarn, usually made of cotton, wool, rayon or
waste yarn that is completely covered by the warp yarn, thus creating the ribbed effect. 
It is characterized by horizontal ribs and is heavier in weight and with a larger rib than
both faille and bengaline. It has very pronounced flat ribs in the filling direction. Ribs are
made by a cotton, worsted, silk, or rayon filling which does not show on either the face
or the back, because the warp covers the filling entirely. It is called Ottoman Cord or
Ottoman rib when a warp rib is employed. Fabric is stiff and cannot be gathered or
shirred. Like other ribbed fabrics, it has a tendency to slip at the seams and crack, so it
cannot be fitted too tightly.  Another type of Ottoman with heavy ribbing is also found in
Satin Weave.  
Oxford – Cotton, or sometimes rayon in a plain weave.  Warp has two fine yarns which
travel as one and one heavier softly-spun bulky filling which gives it a basket-weave
look. Better qualities of oxford cotton are mercerized.  It is a rather heavy fabric that is
usually all white but some has a spaced stripe in the warp direction. Oxford launders
very well but soils easily. When made with yarn dyed warp and white weft, it is called
oxford chambray. The one remaining commercial shirting material made originally by a
Scotch mill which bore the names of four Universities - Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard,
and Yale.  Well known for men's shirts, but is also used for summer jackets, shirts,
skirts, dresses, and sportswear.
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P
Paisley - A tear-drop shaped, fancy printed pattern, used in dresses, blouses, and
men's ties.
Panne - French word meaning plush. It resembles velvet but has a much longer pile. It
has high luster and is made in silk, silk blends or with synthetics.
Panné Velvet - A type of lustrous, lightweight velvet fabric, usually made of silk or a
manufactured fiber, in which the pile has been flattened in one direction.
Pearlized - Given a pearlescent surface or finish.
Peasant Top - Romantic style often characterized with a low neckline, ruffles, or free
flowing material.
Peau de Cynge - The name comes from a French phrase that means "swam skin".
Crepe yarns are woven to create a silk textile with high luster and a slightly slubbed
texture with good body.
Peau de Peche - The name comes from a French phrase meaning "skin of peach".
This textile has a soft nap that is acquired after a finishing process.
Peau de Soie - A heavy twill weave drapeable satin fabric, made of silk or a
manufactured fiber, and used for bridal gowns and eveningwear.
Peau Satin – Satin fabric of silk or a manufactured fiber that is woven in a heavy twill
weave.  The fabric is easily draped and used for bridal gowns and evening wear.
Peek-a-boo - Any part of the garment which has been cut out to reveal skin.
Pekin - A high quality fabric characterized by its vertical stripes of identical width that
have equal widths between them. It consists of cotton, wool, silk, or elaborate velvet
stripes that are separated by satin.
Percale – Plain, medium weight, cotton weave of a medium weight that is firm, smooth,
with no gloss.  Warps and washes very well. It is made from both carded and combed
yarns.  Percale sheeting is the finest sheeting available and is made of combed yarns
and has a count of 200 - carded percale sheeting has a count of 180. It has a soft, silk-
like feel. The thread count ranges usually from 180-100.
Performance Fabrics - Fabrics made for a variety of end-use applications, which
provide functional qualities, such as moisture management, UV protection, anti-
microbial, thermo-regulation, and wind/water resistance.
Petticoat - An underskirt usually a little shorter than the outer clothing and often made
with a ruffled, pleated or lace edge.
Picot - A narrow row of dainty, woven loops along the selvage of fabric or lace
produced to create an edge or a finished flange.
Pieced - A look created by sewing several pieces of material together to form the
garment, much like a quilt.
Pile Knit - A type of knit construction which utilizes a special yarn or a sliver that is
interlooped into a standard knit base. This construction is used in the formation of
imitation fur fabrics, in special liners for cold weather apparel such as jackets and coats,
and in some floor coverings. While any basic knit stitch may be used for the base of pile
knits, the most common is the jersey stitch.
Pile Weave - A type of decorative weave in which a pile is formed by additional warp or
filling yarns interlaced in such a way that loops are formed on the surface or face of the
fabric. The loops may be left uncut, or they may be cut to expose yarn ends and
produce cut pile fabric.
Pill - A tangled ball of fibers that appears on the surface of a fabric, as a result of wear
or continued friction or rubbing on the surface of the fabric. Occurs as a result of fibers
loosening from the fabric surface to form balls of matted fiber particles.
Pinafore - Originally used to protect dresses from dirt, it was adopeted as a fashion
piece and worn as a sleeveless dress or over a blouse.
Pique - Cotton, rayon, or synthetic fabrics in a lengthwise rib, English crosswise rib or
cord weave that creates a stiff, durable ribbed fabric with an embossed pattern
produced by a double warp thread.  Originally was a crosswise rib but now mostly a
lengthwise rib and the same as bedford cord. Ribs are often filled to give a more
pronounced wale (cord weave). Comes in medium to heavy weights and is generally
made of combed face yarns and carded stuffer yarns. It is durable and launders well,
but wrinkles badly unless given a wrinkle-free finish. It also comes in different patterns
besides wales. Some of the patterns are birdseye (small diamond), waffle (small
squares), honeycomb (like the design on honeycomb honey). When the fabric begins to
wear out it wears at the corded areas first.
Placket - The piece of cloth that reinforces a split or opening in a garment.  Usually also
serves as the closure.
Plain Weave - A basic weave, utilizing a simple alternate interlacing of warp and filling
yarns. Any type of yarn made from any type of fiber can be manufactured into a plain
weave fabric.
Plaited Fabric - A narrow fabric made by crossing a number of sturdy yarns diagonally,
so each strand passes alternatively over or under one or more of the other stands.
Typically used in shoe laces and suspenders.
Plaited Yarn - A yarn covered by another yarn.
Plied Yarn - A twisting together of two or more single yarns in one operation.
Plisse - Cotton, rayon, and other fabrics that have been treated with a caustic soda
solution which shrinks parts of the goods either all over or in stripes giving a blistered
effect that is similar to seersucker in appearance. Produced by a wet finishing
treatment, this fabric has the look of woven seersucker, similar to crepe. This crinkle
may or may not be removed after washing. This depends on the quality of the fabric. It
does not need to be ironed, but if a double thickness, such as a hem, needs a little, it
should be done after the fabric is thoroughly dry.
Plush - Velvet or velveteen where the pile is 1/8" thick or more. e.g. Cotton velour, hat
velour, plush "fake furs".
Pointelle - Very feminine, delicate-looking, rib-knit fabric made with a pattern of
openings.
Point d'esprit – Cotton, and sometimes silk, in a Leno, gauze, knotted, or mesh
weave.  First made in France in 1834, it has a dull surfaced net with various sized holes.
Has white or colored dots individually spaced or in groups.
Polyester - A manufactured fiber introduced in the early 1950s, and is second only to
cotton in worldwide use. Polyester has high strength (although somewhat lower than
nylon), excellent resiliency, and high abrasion resistance. Low absorbency allows the
fiber to dry quickly.
Polypropylene (also known as polyolefin and Olefin) - A manufactured fiber
characterized by its light weight, high strength, and abrasion resistance. Polypropylene
is also good at transporting moisture, creating a wicking action. End-uses include
activewear apparel, rope, indoor-outdoor carpets, lawn furniture, and upholstery.
Pongee - Silk, cotton, or rayon in a plain weave that was woven "in the gum".  Originally
from China and woven on hand looms in the home. It is light or medium weight and tan
or ecru in color.  Some is dyed, but color is not quite uniform.  The warp is finer and
more even than filling. The nubs or irregular cross ribs are produced by uneven yarns. It
is woven from wild tussah silk and it is a "raw silk".
Poplin - A cotton or wool fabric made using a crosswise rib variation of the plain weave.
The construction is characterized by having a slight ridge effect in one direction, usually
the filling.  The filling is cylindrical with two or three times as many warp as weft per
inch.  Has a more pronounced filling effect than broadcloth. It is mercerized and has
quite a high luster. It may be bleached, or dyed (usually vat dyes are used) or printed.
Heavy poplin is given a water-repellent finish for outdoor use. Poplin was originally
made with silk warp and a heavier wool filling.  American cotton broadcloth shirting is
known as poplin in Great Britain.
Press Mark - Undesirable shining lines on the outside of the garment due to incorrect
ironing.
Princess Seams - Seams that can be found in the front or the back of a garment that
create a form-fitting shape.
Provence – This is a plain woven cotton with a typed style of printing which
characterizes the countryside of Provence in French country.
Puckered bodice - Usually associated with tube tops, it provides a scrunchy look.
Puff Sleeve / Pouf Sleeve - A full sleeve of varying lengths, created by generous
gathering around the armhole.
Purl Stitch - A basic stitch used in weft knitting, which produces knit fabrics that have
the same appearance on both sides. The purl stitch is frequently used in combination
with the jersey and rib stitches to produce a knitted fabric design. Sweaters, knitted
fabrics for infants and children's wear, knitted fabrics for specialized sportswear, and
bulky knit fabrics are commonly made using the purl stitch.
Pyrenees – A wool fabric made in France from the wool of Pyrenees’ flocks of sheep.
The Pyrenees are a mountain chain between France and Spain. The fabric is well
known because it is a high quality fabric which keeps warm.
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Q
Quilting - A fabric construction in which a layer of down or fiberfill is placed between
two layers of fabric, and then held in place by stitching or sealing in a regular,
consistent, all-over pattern on the goods.
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R
Radium - Originated in Lyons France. It has high luster and is smooth and soft.
Ramie - A natural woody fiber, similar to flax, taken from the stalk of a plant grown in
China.  Also know as rhea and China grass, it is obtained from a tall shrub grown in
South-east Asia. China, Japan, and southern Europe. The fiber is stiff, more brittle than
linen, and highly lustrous. It can be bleached to extreme whiteness. Ramie fibers are
long and very fine. They are white and lustrous and almost silk-like in appearance. The
strength of ramie is but elastic recovery is low and elongation is poor. Ramie lends itself
to general processing for textile yarns, but its retting operation is difficult and costly,
making the fiber unprofitable for general use. When combed, ramie is half the density of
linen, but much stronger, coarser, and more absorbent. It has permanent luster and
good affinity for dyes and is affected little by moisture. Ramie is used as filling yarn in
mixed woolen fabrics, as adulteration with silk fibers, and as a substitute for flax. The
China-grass cloth use by the Chinese is made of Ramie.
Raschel Knit - A warp knitted fabric in which the resulting knit fabric resembles hand
crocheted fabrics, lace fabrics, and nettings. Raschel warp knits contain inlaid
connecting yarns in addition to columns of knit stitches.
Ratine - Originated in Italy but is a French word that means rough. This fiber has an
uneven, pebbled surface. It comes in solid colors and prints and is usually made from
silk, cotton or wool.
Rayon - A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, derived from wood
pulp, cotton linters, or other vegetable matter.
Re-embroidered - To outline a design (as on lace) with embroidery stitching.
Repellency - The ability of a fabric to resist such things as wetting and staining by
water, stains, soil, etc.
Resiliency - The ability of a fabric to spring back to its original shape after being
twisted, crushed, wrinkled, or distorted in any way.
Rhinestoned - To attach a colorless imitation stone of high luster made of glass, paste,
or gem quartz.
Ribbed - To form vertical ridges in knitting.
Ribboned - Ribbon lace is made by stitching ribbon onto mesh or net fabrics. The
design is usually a random pattern rather than floral.
Rib knit - A basic stitch used in weft knitting in which the knitting machines require two
sets of needles operating at right angles to each other. Rib knits have a very high
degree of elasticity in the crosswise direction. This knitted fabric is used for complete
garments and for such specialized uses as sleeve bands, neck bands, sweater
waistbands, and special types of trims for use with other knit or woven fabrics.
Lightweight sweaters in rib knits provide a close, body-hugging fit.
Rib Weave - One of the plain weave variations, which is formed by using: 1) heavy
yarns in the warp or filling direction, or 2) a substantially higher number of yarns per
inch in one direction than in the other, or 3) several yarns grouped together as one. Rib
fabrics are all characterized by having a slight ridge effect in one direction, usually the
filling. Such fabrics may have problems with yarn slippage, abrasion resistance, and
tear strength. Examples of this construction include broadcloth, poplin, taffeta, faille,
shantung, and cord fabric.
Rip-stop Nylon - A lightweight, wind resistant, and water resistant plain weave fabric.
Large rib yarns stop tears without adding excess weight to active sportswear apparel
and outdoor equipment such as sleeping bags and tents. Fabric woven with double
thread at regular intervals to create small squares that prevent tears from spreading.
Usually made from nylon or polyester and used in packs, sleeping bags, tent sand gear.
Romaine - A lightweight textile with a low thread count that is lustrous and has an
uneven textural appearance. It was originally made of silk but is found today in wool,
silk, rayon, acetate and other synthetics.
Romper - A one-piece garment with the lower part shaped like bloomers.
Ruche - Fluted or crimped lace or gauze, used as a trimming.
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S
Sailcloth  - A strong canvas of cotton, linen, or nylon in a plain weave, sometimes with
a crosswise rib.  The weights vary, but most often the count is around 148 x 60. Able to
withstand the elements (rain, wind and snow). Sailcloth for clothing is sold frequently
and is much lighter weight than used for sails.  Historically used in sails, awnings, and
all kinds of sportswear for men, women, and children.
Sanforized - A process to preshrink fabric. Fabrics with this trademark should never
shrink more than 1%.
Sanglier – French for wild boar. It was named for its texture which is compact and wiry.
It also has a very rough finish. It is usually created with mohair and worsted fibers.
Saran Fiber - A manufactured fiber which has an excellent resistance to sunlight and
weathering, and is used in lawn furniture, upholstery, and carpets.
Sarong Skirt - Long cloth which is wrapped around the entire body.
Sateen – Cotton or rayon in a filling-face weave.  A weave construction for mercerized
cotton fabrics, which produces a lustrous and smooth surface with the sheen in a filling
direction. Carded or combed yarns are used. Better qualities are mercerized to give a
higher sheen. Some are only calendered to produce the sheen but this disappears with
sashing and is not considered genuine sateen. May be bleached, dyed, or printed.
Difficult to make good bound buttonholes on it as it has a tendency to slip at the seams. 
Used in dresses, sportswear, blouses, robes, pijamas, linings for draperies, and
bedspreads.
Sateen Fabric - A fabric made from yarns with low luster, such as cotton or other staple
length fibers. The fabric has a soft, smooth hand and a gentle, subtle luster. Sateen
fabrics are often used for draperies and upholstery.
Sateen Weave - A variation of the satin weave, produced by floating fill yarns over warp
yarns.
Satin - A traditional fabric utilizing a satin weave construction to achieve a lustrous
fabric surface. Satin is a traditional fabric for evening and wedding garments. Typical
examples of satin weave fabrics include: slipper satin, crepe-back satin, faille satin,
bridal satin, moleskin, and royal satin.  Traditionally made from silk, satin can also be
made from rayon and synthetics.  It originated in China (Zaytoun, China - now Canton -
a port from which satins were exported during the Middle Ages).  It became known in
Italy during the XIIth, and XIIIth Centuries and in England by the XIVth Century. It
became a favorite of all court life because of its exquisite qualities and feel. It usually
has a lustrous surface and a dull back. The luster is produced by running it between hot
cylinders. It is made in many colors, weights, varieties, qualities, and degrees of
stiffness.  A low grade silk or a cotton filling is often used in cheaper cloths.
Satin (Double-Faced Satin) - Yarn woven with two warps and one filling, to simulate a
double satin construction. Has satin on both sides. Cotton filling is often used in cheaper
qualities.
Satin (Duchesse Satin) - This form of satin has a wonderful luster and a smooth feel
with a thread count is very high.  As the name implies, it is used in fine women's wear. 
Very fine yarns are used, particularly in the warp with more ends/inch than picks.  It is
characterized by a grainy twill on back.
Satin (Peau de Soie) – A soft, satin-face, good quality cloth with a dull luster. It has a
grainy appearance, and is a characteristic in the cloth which may have a single or
double face construction. Fine close ribs are seen in the filling direction. With the best
grades, the fabric can be used on either side. Lower qualities are finished on one side
only. Name means "skin of silk". Some cloth sold as peau de soie is really a de-lustered
satin. It doesn't have the grainy appearance. Because of crosswise rib, the fabric is
difficult to ease. Also sold as "de-lustered satin".
Satin-back
Satin on one side and anything on the other.  For example, very good velvet ribbon has
velvet on one side and satin on the other.
Satin Faconne – A jacquard figured fabric with an all-satin weave background. Various
types of striping effects are obtained.
Satin Weave - A basic weave, characterized by long floats of yarn on the face of the
fabric. The yarns are interlaced in such a manner that there is no definite, visible pattern
of interlacing and, in this manner, a smooth and somewhat shiny surface effect is
achieved. The shiny surface effect is further increased through the use of high luster
filament fibers in yarns which also have a low amount of twist. A true satin weave fabric
always has the warp yarns floating over filling yarns.
Scalloped Edge - A border that contains continuous curves finished with bourdon
stitching.
Scoop Neck / Round Neck - A low, U-shaped or round neckline.
Seamless Knitting - A unique process of circular knitting, done on either Santoni or
Sangiacomo knitting machines. This circular knitting process essentially produces
finished garments with no side seams, which require only minimal sewisng to complete
the garment. Seamless knitting can transform yarn into complete garments in a fraction
of the time it takes for traditional garment manufacturing, by minimizing the traditional
labor-intensive steps of sutting and sewing.
Seersucker - A woven fabric of cotton, rayon or synthetics which incorporates
modification of tension control. In the production of seersucker, some of the warp yarns
are held under controlled tension at all times during the weaving, while other warp yarns
are in a relaxed state and tend to pucker when the filling yarns are placed. The result
produces a puckered stripe effect in the fabric.  The term is derived from the Persian
"shirushaker", a kind of cloth, literally "milk and sugar". Colored stripes are often used. It
has a dull surface and comes in medium to heavy weights. The woven crinkle is
produced by alternating slack and tight yarns in the warp for a permanent effect. The
crinkle effect can also be produced by pressing or the use of chemicals, which is not
likely to be permanent - called plisse. It is durable and will wear for years.  It may be
laundered without ironing. Can be bleached, yarn dyed, or printed. Some comes in a
check effect.  Often used in summer suits for men, women, and children, coats,
uniforms, trims, nightwear, all kinds of sportswear, dresses, blouses, children's wear of
all kinds, curtains, bedspreads, slipcovers.
Selvage or Selvedge - The thin compressed edge of a woven fabric which runs parallel
to the warp yarns and prevents raveling. It is usually woven, utilizing tougher yarns and
a tighter construction than the rest of the fabric.
Serge - A fabric with a smooth hand that is created by a two-up, two-down twill weave.
Serging -An overcasting technique done on the cut edge of a fabric to prevent raveling.
Serpentine Crepe – Has a filling with a twisted thread which creates a crepe effect. 
The size of the crepe thread determines the texture.
Sequined - Ornamented with a small plate of shining metal or plastic.
Shantung - A medium-weight, plain-weave fabric in cotton, silk, rayon or synthetics,
characterized by a ribbed effect, resulting from slubbed yarns used in the warp or filling
direction. End-uses include dresses and suits.  It is a raw silk made from Tussah silk or
silk waste, depending on the quality. It is quite similar to pongee, but has a more
irregular surface, heavier, and rougher. Most of the slubs are in the filling direction. It
wrinkles easily and abundantly. Underlining helps to prevent this as well as slipping at
the seams. Do not fit too tightly, if long wear is expected. Comes in various weights,
colors and also printed.
Shadowy Organdy – A lightweight, crisp and sheer fabric. The shadowy effect is
produced by printing one color repeatedly upon itself itself.
Sharkskin – A hard-finished, low lustered, medium-weight fabric in a twill-weave
construction. It is most commonly found in men's worsted suitings; however, it can also
be found in a plain-weave construction of acetate, triacetate, and rayon for women's
sportswear. Made from rayon (acetate) and synthetics (particularly Arnel) in a plain or
twill weave.  It has a heavy, semi-crisp texture and is very smooth and slippery with a
flat look. It is mostly made in white but sometimes colored. It wears well and launders
well particularly in Arnel. It a tendency to turn yellow with age, but the Arnel remains
pure white.  It has been used for summer wear.
Shatush - This is one of the finest textiles. It is created from white, silver or gray hair of
wild goats. The supply of this hair is very limited so the textile is very rare and it is one
of the most expensive fabrics in the world.
Shawl Collar - A one-piece collar which is turned down to form a continuous line
around the back of the neck to the front.
Sheer - Any very light-weight fabric such as chiffon, georgette, voile, or sheer crepe. 
They usually have an open weave and feel cool. 
Sheers (Triple Sheers) - Heavier and flatter than sheers and almost opaque. Many are
made from "Bemberg", which wears, drapes, and washes well.
Shelf Bra - A bra that is built right into the garment.  Used often in exercise clothing for
ladies.
Shrinkage - The contraction of a fiber, yarn or fabric after washing and drying. All
products made of natural fibers have a tendency to shrink 4%-8%.
Shrug - A woman's small, waist-length or shorter jacket.
Silhouette - Dark shaded profile portrait outline of any garment.
Silk – A fiber produced by the silkworm Bombyx mori, also known as the mulberry
silkworm, with which the worm weaves its cocoon.  One of the finest textiles, silk is soft,
has a brilliant sheen, and is very strong and absorbent.  A luxurious fabric, silk is lush to
the touch and drapes beautifully on the body. It is sensitive to sunlight as well as
perspiration and must be carefully laundered.   While silk is essentially organic,
standards are being developed for organic certification of silk.
Silk (Degummed Silk) - By boiling the silk in hot water, the gum (sericin) is removed
from the yarn/fabric. By doing this, the luster of the silk is enhanced. It is very
lightweight.
Silk (Honan)  - The best grade of wild silk and is similar to "pongee" but finer. It is made
from wild silkworms raised in the Honan area of China and is the only wild type that
gives even dyeing results. Do not fit too tightly.
Silk (Illusion) - A gauze weave or made on bobbinet machine or knotted.   It is a
very fine, all-silk tulle which originated in France. It has a cobweb appearance and used
in wedding gown veils and trimmings.
Silk (Lame) - Silk or any textile fiber in which metallic threads are used in the warp or
the filling.  Lame is also a trade mark for metallic yarns.  French for "trimmed with leaves
of gold or silver". Often has pattern all over the surface. The shine and glitter of this
fabric makes it suitable for dressy wear.
Sisal - A strong bast fiber that originates from the leaves of the Agave plant, which is
found in the West Indies, Central America, and Africa. End-uses include cordage and
twine. One of a group of fibers obtained from the leaves of a plant that belongs to the
Agave family and is raised in Mexico, especially in the Yucatan peninsula. The fiber is
also cultivated in Africa, Java, and some areas of South America. Sisal can be dyed
bright colors, by means of both cotton dyes and acid dyes normally used for wool.
Skant - Pants that have a sweater-like attachment around the waist.
Skort - Shorts that have a front covering to resemble a skirt.
Smart Textiles - Textiles that can sense and react to changes in the environment, such
as changes from mechanical , thermal, chemical, magnetic and other sources.
Solution-dyed - A type of fiber dyeing in which colored pigments are injected into the
spinning solution prior to the extrusion of the fiber through the spinneret. Fibers and
yarns colored in this manner are color-fast to most destructive agents.
Soy – A new fabric with a silky feel that is produced from the soy bean plant.
Spaghetti Strap - A thin tubular strap that attaches to the bodice.  Named for its
likeness to a strand of spaghetti.
Spandex - A manufactured elastomeric fiber that can be repeatedly stretched over
500% without breaking, and will still recover to its original length.  Spandex increases
the life of a garment, making it more sustainable. It adds stretch and versatility and
contributes to a wider array of fashion fabrications.  Lycra is the same as spandex.
Spinneret - A metal nozzle type device with very fine holes used in the spinning
process of manufactured fibers. The spinning solution is forced or extruded through the
small holes to form continuous filament fibers. The holes in the spinneret can vary in
diameter to produce fibers of various denier.
Split Neck - A round neckline that looks like it have been cut in the center to form a
small "V".
Spot Weave - A woven construction in which patterns are built in at spaced intervals
through the use of extra warp and/or extra fill yarns are placed in selected areas. These
yarns are woven into the fabric by means of a dobby or Jacquard attachment.
Spun Rayon – A rayon that is spun to look like cotton or wool.  It is made with staple
fibers in a continuous strand to give this effect.  It wears well and is washable. Made in
different weights and comes in plain colors and prints. Has soft, fuzzy surface and
blends well with cotton.
Spun Yarn - A yarn made by taking a group of short staple fibers, which have been cut
from the longer continuous filament fibers, and then twisting these short staple fibers
together to form a single yarn, which is then used for weaving or knitting fabrics.
Square Neck - An open-yoke neckline shaped in the form of a half square.
Staple Fibers - Short fibers, typically ranging from 1/2 inch up to 18 inches long. Wool,
cotton, and flax exist only as staple fibers. Manufactured staple fibers are cut to a
specific length from the continuous filament fiber. Usually the staple fiber is cut in
lengths ranging from 1-1/2 inches to 8 inches long. A group of staple fibers are twisted
together to form a yarn, which is then woven or knit into fabrics.
Straight Legs - Pant legs cut an equal width from the waist to the ankle.
Suede – Suede leather with a napped surface.  Suede fabric is made from wool, cotton,
rayon, synthetics and blends in a plain, twill, or knitted that is napped on one side to
resemble suede leather.  The short, close nap gives a soft, smooth hand. When made
in cotton, it resembles duvetyne, but heavier.
Sunn – A bast fiber obtained from the Crotalaria juncea plant. The fibers grow from 4 to
5 feet long and are retted and prepared like other bast fibers. Sunn contains over 80%
cellulose and is highly resistant to moisture and meldew. This fiber is mainly produced
in India although small amounts are grown in Uganda. It is mainly used for cordage, rug
yarns, and paper. In India it is also used for fish nets and is sometimes used as a
substitute for jute in bagging cloths.
Surah – A light weight, lustrous twill weave constructed fabric with a silk-like hand.
Surah is the fabric of ties, dresses, and furnishings. It is available in silk, polyester, and
rayon. A silk, rayon, or synthetic fiber woven in a twill (2 up and 2 down) that is soft and
flexible, lightweight and lustrous.  It has a noticeable twill on the fabric and wrinkles
easily. Underlining can help to prevent wrinkling, as well as to prevent slipping at the
seams. Some have a tendency to water spot. It is very similar to "foulard", but heavier.
Sustainable Clothing - Sustainable clothing and sustainable fashion is very
subjective.  Clothing that reduces the environmental impact.  Clothing that supports and
nourishes the earth and the lives of all people involved in the processes of growing,
manufacturing and distributing the clothing.  Reuse and recycling, organic fibers, Free
Trade worker conditions, and animal welfare are important principles for sustainable
clothing and fashion, but it isn't necessary to have them all together.
Sweetheart Neck - A graceful, open yoke, shaped like the top half of a heart.
Synthetics – Fabrics that are not from natural origins.  Synthetics include manmade
polyesters and polyvinyl fiber derivatives such as Acrylic, Nylon and Spandex that have
been synthesized from petroleum and carbon derivatives.
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T
Taffeta - A lustrous, medium-weight, plain-weave fabric with a slight ribbed appearance
in the filling (crosswise) direction made from silk, rayon or synthetics. For formal wear,
taffeta is a favorite choice. It provides a crisp hand, with lots of body. Silk taffeta gives
the ultimate rustle, but other fibers are also good choices.  It is a cloth supposed to have
originated in Iran (Persia) and was called "taftah", meaning a fine silk fabric.  In the 16th
century, it became a luxury for women's wear. It is made in plain colors, fancy prints,
watered designs, and changeable effects. It is smooth with a sheen on its surface. The
textures vary considerably. They have a crispness and stiffness. Taffeta in silk will not
wear as long as other high quality silks, since weighting is given the fabric to make it
stiff. If it is overweighted, the goods will split or crack.
Taffeta (Faille) - Made with a crosswise rib weave and has a distinct rib effect and is
usually quite heavy and firm.
Taffeta (Paper) - Plain weave, very light in weight and treated to give a crisp, paper-like
finish.
Taffeta (Pompadour) - Originally executed in silk and often has large floral designs in
velvet or pile on a Taffeta ground. Occasionally stripes are used instead of flowers.
Today it is made with manufactured fibers.
Taffeta (Shot) - Usually plain weave in one color in the warp and another color in the
filling, which gives the fabric an iridescent look. This color changes as the fabric is
moved in the light.  Shot taffeta is the silk version of chambray.
Taffeta (Tissue) - Plain weave, very light weight and transparent. 
Taffeta (Warp-print) - Usually a plain weave, the warp yarns are printed before the
filling is inserted. The fabric has a very fuzzy design when design is distorted as fabric is
woven.
Tagua Nut - Used as a substitute for plastic buttons, the Tagua nut is a sustainable
commodity harvested by the indigenous people of the rainforest.
Tank Top - A short, sleeveless top with wide armholes.
Tankini - A two piece bathing suit with the upper portion resembling a tank top.
Tapered Legs - Pant legs that become progressively narrower toward the ankle.
Tea Length - A gown hemmed to end at the shin.
Tencel - A trademark of Courtaulds for a high-performance fiber used to make soft,
beautifully draping rayon fabrics.  It is a strong, easy-care fabric made of cellulose
extracted from wood pulp that is harvested from replenished tree farms. It's
environmentally sensitive and washable.  This elegant eco-fiber is derived using a non-
toxic process, which spins it into a buttery-soft machine washable textile, both luxurious
and upscale.  Tencel is 100% biodegradable, durable, dyeable, and machine
washable/dryable.  It is elegant and ultra-soft, offering an incredible drape and
versatility.
Tension Control Weave - A type of decorative weave, characterized by a puckered
effect which occurs because the tension in the warp yarns is intentionally varied before
the filling yarns are placed in the fabric.
Terry - A woven fabric, usually cotton or maybe linen, with loop pile on one or both
sides.  Pile, also jacquard and dobby combined with pile.  It has either all over loops on
both sides of the fabric or patterned loops on both sides. It is formed with an extra warp
yarn. Long wearing, easy to launder and requires no ironing. May be bleached, dyed, or
printed. Better qualities have a close, firm, underweave, with very close loops. Terry is
very absorbent, and the longer the loop, the greater the absorbency. When the pile is
only on one side, it is called "Turkish toweling".  Commonly used in towels, beachwear,
bathrobes, all kinds of sportswear, children's wear, slip covers, and draperies.
Terry Cloth - Type of cloth that has uncut loops on the pile. A typical uncut pile weave
fabric. This fabric is formed by using two sets of warp yarns. One set of warp yarns is
under very little tension; when the filling yarns are packed into place, these loose yarns
are pushed backward along with the filling yarns, and loops are formed. Typical uses
include towels, robes, and apparel.
Terry Velour - A pile weave cotton fabric with an uncut pile on one side and a cut pile
on the reverse side. Terry velour is valued for its soft, luxurious hand. Typical uses
include towels, robes, and apparel.
Thread Count - The number of yarns per square inch in a woven fabric (warp yarn x
weft yarn per sq. inch). The higher the count the finer the fabric.
Ticking - A tightly woven, very durable fabric, usually made of cotton, and used for
covering mattresses, box springs, pillows, and work clothes. The fabric can be made by
using a plain, satin, or twill weave construction.
Ticking - Cotton twill that is very tightly woven with more warp than filling yarns. It is
very sturdy and strong, smooth and lustrous. Usually has white and colored stripes, but
some patterned (floral).  Tiking can be made water-repellent, germ resistant, and
feather-proof.   Uses include pillow covers, mattress coverings, upholstering and some
sportswear. "Bohemian ticking" has a plain weave, a very high texture, and is
featherproof.  It has a lighter weight than regular ticking and is patterned with narrow
colored striped on a white background or may have a chambray effect by using a white
or unbleached warp with a blue or red filling.
Tie-Cinched Waist - The waist is pulled tight around the body with a tie.
Tri-acetate - A manufactured fiber, which, like acetate, is made by modifying cellulose.
Tri-acetate is less absorbent and less sensitive to high temperatures than acetate. It can
be hand or machine washed and tumble dried, with relatively good wrinkle recovery.
Tricot – A warp knit fabric of silk, rayon, or synthetics in which the fabric is formed by
interlooping adjacent parallel yarns. The warp beam holds thousands of yards of yarns
in a parallel arrangement, and these yarns are fed into the knitting area simultaneously.
Sufficient yarns to produce the final fabric width and length are on the beam. Knit or
warp knitted with vertical wales on surface and more or less crosswise ribs on the back. 
It has a thin texture, made from very fine or single yarns. Glove silk is a double bar tricot
(very run-resistant).  Used in underwear, sportswear, bathing suits, gloves.
Tricotine – A fabric of worsted, wool, rayon, or blends with synthetics.  It has a double
twill rib on the face of the cloth with a very clear finish. It drapes well, and tailors easily
and is medium in weight.  It has exceptional wearing qualities and is very much like
cavalry twill, but finer.  It is in the same family as whipcords, coverts, and gabardines.
Trim - To cut off the ragged edges below the seam line to prevent the garment from
being bulky and to give the seam a neat finish.
Tropical Worsteds - 100% worsted.  If it is just called tropical, it can be made up in any
fiber or blends of wool and synthetics.  It has a plain and open weave.  The yarns are
tightly twisted and woven to permit a free circulation of air. It is lightweight ad is ideal for
summer and tropical wear. It has a clear finish and wears and tailors very well. 
Tulle – Made from Silk, nylon, or cotton in a weave of guaze, knotted, or leno and made
on a lace machine.  Its name is derived name from Tulle, France and was first made by
Machine in 1768. It has a hexagonal mesh and is stiff and difficult to launder. It is very
cool, dressy, delicate and is a stately type of fabric when used for formal wear, and
weddings. It is also used for ballet costumes and wedding veils.
Tunic Style - A simple slip-on garment made with or without sleeves and usually knee-
length or longer, belted at the waist and worn as an under or outer garment.
Turtleneck - A high, close-fitting, turnover collar used especially for sweaters.
Tussah – A silk fabric that is usually plain but also in twill.  It is made from wild or
uncultivated silkworms. It is coarse, strong, and uneven and has a dull luster and is
rather stiff. It has a rough texture with many slubs, knots, and bumps. It is ecru or tan in
color and it is difficult to bleach. It usually doesn't take an even dye color. It wears well
and becomes more rough looking with wear. It wrinkles a little, but not as much as
some.
Tweed – Generally made of wool, but can also be fabricated from cotton, rayon, silk,
linen, and synthetics.  Tweed is the Scotch name for twill and originated along the
banks of the Tweed river, which separates England from Scotland.  It is sometimes
known as "tweel" and is similar to homespun cheviot and shetland. They are the same
in texture, yarn, weight, feel, and use.  Tweed was originally only made from different
colored stock-dyed fibers, producing various color effects. The tweed fabric family
consists of a wide range of rough surfaced, sturdy fabrics. There are also some closely
woven, smoother, softer yarn fabrics, and many monotone tweeds.  Tweed may also be
plaid, checked, striped, or have other patterns.  It does not hold a crease very well.
Typically used in a wide range of suits, coats, and sportswear for men, women and
children.
Tweed (Harris) - All are hand woven on the islands off the northern coast of Scotland
(Outer Hebrides). Harris Tweed was originally woven from hand-spun yarn.  When
damp, it smells mossy and smoky. 
Twill - A fabric that shows a distinct diagonal wale on the face such as denim,
gabardine, or tricotine.
Twill Weave - A basic weave in which the fabrics are constructed by interlacing warp
and filling yarns in a progressive alternation which creates a diagonal effect on the face,
or right side, of the fabric. In some twill weave fabrics, the diagonal effect may also be
seen clearly on the back side of the fabric.
Twist - A term that applies to the number of turns and the direction that two yarns are
turned during the manufacturing process. The yarn twist brings the fibers close together
and makes them compact. It helps the fibers adhere to one another, increasing yarn
strength. The direction and amount of yarn twist helps determine appearance,
performance, durability of both yarns and the subsequent fabric or textile product.
Single yarns may be twisted to the right (S twist) or to the left (Z twist). Generally,
woolen and worsted yarns are S-twist, while cotton and flax yarns are typically Z-twist.
Twist is generally expressed as turns per inch (tpi), turns per meter (tpm), or turns per
centimeter (tpc).
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U
Urena - This bast fibre comes from the Urena lobata plant.  Wild, it grows 3 to 7 feet
high and when cultivated can grow as tall as 13 feet. The fiber strands are cream
coloured and have a wonderful luster. This fiber is mainly grown in the Congo area
although small amounts are also raised in Brazil, India and the Philippines. Urena has
the same uses as jute.
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V
V-Neck / V-Back - An open yoke coming to a "V" shape midway down the bodice.
Variegated - Having streaks, marks or patches of different colors.  Distinquished or
characterized by a variety of different colors.
Velour - A medium-weight, closely-woven cotton, wool, or spun rayon fabric with a
thick, plush pile. It can be made using either a plain weave or a satin weave
construction. It resembles velvet, but has a lower cut pile.  The pile is characterized by
two different lengths which gives it a rough look. The two lengths of pile create light and
shaded areas on the surface and give it a pebbled effect. This type of velour was
invented and made in Lyons, France, in 1844. "Velours" is the French term for velvet.
"Cotton velour" is simply cotton velvet.
Velvet - A medium-weight, cut-pile constructed fabric of silk, rayon, cotton or sythetics
in which the cut pile stands up very straight. It is woven using two sets of warp yarns;
the extra set creates the pile. Velvet, a luxurious fabric, is commonly made with a
filament fiber for high luster and smooth hand.  Mostly made with a plain back but some
with a twill.  Some are made with a silk pile and a rayon or cotton back. The name
comes from the Latin "vellus", meaning a fleece or tufted hair and it comes in many
types, qualities, and weights. Good velvet wears fairly well and is inexpensive. The
cheaper cloths give little service and look well only a few times before beginning to
deteriorate. Better velvet may be crush resistant, water resistant, and drapes well but it
has to be handled with care, and pressed on a velvet board. Cut all one way. For the
maximum amount of depth in the color, cut it with the pile running up.  It also wears
better when cut this way. Velvet should be cut with very simple lines in the garment, so
not to destroy the beauty of the fabric. It has the tendency to add weight to the figure.
Velvet (Cisele) - A velvet with a pattern formed by contrast in cut and uncut loops.
Velvet (Faconne) - Patterned velvet made by burnt-out print process. The design is of
velvet with background plain.
Velvet (Lyons) - A stiff, thick pile velvet. Used for hats, coat collars, also for suits, coats
and dresses, when thick velvets are fashionable.
Velvet (Nacre) - The back is of one color and the pile of another, so that it gives a
changeable, pearly appearance.
Velvet (Chiffon Velvet or Transparent Velvet) - Lightweight, very soft, draping velvet
made with a silk or rayon back and a rayon pile.
Velvet (Panne) - Has a longer or higher pile than velvet, but shorter than plush. It is
pressed flat and has a high luster made possible by a tremendous roller-press treatment
given the material in finishing. Now often made as knit fabric.
Velvet (Utrecht) - Originated in Utrecht, Holland where it was made of silk. It was
pressed and crimped to produce a raised effect. Today both mohair and silk are used.
Velvet Satin - A satin weave is used as the base for this luxurious figured silk, made
with a cut pile effect.
Velveteen - Cotton, sometimes rayon, with a very short filling pile. Woven with a extra
filling yarn with either a plain or a twill back (twill back is the best).  Velveteen is often
mercerized with a durable finish. It is strong and takes hard wear. Poor quality rubs off.
Some velveteen can be laundered. It is a warm, cozy fabric that comes in all colors,
gradually piece dyed or may be printed.  Vetveteen has to be cut all one way. Press
carefully, preferably on a velvet board, or tumble dry after laundering (no pressing
needed). Mostly used in children's wear, dresses, coats, draperies, lounge wear, and a
few special Rabbits.
Venetian – A fabric of worsted, wool worsted and wool and cotton in a satin weave,
some in small repeat twill weaves with a clear finish. Has a very good lustre finish which
resembles satin. Some has a slight nap. Wears well - similar cloth has worsted warp
and woolen filling.
Venice lace - This lace often has a high profile, and is made using a needlepoint
technique rather than embroidery. A heavier weight lace, the patterns vary from
geometric to floral. Each pattern is attached to the others by bars made of thread.
Vichy - The cotton weave of this fabric is formed of horizontal bands and vertical bands
respectively in a light and strong variants of the same color.
Vicuna – The fleece is reddish brown, shading to white on the belly.  The fibers can be
use to manufacture the softest coat cloth in the world … or at least that’s the story from
the vicuna growers industry.
Viscose - The most common type of rayon. It is produced in much greater quantity than
cuprammonium rayon, the other commercial type.
Viyella – A twill blend of 55% wool and 45% cotton that has the appearance of very fine
flannel. It is soft, fine, and warm that holds a good pleat.  It is machine washable.
Voile - A crisp, lightweight, plain weave cotton-like fabric, made with high twist yarns in
a high yarn count construction.  It is similar in appearance to organdy and organza. 
When it is made from wool, it is called "Voile de laine".   Voile is sheer and very light-
weight.  It is usually made with cylindrical combed yarns. To obtain a top quality fabric,
very highly twisted yarns are used. Voile drapes and gathers very well. The clear
surface is obtained by singeing away any fuzzy yarns.  It has a hard finish and a crisp,
sometimes wiry, hand.
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W
Waffle Cloth - A honeycomb weave usually of cotton or wool, used mainly for towels
and robes.
Warm Colors - Colors like red, orange, and yellow are called warm colors.  They are
advancing in nature because, as seen by the eye, these colors move closer thereby
reducing the size of an object.  Warm colors are cheerful.
Warp Knit - A type of knitted fabric construction in which the yarns are formed into
stitches in a lengthwise manner. Warp knits are generally less elastic than weft knits.
Common examples of warp knits are tricot knits and raschel knits.
Warp Thread - The set of fixed threads that are set lengthwise across the fabrics.
Waterproof - A term applied to fabrics whose pores have been closed, and therefore,
will not allow water or air to pass through them.
Water Repellent - A term applied to fabrics that have been treated with a finish which
causes them to shed water, but are still air-permeable.
Wedding-Band Collar - A collar featuring a yoke that is either open or of sheer net with
an ornate band fitting snugly on the neck, creating a choker effect.
Weft - The crosswise threads of any woven fabric.
Weft Knit - A type of knitted fabric in which yarns are formed into stitches in widthwise
manner. Common examples of weft knits are circular knits and flat knits.
Whipcord - Cotton, rayon, worsted or woolen twill that is similar to gabardine, but the
yarn is bulkier and much more pronounced. It is very durable, rugged and stands hard
usage and wear. In time, it shines a bit with wear. Some times back is napped for
warmth. It is named because it stimulates the lash of a whip.
Wickability - The ability of a fiber or a fabric to disperse moisture and allow it to pass
through to the surface of the fabric, so that evaporation can take place.
Wicking - Dispersing or spreading of moisture or liquid through a given area by
capillary action in a material.
Wing Collar - A collar with projections which cover shoulder seams of bodices and
doublets.
Woof - The threads that cross the warp of a woven fabric; the weft.
Wool – A protein fiber usually associated with fiber or fabric made from the fleece of
sheep or lambs. However, the term "wool" can also apply to all animal hair fibers,
including the hair of the Cashmere or Angora goat or the specialty hair fibers of the
camel, alpaca, llama, or vicuna.  Wool is very resilient and resistant to wrinkling. It is
renewed by moisture and well known for its warmth. It absorbs and releases moisture
slowly, which allows excellent insulating capabilities and breathability. It can even hold
30% of its own weight without feeling damp.
Wool (Eco Wool) – Sheared from free range roaming sheep that have not been
subjected to toxic flea dipping, and have not been treated with chemicals, dyes, or
bleaches.  Eco wool comes in natural tones of white, grey and black.
Worsted Fabric - A tightly woven fabric made by using only long staple, combed wool
or wool-blend yarns. The fabric has a hard, smooth surface. Gabardine is an example of
a worsted fabric. A common end use is men's tailored suits.
Woven Fabric - Fabrics composed of two sets of yarns. One set of yarns, the warp,
runs along the length of the fabric. The other set of yarns, the fill or weft, is
perpendicular to the warp. Woven fabrics are held together by weaving the warp and
the fill yarns over and under each other.
Wrinkle Recovery - Similar to resiliency. It is the ability of a fabric to bounce back after
it has been twisted, wrinkled, or distorted in any way.
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X
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Y
Yarn - A continuous strand of textile fibers created when a cluster of individual fibers
are twisted together. These long yarns are used to create fabrics, either by knitting or
weaving.
Yarn Dyed - Yarns dyed in a bundle or package before weaving into fabrics like
ginghams, stripes and plaids. Also known as "color-woven" fabric.
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Z
Zephyr – The name comes from the ancient God of the Winds Zephrus. The quality of
the textile is airy and can be made in wool, cotton and synthetics
 
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August 15, 2009 | Permalink | Comments (5) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: clothing, clothing glossary, fiber glossary, fibers, glossary, organic

Permanent Press: Facts behind the Fabrics

 Permanent press clothing and wrinkles. Permanent press – aka
crease resistant, crease proof, wrinkle-resistant, durable press, wrinkle free – is
another of those 1950s brain storms that seemed like a good idea at the time when
we were all infatuated with the promise of science to remove toil and strain from our
daily lives. We didn’t need balanced, nutritious meals; we just needed our one-a-day
Flintstone Multi-Vitamins. As the 1950s rocketed into the Age of Science, it seemed
only right that the Stone Age concept of using a hot chunk of iron to smooth wrinkles
from clothes should give way to scientific, easy-care garments. Science took aim at
the prime culprit in wrinkling - the weak hydrogen bond which cross-linked the
cellulose polymers in cotton.

The cross-linked hydrogen bonds keep in place the cellulose polymers

in cellulose fabrics such as cotton, hemp and flax. The bad news is that the hydrogen
bonds are relatively weak and easily broken by moisture. Once the hydrogen bonds
holding the cellulose fibers in place are broken by moisture, then the fibers can shift
place and realign themselves and wrinkles are born in cellulose-based fabrics. The
1950s attempt at good news came from Ruth Benerito, the Mother of Permanent
Press, at the Physical Chemistry Research Group of the Cotton Chemical Reactions
Laboratory of the USDA Southern Regional Research Center when she developed a
process to replace the weak hydrogen bonds with stronger bonds that were water-
resistant. The bad news was that the new cross-linking agent was formaldehyde – a
toxic chemical that not only smelled bad and made the fabric more brittle but was
also carcinogenic and a health hazard.

The bad news of using formaldehyde resins to create permanent

cross-linked hydrogen bonds for wrinkle-free clothing continues to this day even
though the processes have improved. The early formaldehyde-soaked permanent press
garments felt scratchy and stiff and smelled funny. The formaldehyde resins also
weakened the fabric. Oh, yes … and formaldehyde has also been recognized as a
probable carcinogen that can cause a wide variety of health problems such as burning
and watery eyes, respiratory complains such as coughing and difficulty in breathing,
and allergic contact dermatitis where permanent press clothing comes into contact
with the skin.
Regardless of how we might feel about the ethics of dressing millions and millions of
people in clothes reeking with formaldehyde, the accomplishments of Ruth Benerito
at the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the 1950s and 60s are impressive. During her
many years as a research scientist at the male-dominated USDA, Ruth Benerito
garnered 55 patents in creating easy-care cotton fabrics which “saved the cotton
industry.”
As the Age of Science Infatuation in the 1950s and early 1960s gave way to the
Summer of Love and Age of Rebellion in the 1960s and 1970s and then to the Age of
Excess Consumerism in the 1980s and 1990s, process improvements were slowly being
made in manufacturing wrinkle-resistant cotton textiles to reduce – but not eliminate
– the amount of formaldehyde bound on the surface of the fabric.
How the permanent press processes work. There are two basic processes for
finishing cotton textiles with wrinkle-resistant properties: the procure process and the
postcure process. The procure process goes like this:
1. The conventional cotton or cotton blend fabric is dyed;
2. Garments are sewn together;
3. Formaldehyde resins are applied to the garments;
4. Garments are tumble dried at a low temperature to remove moisture but
not cure the formaldehyde resins and cause cross linking of formaldehyde
and hydrogen atoms in the cotton’s cellulose fibers;
5. Press the garments to create creases in the clothing were creases are
wanted such as pant legs and sleeves on shirts;
6. Oven cure the pressed garments at a high temperature to cross link the
formaldehyde and cellulose fibers to create the permanent press properties.
The postcure process is similar except that the formaldehyde resin is applied in step 2
after the fabric is dyed but before the garments are sewn together and made-up. The
postcure process goes like this:
1. Dye cotton or cotton blend fabric;
2. Apply formaldehyde resin;
3. Tumble dry to remove moisture;
4. Sew and garment make-up;
5. Press clothing to create creases where wanted;
6. Oven cure to cross link and create the permanent press properties.
Reducing the amount of formaldehyde in clothing. Two improvements were
developed in the 1990’s to reduce the amount of formaldehyde bound into clothing.
One method consists of soaking conventional cotton fabric in formaldehyde resins,
rolling the toxic fabrics between huge rollers to squeeze out excess formaldehyde
resins, and then baking in large ovens at 300° Fahrenheit to cure the formaldehyde
resins into the fabrics so that it becomes permanent and doesn’t eventually wash out.
Some clothing manufacturers, such as the large multi-national Nisshinbo Industries in
Japan, will then also treat the formaldehyde-laced fabric with liquid ammonia to
reduce shrinkage.
The other permanent press technology improvement that is actively used today
consists of exposing garments to formaldehyde gases which permeate the fabric and
then are baked into the clothing. This is known as a vapor phase technology.
Manufacturers have their own variations of vapor phase treatment for crease
resistance, but the basic technology is composed of fabrics of cotton or other
cellulose or regenerated cellulose fibers like bamboo and Tencel / lyocell) or
cellulose fabrics blended with synthetics like polyesters, an airtight chamber or room,
formaldehyde gas, sulfur dioxide gas, and moisture.
Vapor Phase Technology. The basic process works like this. The clothing or fabric is
placed in the airtight chamber and is moistened with water or steam until the water
moisture in the fabric is about 5% to 20% of the fabric weight. Formaldehyde gas is
pumped into the chamber until the concentration of air in the chamber is
approximately 40% to 60% formaldehyde gas and then sulfur dioxide gas is also
pumped into the chamber. The sulfur dioxide gas acts as a catalyst causing the
formaldehyde gas to cross link and bond with the hydrogen atoms in the cellulose
polymers which help create not only crease- and wrinkle-resistance but also help
protect from fabric shrinking and improved color retention and color fastness. The
amount of formaldehyde that cross-links with the cellulose fibers is 0.3% to 0.6% of
the weight of the cellulose fibers. You can see that there is a significant amount of
formaldehyde bonded into each garment. Steam seems to be the preferred method of
moisturizing the fabric as the steam also forces the formaldehyde gas and sulfur
dioxide gas to penetrate the fabric which increases the cross-linking of formaldehyde
to the hydrogen atom in the cellulose polymers.
A variation on the vapor phase processing is by impregnating the fabrics with an
aqueous solution of a weak acid salt such as zinc chloride, ammonium chloride,
sodium di-hydrogen phosphate, magnesium chloride or phosphoric acid after exposure
of the fabric to formaldehyde and before garment fabrication to facilitate cross-
linking. Manufacturers may vary the chemicals used as a catalyst, the temperature in
the gas chamber, whether fabrics are gassed before or after being fabricated into
garments, the moisture contents, and other factors but the bottom line is that the
finishing of easy-care garments is highly chemical and technology-intensive.
Although Ruth Benerito invented permanent press technology in the labs at the USDA
in the 1950’s, it wasn’t until the 1990’s that permanent press popularity really took
off. Before then the brittleness, fabric yellowing, and unpleasant feel and smell of
permanent press clothes from the heavy formaldehyde discouraged wearers. The new
and improved finishing technologies were applied to men’s all-cotton trousers and
revitalized the industry. It is more than a little ironic that consumers were drawn to
buy 100% cotton slacks because they were perceived as being more natural but they
also wanted the easy-care low maintenance clothing even if it was impregnated with
toxic and possibly carcinogenic chemicals.
All in the (Formaldehyde) Family. Besides process improvements in the 1990’s,
chemical scientists at the large garment manufacturers also began scouting for other
chemicals which might reduce or eliminate the amount of formaldehyde baked into
wrinkle-free clothing. Clothes labeled permanent-press or durable-press have been
dipped in a chemical cornucopia of cross-linking resins such as isocyanates, epoxides,
divinylsulfones, aldehydes, chlorohydrins, polycarboxylic acids and N-methylol
compounds. Popular with today’s textile chemists are resins of N-methylol compounds
which include dimethylol urea, dimethylol ethylene urea, trimethylol trazine,
dimethylol methyl carbamate, uron, triazone, and DMDHEU.
The chemical DMDHEU (which you might know better as dimethyol dihydroxy ethylene
urea or 1, 2-Dimethylol-4, 5-dihydroxyethyleneurea … ever wonder how they make up
these names?) has become the most widely used cross-linking agent. The problem is
that DMDHEU, like all the other commonly used cross-linking agents, is still a member
of the huge formaldehyde family. The National Toxicology Program at the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services still warn that even though formaldehyde
off gassing emissions in clothing have been reduced, DMDHEU has been found “to be
causal agents in textile-related dermatitis.” Research is continuing into other possible
health hazards from DMDHEU and its other formaldehyde-related cousins.
On a sidebar note: the National Toxicology Program is charged with
safeguarding public health by evaluating new chemicals released into the public
marketplace. More than 80,000 chemicals are registered for use in the U.S. Each year,
manufacturers inject an estimated 2,000 new chemicals into our society through all
the countless products that Americans buy each year. Many of these new chemicals
have not been adequately tested for potential health hazards.
Wrinkle-resistant fabrics are often treated with softeners such as polyethylene to
improve the hand and feel of the perma press fabric and for better wash durability.
Some manufacturers are also adding fluorochemical additives to increase stain-
resistance.
Another formaldehyde resin currently popular with garment manufacturers is DMUG
(dimethylurea glyoxal) because it gives a smoother surface smoothness and greater
strength and abrasion resistance than DMDHEU but the crease retention of DMUG is
not as good as with DMDHEU so sometimes the two are blended together to create a
permanent press cocktail.
Fabric is typically dyed before being treated with formaldehyde resins for crease
resistance. Sometimes, sulfur-dyed fabrics impregnated with a formaldehyde resin
finish will deteriorate due to the generation of acid from the sulfur dye, especially if
black sulfur dye was used. Manufacturers use a slightly modified process to reduce the
possibility of acid being generated in people’s washing machines and dryers. But the
possibility still exists … it’s just been reduced is all.
The science and technology of chemical fabric finishes is astounding and most people
have no idea of the vast range of chemicals – some harsh and toxic – that are used to
create those easy care clothes that tempt busy consumers. Today’s easy care clothes
are the product of a total textile engineering that includes the selection of the fiber,
the yarn characteristics, the fabric construction, preparation, dyeing, finishing
formulations, and procedures.
While most conventional textile manufacturers would probably take umbrage at the
suggestion that their clothes could qualify as toxic Superfunds, there is no doubt that
easy care all-cotton clothing has become highly chemical intensive.

 Chemicals in the laundry room. The chemical war on wrinkles

doesn’t end in the hi-tech fabric finishing labs of conventional garment manufacturers
but is also waged in ordinary laundry rooms everywhere. Beginning in the early
2000’s, the large laundry care chemical companies launched an assault of wrinkle-
attacking laundry products such as Downy Wrinkle Releaser and Wisk detergent with
Wrinkle Reducer followed by a platoon of gimmicky wrinkle removing spray-on
products such as Faultless Wrinkle Remover spray-on, Apparel Press wrinkle-removing
spray, and Wrinkle Out Spray by Stanley Home Products.

The basic premise is that these detergents and sprays will cause
clothing wrinkles to melt away and “keep your casual clothes looking neat without all
the hassle of ironing.” Besides dissolving wrinkles in that crumpled cotton blouse,
these products are also supposed work their magic on wools, silks and dry-clean-only
garments. How do they do it? Chemicals … lots of chemicals. Manufacturers do not
reveal all the chemicals that are used in their products, only the “active ingredients”
so determining exactly what is in what is difficult.

Some of the chemicals commonly used in laundry products to reduce

wrinkles include: sodium alcohol ethoxy sulfate, alcohol ethoxylate, sodium linear
alkyl benzene sulfonate, propylene glycol, sulphated/sulphonated vegetable oils,
zwitterionic surfactants, curable aminosilicones, cellulase enzymes,
polyalkyleneoxide modified polydimethylsiloxane, ethoxylated organosilicones, linear
aminopolydimethylsiloxane polyalkyleneoxide copolymers, high molecular weight
polyacrylamides, betaine siloxane copolymers, alkylactam siloxane copolymers – PLUS
tons of artificial fragrances and perfumes to create the chemical illusion of “Morning
Fresh”, “Spring Morning”, “Clean Breeze”, “Mountain Spring”, Tropical Clean”,
lavender, vanilla, and all the other countless chemical smells that they use to
saturate clothes.

Chemicals in the fragrances of consumer products have been

identified to the allergens and worse. The Scientific Committee on Cosmetic Products
and Non-Food Products (SCCNFP) issued a position paper highlighting the use of
allergens in the chemical fragrances often used in consumer detergents. Their
position stated “A person sensitised to a certain fragrance material will elicit an
allergic response when exposed to this fragrance from any product whether cosmetic
or detergents under similar exposure conditions. Thus, it is important that consumers
have information on the presence of fragrance chemicals in the respective products.”
Sidebar conversation: For a well done overview of chemicals used in laundry
detergents and laundry fragrances, check out the 5-part series in the Bright
Hub reporting on the environmental and health impact of conventional and
environmentally responsible laundry products. The Bright Hub is a good resource that
attempts to "share knowledge about how the simplest scientific idea evolves into
tomorrow’s technology.”

Laundry products are often loaded with chemical ingredients that can
be unhealthy for people and the environment. A patent application by laundry
product giant Unilever on “Wrinkle Reduction Laundry Product Compositions” outlines
commonly used chemicals in laundry products such as liquid fabric softeners for
reducing wrinkles in cotton and cotton blend fabrics. The Unilever patent application
mentions “Additional materials typically used in these formulations include
preservatives, pH control agents, viscosity modifying salts, perfumes, optical
brighteners, colorants and color care agents.” Unilever is the maker of Wisk with
Wrinkle Reducer laundry detergent which spectacularly failed to live up to
expectations and marketing hype.
 Getting back to how chemists deal with wrinkles, laundry room
wrinkle removers reduce wrinkles by “relaxing” the fibers which actually means that
wrinkle-relaxing products penetrate fabrics and apply a find coat of lubricate to the
fiber surfaces so that the fibers can slide more easily relative to each other and can
be pulled straight, resulting in less wrinkles. The ingredients used to coat fabric fibers
so that wrinkles can be smoothed out are usually a polyolefine type softener such as
polyethylene and polypropylene or a curable amine functional silicone.
Many consumers have reported after using some of these wrinkle-relaxer and fabric
softening products that their clothes felt like they have a film on them that builds
with continued use. Consumer tests have also questioned the effectiveness at
eliminating or reducing wrinkles. Don’t expect these products to allow you to toss out
that rusty old steam iron.

The future of wrinkle-reducing textile manufacturing and laundry

products: Don’t expect the unnatural laundry products industry to rollover and give
up. The laundry care market is an $11+ billion industry and growing at a rate of more
than 5% annually. The big names are spending big bucks to develop and roll out new
chemical additives and new technologies to improve the garment and textile markets.
Proctor & Gamble spent over $100 million just to build a new fabric and home care
research and development center. Proctor & Gamble also developed a new cellulosic
Liquifiber technology which is used in Tide Ultra powder under the trademark
WearCare. Liquid Detergents - Second Edition, edited by Kou-Yann Lai from CRC
Press describes the Liquifiber technology as hydrophobically modified cellulosic
polymers that binds to cotton fibers and effectively glues the cotton fibril in place so
that they do not break lose causing fraying, microscopic pills, color degradation, and
wrinkling. Curiously, the basic concept is the same as that used in Proctor & Gamble’s
Pantene Pro-V Restoratives Time Renewal shampoo and conditioner collection for
hair. I guess that fiber is fiber in the R & D labs.
The use of enzymes in all phases of textile manufacturing and especially garment
finishing will continue to grow. Expect enzyme use in detergents and laundry products
to also grow. GMO (genetically modified organisms) technology is also becoming more
prevalent as new enzyme cocktails are being developed for use in the textile and
home laundry product industries. Genencor is one of the largest of the biotechnology
companies providing textile enzymes for textile manufacturing and finishing.

Look also for growth in nano-technologies for textiles. Nanotech

textiles have quietly been infiltrating the textile manufacturing industry with new
fabrics which are touted as having anti-wrinkle, anti-static, anti-stain, and anti-
bacterial. Because nano-textiles have the potential to be a high tech tsunami on the
textile industry we will explore the potential impacts in the next post.Stay tuned...
Enjoy.
Michael
January 03, 2009 | Permalink | Comments (3) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: chemicals in clothing, chemicals in fabrics, organic clothing, permanent press

How to Keep Natural Fiber Clothes from Wrinkling

“WARNING! Never iron or steam clothes while they are being worn.” –
an actual warning in the operating instructions booklet for the high-end Rowenta
electric steam clothes iron.
Resist the urge! Even when you are frantically late and you slip on that freshly
laundered – but not ironed – organic cotton shirt or bamboo skirt and the wrinkles
jump out like the back side of the moon, don’t even think the thought that maybe you
could just ever so quickly iron out the more visible areas while just standing
there.  Some people obviously have given in to the impulse which is why corporate
liability lawyers now place the warning prominently in their operating
manuals.  Never mind that anyone who would try such a clueless feat would also
never, ever read an operations manual.
While ironing and pressing are the avenue of last resort to remove wrinkles from
natural fiber and organic clothing, you do have a laundry basket of options which can
greatly reduce or eliminate wrinkles from your clothes before they ever reach the
ironing board. Here are some of the best.
In the store. The wild, woolly world of wrinkling woes begins in the store or recycled
and pre-worn clothing shops. Not only do some fibers wrinkle more than others but
some fabrics and weaves also so a greater propensity for wrinkles. If wrinkle-control is
a big issue for you when shopping for new or recycled natural fiber clothing:
 Choose fabric weaves that are more immune to wrinkles like knits for
cellulose fibers such as cotton, hemp, bamboo and Tencel / lyocell.
 Silk is a notorious wrinkler, but some silks are less prone to wrinkling. Chose
silk crepe de chine, habotai, noil and charmeuse silks to tame the wrinkle
monsters. Ahimsa silk – also known as Peace Silk because the silk worms are
allowed to live and are not destroyed as they are for conventional silk – is
also reputed to be more wrinkle resistant.
 Because of the elastic nature of wool fibers, wool fabrics are less likely to
wrinkle … but they still can and do. Worsted wools are more tightly woven
and more resistant to wrinkles while loosely woven woolens are more prone
to wrinkling.
 Tightly woven garments with a high thread count are less susceptible to
wrinkling. This is true for most fibers including organic cotton and the
cellulose-derivatives like bamboo, Tencel / lyocell and modal.
In the laundry room. Here is where the real wrinkle-trouble blossoms. Many people –
myself included – have laundry habits that maximize the potential for wrinkles.
Besides blooming wrinkles, the laundry room also has a huge impact on the size of the
environmental footprint created by clothing.
We have written a handful of posts about
the environmental,ethical and health impacts of the clothing industry – including the
time in the laundry room. The study “Well dressed?” from the University of Cambridge
in the UK discovered that electric and gas clothes dryers use about 60% of the “use
phase” energy consumed to keep clothes clean, ironed and pressed. Many advocate
the use of clothes line drying indoors or outdoors to reduce the use of electric and gas
clothes dryers. The excellent sustainable blog Green Living Tips has several articles
exploring ways to incorporate clothes lines into the laundry lives of house and
apartment dwellers. Originating in Australia and oozing with Down Under
sensibilities, GreenLivingTips.com is definitely worth visiting frequently.

Washing machines use large amounts of water and energy to heat the
water. The new high efficiency (he) washers are a significant environmental
improvement that uses 50% or more less water, energy and detergent than
conventional clothes washing machines.
Regardless of the type of washing machine or if you line dry or tumble dry, there are
steps that you can take in the laundry room to win the war on wrinkles. Remember
that it is heat and moisture that feed those wrinkle appetites so learn how to use
them to deflate those wrinkle tendencies. Here are some tips:
 One popular home remedy is to add one cup of white vinegar to the final rinse
of wash cycle. The white vinegar can be added to the fabric softener
reservoir. This is supposed to help eliminate static cling and wrinkles. The
theory is that the white vinegar helps keep the fabric fibers soft and flexible
so that wrinkles don’t set into the fabric.
 As soon as the last spin cycle of the washing machine finishes, remove the
clothes immediately - don’t let them sit in a big damp clump. Take out each
garment individually, shake it out to remove all the twists, and place it in
the dryer or hang it on a clothes line.
 When using a tumble clothes dryer, don’t stuff your dryer so that clothes are
unable to open up and dry evenly. If your clothes dry in a wad, all those
wrinkles will be trapped in the fabric. Some people suggest adding five or six
tennis balls to the load. The tennis balls will help prevent the clothes from
clumping together which will keep air flowing over all surfaces of the
clothes. This will also help reduce the time to dry. The tennis balls will
make some additional noise as they tumble around but they won’t cause any
harm to the dryer drum or to the clothing.
 Remove clothes from the dryer as soon as they are dry. Leaving clothes
tumbling in a hot dryer after they are dry just bakes in wrinkles … besides
creating the conditions for shrinking and increasing static cling. This also
means that a dryer load should contain fabrics of a similar weight so that
they dry in roughly the same amount of time. Don’t plop a couple of heavy
bath towels, which will take a long time to dry, in a dryer with light cotton
shirts, which will dry more quickly.
 Hang or fold clothes as soon as the clothes are dry and removed from the
dryer. Don’t leave them in a big heap in the laundry basket waiting to cool
down. Remember about the glass transition temperature? When clothes cool
down, the cellulose polymers will slip below their glass transition
temperature and they will tend to retain whatever shape they are in. If they
cool down in a crumpled heap, they will look it.
 If you are hanging clothes on a line to dry rather than using a tumble dryer,
give each garment a good shake and smooth the fabric when placing on the
line to dry. The smoother the clothes when hanging them, the less wrinkles
after they dry.
 When drying on a line whether outside or indoors, a breeze blowing on the
clothes will not only help them dry more quickly, but will also help remove
stiffness and give a softness to the fabric. When line drying indoors, you can
 even use an electric fan to create a breeze on the clothes. The motion will
keep the fabric fibers flexible as they dry which not only helps prevent
wrinkles but gives a softness to the fabric. This is also one of the effects of
the tumbling action in clothes dryers.
 For 100% bamboo fabrics, line or flat drying is generally recommended.
Tumble dryers can cause 100% bamboo clothes to loose their shape and even
shrink.

On the ironing board. After choosing your fabrics wisely and

laundering correctly, if there are still wrinkles that you must flatten, then the
electric steam iron is your trick of last resort. The steam iron combines the two
primary factors in wrinkling – heat and moisture – to undo wrinkling.
Wrinkles will generally fall out of woolen fabrics if left to hang overnight, especially if
they have been lightly steamed. Warm steam will help the tight, crinkly wool fibers to
relax and loosen. If the woolen clothes are hanging, the weight of the garments will
naturally pull most wrinkles out if left to hang overnight. For stubborn wrinkles, use a
steam iron set to the wool setting which should provide a light, moist steam. Tips for
ironing woolens:
 Don’t iron woolens when they are totally dry;
 If possible, iron the back side of the fabric to avoid a shine. If you must press
the visible side of the woolen fabric, use a press cloth or thin towel on top
of the fabric;
 Lower and lift the iron when pressing rather than sliding the iron back and
forth.
In the closet. The battle against the wrinkle doesn’t end in the laundry room. When
hanging clothes in the closet, give them a little room to hang. If clothes are tightly
smushed together then any creases or twists will effectively get pressed back into the
clothes. Shirts are best hung on plastic or wood hangers (not metal like the ones you
get from the dry cleaners) and pants are best using clamp-style hangers on the
bottom cuffs.
While traveling or other occasions when clean clothes become wrinkled. The travel
wear industry has a firm foundation in fashioning clothing that travels easily … and
wrinkles hardly … through a combination of wrinkle-resistant weave, fibers and
chemical support. Travel wear is often the intersection of fashion and easy care
garments which often depends upon blends of natural fibers, regenerated cellulose
fibers and synthetic fibers such as polyesters, and upon chemically enabled
permanent press fabrics. We’ll talk more about this because it is central to many
health related clothing issues. Here are tips for how to smooth out wrinkles in clean
clothes during traveling or even at home.
 Hang the wrinkled clothes in the bathroom while you take a hot, steamy
shower. You will need to balance this with the sustainability issues of taking
hot, steamy showers … but then issues of balance are frequently woven into
sustainability. When your shower is finished, gently stretch your clothes by
hand to pull out the wrinkles. Let them cool down and dry while hanging
before wearing or folding them.
 If you have access to a dryer, toss the clean clothes in tumble dryer with a
wet sock or wash cloth for 10 minutes. The wet sock or cloth will provide
the moisture and the tumble dryer will provide the heat and motion to coax
out the worst of the wrinkles. Or, instead of using a wet sock, you can use a
spray bottle and lightly spritz the clothes before putting them in the dryer.
 Travel accessory companies like Magellan’s sell clothes steamers that are
priced at about $30. They are relatively light (generally less than 25 oz.),
compact and can be used while traveling or at home. The Jiffy Steamer is an
excellent brand manufactured in the US since 1940 and produces a wide
range of clothes steamers for home, business and travel. The reality is that a
clothes steamer is much more effective that a hot, steamy bathroom and
probably has a significantly lower environmental impact.

A clothes steamer works best on wool suits and slacks.  The hot

steam relaxes the crinkly wool fibers and the natural weight of the garments as they
are hanging pulls out most wrinkles. The wrinkles in many types of silks will melt
away with a little bit of steam … except for smooth finish silks like charmeuse which
respond better to a warm iron. Steam, either from a clothes steamer or electric
steam iron, works well on cotton fabric but often leaves spots or rings on 100%
bamboo fabrics. Oh, yes - just another reminder to not be wearing the clothes that
you are trying to steam.
During the day … or evening. OK, it is possible to become totally crazy and
completely obsessive / compulsive about wrinkles. Personally, I believe that there is
no reason to disturb your composure or wa over a few random creases in your
clothing. Keep things in perspective. But if you are one of those people who feel that
a little inconvenience or even discomfort are worth the price of peace of mind
knowing that your appearance is smooth and unrumpled, then these tips are for you:
 When sitting for more than a few minutes, remove sports jacket or suit coat
and hang, don’t toss over the back of a chair. Never place a suit coat in the
 overhead compartments of an airplane. Ask the flight attendant to please
hang in a closet for you. Unless you are in business class, you will either
receive a cross look or hysterical laughter.
 When sitting, don’t pull up trouser legs slightly to give a bit of room. Rather,
as sitting, pull trouser legs down to remove excess fabric. Excess fabric
behind the knees or in the seat is a prime opportunity for wrinkling.

That smelly, toxic elephant in the china closet. The topic of

permanent press clothing will soon force its way into any discussion about avoiding
and removing clothing wrinkles. We will explore the technology and health concerns
of permanent press clothing in the next post. Stay tuned…
Enjoy 
Michael
December 11, 2008 | Permalink | Comments (15) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: natural fibers, organic clothing, preventing wrinkles, wrinkles in clothing

Why Natural Fiber Clothes Wrinkle

Why clothes wrinkle and how to stop clothes from wrinkling have
befuddled people from the time when mirrors were invented.  The world of fabrics is
littered with many incorrect myths about what causes fabrics to wrinkle and what to
do about it. Let’s take a journey together through all the wrinkles of fabric lore to
see what we can do about removing wrinkles from clothing.
Why do clothes wrinkle? The two primary causes of wrinkling in fabrics are water
moisture and heat. Heat and moisture can remove wrinkles (think ironing and
steaming hanging clothes), but they are also the leading causes of that ferociously
wrinkled organic cotton shirt. As we’ll see, many other factors can contribute to
wrinkled clothing and there is much that you can do to reduce wrinkles that will also
reduce the total amount of energy that you will invest in your clothing over their life
cycle from when you first go clothing shopping until you are finally ready to send it to
the thrift shop, homeless shelter or recyclers.
Which fabrics are more prone to wrinkle? Sometimes it seems as if an organic cotton
shirt will sprout contact wrinkles if you just look at it and crinkle your nose while a
polyester dress can survive a train wreck and still be ready for a night on the town.
Generally, clothes using fabrics made from natural cellulose – cotton, hemp, linen
(flax) – are the most prone to wrinkle. Clothes made from regenerated cellulose –
bamboo, rayon, Tencel / lyocell, Modal – or from regenerated plant protein – soya,
Ingeo – are less likely to wrinkle and wrinkles are easier to remove. Animal fibers –
wool, alpaca, cashmere – are generally the least likely to wrinkle. Silk tends to fall in
the middle category of wrinkle-ocity.

But, this doesn’t mean that just because a favorite organic cotton skirt is made from
organic cotton or hemp that it is going to have more wrinkles than Shar Pei puppies.
The tendency of a garment to attract or repel wrinkle is affected by many
qualifications such as: weave – knits are less likely to show wrinkles than woven
fabrics; fiber blends – wrinkles will easily fall out of a woven yoga top of 95% organic
cotton blended with 5% lycra (spandex); quality of fibers – other factors being equal,
high quality long staple organic cotton fibers are less likely to wrinkle than lower
quality conventionally grown short cotton fibers; quality of manufacturing – a dress of
tightly woven, high thread count cotton finished with tightly sown seams will last
longer, look better and often require less ironing than a low quality garment; fabric
finishes – this is tricky as chemical fabric finishes can be added during manufacturing
or during laundering that will reduce the propensity for wrinkling, more about this
later; and laundering – which can make all the difference between having your
clothing look like the surface of the moon during a solar eclipse or the smooth, shiny
backside of a new baby … well, maybe not the best metaphor but you get the idea.
Why do some fibers wrinkle more than others? The differences are in the structural
and chemical natures of the fibers that make the fabrics. Let’s quickly first look at
how the chemical nature of fibers affect how they respond to wrinkling.
Polymers are the key to understanding wrinkling. Polymers form the basic structure of
many fibers which form fabrics. The cellulose found in cotton, bamboo, hemp and
linen flax and the proteins that comprise the new eco-fibers Ingeo and soya are
natural polymers. Nylon and PET (PolyEthylene Terephtahalate) are examples of
synthetic polymers that have been used in clothing. Polymers help hold fibers
together and give stability to fabrics.
The energy in heat, whether the heat comes from hot water during washing, hot air in
a clothes dryer or even body heat, weakens the covalent bonds that bind polymers
together but different polymers of different fibers have different transition points at
which the bonds weaken. The polymers of natural cellulose fibers such as cotton,
hemp and flax, which is used to make linen, have a much lower transition level and
therefore require less heat energy to break the stable covalent bonds than nylon,
polyester or regenerated polymers of bamboo, rayon, Tencel / lyocell, Modal, or
Ingeo which means that they wrinkle more easily.
This transition point where a polymer’s covalent bonds become weaker is also known
as the “glass transition temperature.” An interesting research paper by J.M. Maxwell
at the University Of Melbourne, Australia, found that cotton fibers pass through a
glass transition at about 72 degrees F (22C) at a relative humidity of 78% which shows
the connectedness between heat and water for fabric wrinkles. Different types of
fibers have different glass transition temperatures with natural cellulose fibers such
as organic cotton, hemp and linen on the lower end of the spectrum making them
more susceptible to wrinkling. Research from other sources suggests that moisture
and humidity also lower the glass transition temperature, at least for natural cellulose
fibers.
Heat is only half of the wrinkle equation. Heat’s partner in growing or removing
wrinkles in clothes is water moisture. Using a scanning probe microscope, Maxwell
found that water moisture caused cotton cellulose fibers to swell and soften making it
easier for the fibers to move and change shape which are all part of the wrinkling or
wrinkle removing processes. These are the chemical processes involved in wrinkles.
Mitsuhiro Fukuda of the Textile Materials Science Laboratory at Hyogo University
has researched the “dimensional stability” like wrinkling caused by moisture on
hydrophilic and hygroscopic fibers such as cellulose and cellulose derivatives
(regenerated cellulose). Fukuda documents that a 1% increase in a fiber’s moisture
content causes a decrease of about 10 degrees C in the glass temperature for many
polymer fibers. The lower the glass temperature of a fiber then the more likely that
the fabric will wrinkle.
The structural factors in natural cellulose fibers involve fiber fibrils which are bunches
of cellulose chains all lined up together and twisted together into threads that are
woven or knit into clothes. The cellulose fibers are held in place through chemical
bonds between hydrogen atoms across cellulose fibers. Both heat and water weaken
these hydrogen bonds which help keep the fibers in fabrics together and this can
happen during washing, drying, while wearing (your skin releases a lot of heat and
moisture even if you aren’t sweating), or even while hanging in a closet during a hot,
humid day.

To see how wrinkles develop in your cotton, hemp or linen clothing,

look through a microscope at the fabric threads and you will see lots of rough little
fibers that stick out from the woven threads and become intertwined with other
fibrils from other threads. During laundering or even during wearing on warm, humid
days, the heat and moisture help weaken the chemical bonds helping to hold fibers in
place and the moisture softens the fibers and allows them to slide around more
easily. When the fabric dries and cools, the rough little fibers become intertwined
with other fibers in different locations and the chemical bonds reform and give rise to
the wrinkles. This is why those natural cellulose fiber fabrics have a greater
propensity to wrinkle.
Regenerated cellulose fibers, such as bamboo, Tencel / lyocell, Modal, and rayon, are
more immune to wrinkling than natural cellulose fiber clothing for two reasons. First,
they tend to have a slightly higher glass transition level. Second, regenerated
cellulose fibers are born by being shot from a spinneret head into a chemical bath
which gives the fibers a smooth surface without small fibers sticking out to snare and
become tangled with other fibers during washing or wear.
Fabric weaves and wrinkling. The type of fibers, the temperature and the moisture
absorbed by a fiber all contribute to fabric wrinkling, but wrinkling is also influenced
by the type of weave and construction of fabrics. Generally, loosely woven fabrics are
more susceptible to wrinkling than tightly woven fabric. A high thread count, tightly
woven cotton shirt or bed sheet will tend to wrinkle less than a low thread count,
loosely woven cotton shirt or bed sheet. The tight weave tends to hold the threads
and therefore the fibers in place without as much freedom to move around and give
rise to wrinkles.

Knit fabrics tend to wrinkle less than woven fabrics because of the
inherent elasticity of a knitted fabric compared with a woven fabric.
Blended fabrics and wrinkling. Stretch woven clothes, which are typically 90% to 96%
natural fibers such as cotton blended with 10% to 4% spandex / lycra threads, also
tend to be more wrinkle-free due to the elastic quality of the spandex / lycra
threads. To reduce nasty wrinkles, clothing manufacturers sometimes blend natural
fiber fabrics – cotton, hemp, bamboo, rayon, Tencel / lyocell and even silk – with
more wrinkle resistant fibers like polyester. There is an ecological case that states
that the total lifecycle environmental cost of synthetic clothes made from polyesters
can be significantly less than for natural fibers such as organic cotton and hemp. It’s
up to eco conscious and health sensitive consumers to decide where their consuming
edges really are.
Silk and wrinkling. For such a simple fiber forced out of the lower lip of the
silkworm, the processing into fabric and then into clothing is often complex and
chemical intensive. Silk clothing manufacturers often use a wide variety of chemical
finishes and manufacturer processes to improve the easy care properties of silk
including making silk more wrinkle-free. One chemical process for making silk clothing
more wrinkle resistant is by bathing silk in “an aqueous solution containing a water-
soluble epoxy compound in a catalyst which may be selected from alkali metal or
alkali earth metal salts of dicarboxylic acids, tricarboxylic acids, and amino carboxylic
acids.”

 Another chemical finish for more wrinkle free finish uses glyoxal
resin with ethylene urea and a metal-acid catalyst. Machine-washable silks commonly
use urethane resins with or without formaldehyde. And, of course, there is nothing on
a garment label that gives a clue as to what chemicals that new silk blouse might
have been soaked in. To bad clothing isn’t like Campbell Soups that list all their
chemical ingredients.
But, silk naturally has a wide variety of wrinkle and care tendencies depending upon
what kind of silk it is. Silk crepe de chine, habotai, noil, and charmeuse are generally
easy care silk fabrics less prone to wrinkling. Ahimsa silk, also know as Peace Silk
because it is made from silkworm cocoons in which the silk worms were not killed,
also wrinkles less than other silks.
Wool and wrinkling. Wool does wrinkle and, like other fibers, the propensity to
wrinkle depends upon the weave and type of wool. There are basically two categories
of woven wool garments: woolens and worsteds. The distinction between the two
categories of wool garments depends upon how the wool fibers are prepared which
results in different degrees of snugness in the weave. Woolens are more loosely
woven and more prone to wrinkling while worsted wools are more tightly woven and
more resistant to wrinkles.
Wool will wrinkle like clothes made from cellulose fibers for most of the same reasons
– heat and moisture affecting the glass temperature of the fibers and allowing
hydrogen bonds in the fiber molecules to disconnect and reconnect to create
wrinkles.
Wool is more wrinkle-resistant and recovers more quickly from wrinkles because of
the more elastic nature of wool fibers. The elastic filaments and viscoelastic
properties in wool fibers help the fiber stretch and then return to its original state
when the force which contorts the fabric into a wrinkle is removed. Low Friction
between the yarns in wool fabrics also helps wool garments recover quickly from
being wrinkled back to their original state. Wool clothes will wrinkle when the
wrinkled state is held for a long period of time in a hot and humid environment.
Wrinkle wrap up. All natural fibers – and synthetic fibers also – have a greater or
lesser propensity to wrinkle and the twin enablers that encourage wrinkles are heat
and moisture. Both heat and moisture help break weak molecular bonds that bind
fibers to each other within fabrics. This allows fibers to shift within the fabric and to
be reshaped by other forces such as laundering or wearing clothes in hot, humid
conditions. When the temperature is lowered and the moisture dried out, the fibers
reform new bonds which give the fabric a wrinkled look.
A fiber’s wrinkle destiny is affected by other factors also such as the type of weave,
thread count and tightness of weave, and fabric quality.
In the next post, we will examine how you can help your natural fibers resist the urge
to wrinkle.
Enjoy.
Michael
November 14, 2008 | Permalink | Comments (2) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: silk, wool, wrinkles

Bamboo Sprouting Green Myths

"Advertising is the 'wonder' in Wonder Bread." - Jef I. Richards, Professor of
Advertising, University of Texas at Austin

Bamboo fabric is becoming the Wonder Bread of sustainable textiles.

This isn’t to say that bamboo doesn’t have many exceptional qualities. I’m just saying
that the green hype is starting to lead to a loss of credibility. Let’s take a short walk
through the bamboo green claims and see what’s real and what’s green spin.
Anti-bacterial & UV Protection. “Bamboo fiber has particular and natural functions
of anti-bacteria, bacteriostasis and deodorization” due to a “a unique anti-bacteria
and bacteriostasis bio-agent named bamboo kun." The mysterious anti-bacterial
component has also been called “bamboo chinone”. This unique claim of bamboo
fabric is bolstered by studies performed by the Japan Textile Inspection Association;
National Textile Inspection Association in China (NTIA), and the Shanghai
Microorganism Research Institute. The theory goes that somehow the bamboo kun is
chemically bound closely to the bamboo cellulose fibers and this chemical binding
survives the harsh chemicals used to free the bamboo cellulose from the lignin and
other components found in bamboo when the bamboo cellulose is regenerated into
bamboo fiber.

There are two problems to bamboo’s claim for being a uniquely anti-bacterial fabric.
The first is that bamboo fabric’s anti-bacterial claim was recently repudiated by
research conducted by Colorado State University chemists Subhash Appidi and Ajoy
Sarkar, Ph.D., investigating UV-resistant and anti-bacterial fabrics. They reported at
the 235th national meeting of the American Chemical Society that “bamboo fabric did
not live up to antimicrobial expectations.” Their research also indicated that bamboo
fabric is low in UV-resistance and that most damaging ultraviolet rays pass through
bamboo fabric to the skin. The research at the Colorado State University directly
contradicts many claims and research performed in China and Japan. We need more
independent and transparent research to ferret out why the differences.

The second problem is that claims for being an anti-bacterial fabric are not unique to
bamboo fabric. Other regenerated cellulose fabrics also claim to have anti-bacterial
properties. According to the Lenzing AG web site, “Bacterial growth was observed in
various fibers, and TENCEL®, with its rapid absorption of moisture and high
absorption capacity proved most effective in inhibiting growth” and “The result
demonstrates that TENCEL® is the most naturally hygienic fiber. TENCEL® prevents
the growth of bacteria naturally without the addition of chemical additives.”
Unique Bamboo Properties? Thermal-regulating, Anti-static, Biodegradable,
Natural UV Protection, Super Soft.Regenerated cellulose fabrics share many common
properties. “Green & biodegradable, breathable and cool, soft had feeling, luxurious
shiny appearance” are properties commonly found in regenerated cellulose fabrics
such as Tencel® / lyocell, Modal®, Viscose® … and bamboo. And this shouldn’t be any
surprise as they all derive from cellulose that has been extracted from plants using
similar chemical processing and then excreted through spinnerets to form fibers for
textiles and clothing.
Research by Y. Xu, Z. Lu and R. Tang at the Testing and Analysis Center at Suzhou
University in China used scanning electron microscopes (SEM), Infrared Spectroscopy
(IR), and thermoanalyzers (TA) to analyze the physical structure and properties of
bamboo viscose, Tencel® and viscose fibers. Their results, which are reported in the
Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Vol. 89 (2007), found that all three
fibers belong to the cellulose II category and that, while there are variations in the
regenerated cellulose fibers that affect fiber properties, the similarities in structural
properties are striking. Among their findings was that Tencel® consists of longer
molecules and has a greater degree of crystallinity, while bamboo viscose fiber has a
lower degree of crystallinity. Differences in fabrics from regenerated cellulose are a
combination of factors – some differences in the cellulose cellular structure between
the different sources, differences in the mechanical spinning processes when the
fibers are formed and the specific chemicals used, and the finishing processes and the
enzymes and chemicals used.
Grown on Environmentally Friendly Bamboo Plantations.Bamboo fabric is spun from
bamboo pulp manufactured from bamboo grown on bamboo plantations primarily in
China. Because bamboo has so many uses and derived products, growing bamboo has
become a significant industry in China. The book Rehabilitation of Degraded
Forests to Improve Livelihoods of Poor Farmers in South China by Liu Dachang
published in 2003 by the Center International Forestry Research researches in depth
the environmental and social damage that have been created by poor and over-
harvested forests of all kinds, not just bamboo, in China. Chinese government forest
policy reforms within the last twenty years have transferred ownership of most forests
to private citizens and businesses. The result has been a lack of government
regulations for controlling forest land use and many forests were clear-cut to plant
money-making mono-cultures such as bamboo plantations.
The adverse environmental impact associated with bamboo plantations replacing
natural forests was also documented in a paper by Dr. Jim Bowyer titled “Bamboo
Flooring – Environmental Silver Bullet or Faux Savior?”. Because of the severity of the
problems, there are now broad initiatives underway in China to rehabilitate degraded
forest lands by restoring biodiversity and improving soil and forest conditions. Because
bamboo has so many different economics uses such as food products, paper, furniture
and housing materials, and textiles, the opportunity and temptation for exploitation
of land and resources is great and it is difficult to determine where and under what
conditions the bamboo was grown. This is especially a problem for bamboo textiles
which are made from regenerated cellulose bamboo pulp because bamboo fiber
manufacturers buy their bamboo pulp from suppliers. They don’t manufacture it
themselves and there is little transparency in the supply chain.
Here is one example. On their web site, BambroTex proclaims “Bamboo Fibre is a kind
of regenerated cellulose fiber, which is produced from raw materials of bamboo pulp
by our sole patented technology. Firstly, bamboo pulp is refined from bamboo through
a process of hydrolysis-alkalization and multi-phase bleaching. We then process
Bamboo pulp into bamboo fiber.” At the same time, Tenbro is declaring “Shanghai
Tenbro is the earliest and most specialized bamboo fiber manufacturer in China, and
the only patent holder of both material and products of bamboo fiber accredited by
State Intellectual Property Bureau.” Both the claims of BambroTex and Tenbro to
being the sole patent holders of bamboo fiber are misleading. It seems that Jigao
Chemical Fiber Co., Ltd. of China is the actual holder of the patent for manufacturing
bamboo fiber in China and the Jigao Chemical Fiber Company produces all the
bamboo fiber which Shanghai Tenbro Bamboo Textile Company, China BambroTextile
Company, Hebei Jigao Import & Export Company, Jilin Chemical Fiber Import & Export
Company, Shanghai Worldbest Company and Minmetals Shanghai Pudong Trading
Company export bamboo fiber globally according to the Jigao Chemical Fiber
Company.
Things with bamboo fiber are seldom what they seem at first blush. The tens of
thousands of tons of bamboo fiber produced by Jigao Chemical Fiber Company for
export by its licensed agents such as the Shanghai Tenbro Bamboo Textile Company
and the China Bambro Textile Company are manufactured from hundreds of thousands
of tons of bamboo plants raised on many thousands of bamboo plantations across
China under a wide variety of environmental farming conditions. How can any
manufacturer claim that their bamboo fabric is only produced from bamboo grown on
environmentally sustainable farms? How do they know where their bamboo was grown
and under what conditions? Given the intense emphasis on profits and the lack of
transparency in Chinese business and that one company manufacturers the bamboo
fibers used in the majority of exported bamboo fabric, claims that only
environmentally sustainable bamboo plants are used ring as hollow as a bamboo flute.
The processing of bamboo plants into textile fibers is relatively harmless because
caustic soda is the “main chemical used.” Caustic soda, aka sodium hydroxide -
NaOH, is one of the ingredients used to reduce bamboo plants to pulpy goo in a
process known as hydrolysis alkalization. Caustic soda is a harsh alkaline chemical
that must be handled carefully, especially at high levels and under the high
temperature and pressure needed for hydrolysis alkalization. As the old saying goes
“The poison is in the size of the dose.”
Another toxic chemical in the processing of bamboo rayon is carbon disulfide which
has been linked to serious health problems. Breathing low levels of carbon disulfide
can cause tiredness, headache and nerve damage. Carbon disulfide has been shown to
cause neural disorders in workers at rayon manufacturers.

In Summary. Bamboo fabric has much to offer but much remains to

be done before the growing of bamboo can have significant environmentally positive
impacts. Here are some steps to produce a more sustainable bamboo fabric:
 The Chinese Government must strengthen their forest reform policies.
 Organic bamboo certifications must be enacted to insure that bamboo
plantations are sustainably managed.
 Bamboo rayon fiber manufacturing must be transformed into a closed-loop
process to reduce the escape of harsh and toxic chemicals into waste
waters, the air and the textile workers environment.
 Commercialize natural bamboo bast fiber processing such as that promised
by Litrax so that we can get away from chemically regenerated bamboo
viscose rayon.
 And please, make sure that marketing claims match the facts and don’t
mislead the consumer.
Enjoy.
-Michael
August 01, 2008 | Permalink | Comments (23) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: bamboo, bamboo clothes, bamboo clothing, bamboo fabric, bamboo manufacturing

Regenerated Cellulose Fabrics: Facts Behind the Fibers

  This is the first in a series of posts on regenerated fibers and their
fabrics. Many of the sustainably fashionable new fabrics that are giving eco-designers
and even conventional runway designers hot eco-flashes are from the family of
regenerated fibers – corn fibers such as Ingeo and Sorona, soy fabrics such as SoySilk®
from Soy Protein Fiber (SPF – a byproduct of soybean manufacturing), bamboo, rayon,
lyocell / Tencel®, Modal®, and Viscose®. 
A Short Overview of Textile Fibers.Fibers are the basic component of fabrics. Fibers
from natural or manufactured sources are twisted together to form yarn and threads
that are then woven or knit into fabrics and garments. Natural fibers come from
plants (such as cotton, hemp, kenaf and flax), or from animals (such as wool, hair and
fur), or insects (such as silk).
Manufactured fibers come in two flavors: synthetic fibers and regenerated fibers.
Synthetic fibers are cooked up in large vats and are made entirely from chemicals.
Some of the most common synthetic fibers are the thermoplastic, petroleum-based
synthetic fibers such as polyester and nylon. Synthetic fibers also include the “green”
PET fabrics (PolyEthylene Terephthalate) such as EcoSpun from Wellman Inc. which is
made from recycled plastic soda bottles. EcoSpun lined coats and jackets are sold by
several environmentally credentialed companies such as Sierra Club and Patagonia.
Manufactured regenerated fibers are made from the chemical-induced transformation
of natural polymers and basically fall into two categories: protein origin and cellulose
origin. Regenerated fibers of protein origin come from plant protein (such as corn,
soy, alginate, and peanut), or from animal protein (such as casein from milk). Many of
the new, hot eco-friendly fabrics – like Ingeo from corn and soy from soybeans – are
manufactured from proteins found in plants.
Regenerated fibers of cellulose origin – bamboo, rayon, lyocell / TENCEL®, Modal®
and Viscose® – are made of cellulose from tree wood and inner pith and leaves from
bamboo plants using differing fiber manufacturing processes with common roots going
back to France in the 1890s to produce a textile that was then called “artificial silk”
or “art silk”. The textile industry adopted the term “rayon” in 1924. This family of
regenerated cellulose fibers for textiles and fabrics has also been called
reconstructed fibers or natural synthetic fibers. This post will be an overview of
regenerated cellulose fibers and fabrics.
A Bit of Botany and Chemistry. Cellulose has been used to make fabric and clothing
for millennium. Cellulose, the structural component of cell walls in green plants, is
the most common organic compound on earth. Cotton is 90% cellulose and
measurements of bamboo vary from 50% to 60% cellulose. Wood is composed of fibers
that are 40% to 50% cellulose, 15% to 25% hemicellulose and fortified with 15% to 30%
lignin. The most common organic compound on Earth, cellulose is the structural
component of cell walls in all green plants. Like cellulose, hemicellulose is also a
polysaccharide but hemicellulose is composed of short, weak sugar chains that can be
easily hydrolyzed and decomposed by dilute acids or alkalis in water and by some
enzymes. Lignin is the glue which fills the spaces in plant cell walls between the
cellulose, hemicellulose and other compounds found in the cell walls. Lignin locks and
sequesters atmospheric carbon into green plants and the decomposition of lignin in
plants releases the trapped carbon back into the atmosphere. Generally, the higher
the lignin content the harder the wood. The essential production processes for
chemically manufacturing regenerated cellulose from bamboo and wood are:
1. Preprocessing of Wood Chips and Bamboo Pith.Imagine just for a moment
about what kinds of processes and chemicals it must take to “cook” hard
wood chips into a soft, pliable cellulose pulp that can be transformed into a
softly, flowing dress.

To transform hard wood into silky fabric, the cellulose must be separated
from the hemicellulose, lignin, and all the other sugars, starches and other
compounds found in plant cells and then formed into a cellulose wood pulp.
Trees from tree farms are logged, debarked, and hacked into one-inch
square wood chips. Strong bases such as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and
sodium sulfide - called white liquor - are commonly used in a process called
the kraft/soda process to digest the wood chips and produce cellulose wood
pulp. The resulting waste products containing the chemical wastes, lignins,
hemicellulose, and other non-cellulose compounds are called the black
liquor. If the color of the wood pulp requires lightening, the wood pulp can
be bleached using enzymes such as xylanase enzymes from bacterial isolates
or ligninolytic enzymes, or with a hydrogen peroxide solution or sodium
hydrosulfate solution, or with a dilute acids such as trifluoroacetic acid, or
with elemental chlorine or other chlorinated substances.

The cellulose wood pulp is dried to produce hard sheets of purified

cellulose, also known as “dissolving pulp” or “dissolving cellulose” from
selected wood chips or bamboo stalks. The purified cellulose sheets are
sometimes bleached with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) to remove remaining
color. The preprocessing removes most of the lignin, hemicelluloses, free
sugars, mineral salts, and starches found in plant cell walls along with
cellulose. The resulting purified cellulose sheets contain 87% to 98% long-
chain cellulose molecules. Wood chips that are commonly used include
spruce, pine, hemlock, beech, and the leaves and inner pith of bamboo. The
preprocessing chemicals and amounts used will vary according to the
different types of wood.
 2. Processing of Purified Cellulose. The dissolving cellulose pulp sheets are
soaked in a caustic alkali solution of 15% to 20% sodium hydroxide, also
known as caustic soda, to produce sheets of alkali cellulose. The alkali
cellulose sheets are shredded, aged for a few days under closely controlled
temperature and humidity, and then bathed in liquid carbon disulfide which
transforms the cellulose into cellulose xanthate. Excess carbon disulfide is
removed to produce cellulose sodium xanthogenate which is then dissolved
in a solution of sodium hydroxide creating a viscous solution.
3. Regenerating Cellulose into Fibers. The viscose cellulose solution is aged to
allow xanthate groups to revert back to cellulosic hydroxyls and free carbon
disulfide, filtered to remove undissolved materials, vacuum treated to
remove tiny air bubbles which could weaken the fiber strands, and then
forced through spinneret heads (similar to a shower head) to create fine
streams of viscose threads in a sulfuric acid bath. The sulfuric acid causes
the cellulose xanthogenate to coagulate and bond into filaments of pure
regenerated cellulose fibers.

4. Drawing, Bonding, and Cleaning. The newly regenerated fibers are washed

in a weak solution of sodium sulfide to remove sulfur impurities and
sometimes bleached again to remove discolorations. The fibers are stretched
which causes the cellulose chains to reorient along the fiber axis and allows
the cellulose chains to also cross-bond as they become parallel to each
other. The cellulose fibers are given a final bath to wash away lingering
chemicals from the manufacturing process. The fibers are dried, and rolled
onto spools for new yarn and threads.

Environmental Hazards & Health Problems. The preprocessing of

wood chips into a cellulose wood pulp for conventional rayon fibers can be
environmentally messy. Factories for manufacturing wood pulp are often not located
at the same facility which later takes the dissolving cellulose pulp sheets and
transforms them into rayon fibers for textile. Because the pulp manufacturing process
requires large amounts of water, they are often located near large rivers. The
inorganic chemicals are recovered for reuse in other pulping processes.  For more
about about the recover process for pulp manufacturing, check this out.  Removing
the lignins and other contaminants from wood releases large amounts of organic
materials, high biological orxygen demand (BOD), dissolved organic carbon, and a
variety of alcohols and heavy metals into the waste waters and into rivers if they are
not properly treated.
The early manufacturing of regenerated cellulose into rayon created worker safety
hazards from chemical fumes escaping during the processing and environmental
hazards from harsh and toxic chemicals escaping in wash waters and waste
byproducts. Strengthened environmental protection standards and worker health
regulations have lead to improved manufacturing processes but most pulp producing
and rayon fiber manufacturing factories are still a long way from being sustainable.
Sodium hydroxide in strong solutions used during the pulping process can be very
caustic and can burn skin. Sodium sulfide can react to produce hydrogen sulfide which
is a toxic gas. The bleaching process to lighten pulp color is generally the most
environmentally problematic, especially if it uses elemental chlorine, chlorine
dioxide, or hypochlorous acid in aqueous solution. The use of chlorine in bleaching
wood pulp can result in chlorinated byproducts that are toxic and difficult to
eliminate with conventional waste treatment. Bleaching processes that use hydrogen
peroxide are safer for the environment and for human health.
Toxic chemicals used to manufacture cellulose wood pulp into rayon fibers must also
be reclaimed or neutralized from all waste waters and a considerable amount of solid
waste byproducts from the non-cellulose components in the wood. Carbon disulfide,
lignin and xanthates in the waste solutions are environmental hazards and must be
removed from the waste waters. Depending upon the pulping and bleaching
processes, contaminants from the pulping process can span a wide range of toxicity
from suspended waste solids to carcinogens like dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs).
The great unknown is how willing and capable is each individual fiber manufacturing
facility at removing the toxicity of waste products before discharging them into
community rivers and streams or dumping them into landfills. It all depends upon the
host countries environmental protection laws, worker safety laws and the willingness
of local government to enforce any laws that might exist.
Improved Rayon Processing. Technical advancements in rayon processing have lead
to improved rayon fabrics such as high wet modulus (HWM) rayon, also known as
polynosic rayon and better known by its trade name of MODAL®. Another advanced
rayon is lyocel, which is better known by the Lenzing Group trade name for their
highly popular TENCEL®. These technical advancements have created a rayon that is
not only less prone to stretching when wet but, more importantly, they have also
created a closed-loop processing that allows 99.5% of the chemical solvents to be
recycled and reused and any remaining emissions and pollutants can be decomposed
in waste treatment plants.
The manufacturing processes for lyocell and modal differ significantly from those
commonly used to manufacture other varieties of rayon. An informed article by
Angela Woodward outlines the generic lyocell / TENCEL® processes for closed-loop
manufacturing as follows:
1. Preprocessing of Wood Chips. Select hardwood logs are chipped into small
pieces and feed into large metal digester tanks to be cooked at high
temperatures under steam in a strong alkali chemical solution which reduces
the wood chips to a pulp. The pulp is washed with water to remove the
chemicals and then bleached to lighten and create a uniform color. The
wood pulp is dried into sheets that are rolled into large spools which are
 functionally similar to the purified cellulose sheets in the generic rayon
process.
2. Processing of Purified Cellulose. The cellulose sheets are crumbled into
small pieces, and cooked again in large, enclosed tanks under high pressure
and temperatures in a solution of N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide or some
other member of the amine oxide family to dissolve the crumbed cellulose
pulp sheets into a liquid solution. The liquid solution is then filtered to
remove any undissolved pulp chips.
3. Regenerating Cellulose into Fibers. The filtered cellulose solution is forced
through spinneret heads into a diluted amine oxide solution to cause the
cellulose strands to set and align. The cellulose fibers are then washed in a
de-mineralized water solution.
4. Finishing. The filaments are dried and then coated with a lubricant, such as
soap or silicone, so that their filaments untangle easily. This is something
like applying conditioner to hair after washing. The filaments are carded so
they all lay in the same direction, crimped to give the fibers body (again,
think of crimping hair), the crimped and carded filaments are cut to a
uniform length and baled together. The baled filaments can then be sent to
fiber mills where they can be twisted into yarns and woven or knit into
fabric. The whole process from processing the purified cellulose sheets to
baling the regenerated cellulose fibers is supposed to take only 2 hours.
5. Recovery of Solvents. The amine oxide is recovered from the processing
solutions and reused. The recovery process is supposed to reclaim more than
99% of the amine oxide and any unrecovered amine oxide is decomposed in
the waste treatment processing.
The basic manufacturing process for regenerating bamboo leaves and pith into
bamboo fibers for clothing is covered in our post “Bamboo: Facts Behind the Fiber”.
The preprocessing of wood chips into pulp for the advanced cellulose fibers of lyocell,
Modal and Viscose is essentially the same as for conventional rayon. The processing of
the wood cellulose pulp into fiber is more sustainable than the processing used for
conventional rayon because the closed-loop process is supposed to capture and
reclaim almost all the chemical solvents used in the manufacturing. Also, the solvents
such as N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) used to dissolve the bamboo or wood
chip cellulose into a viscose solution are from the chemical family of amine oxides
which are supposed to be environmentally less harmful.
The important point in understanding the nature of regenerated cellulose fibers is
that the underlying process of extracting and purifying the cellulose cells, reducing
them to a viscose solution, and then regenerating them into manufactured fibers is
essentially the same regardless of whether the source is wood from trees or from
bamboo. The differences in fabric properties such as texture, hand, pilling,
fibrillation, and dye acceptance generally result from different chemicals and
enzymes and their dilution strengths and from processing techniques used during the
fiber and finishing.
To be an environmentally and socially ethical fashionista, know how your fabrics are
made and then make responsible decisions.
Enjoy.
-Michael
July 04, 2008 | Permalink | Comments (4) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: bamboo, bamboo fabrics, lyocell, manmade fabrics, modal, rayon, regenerated fabrics,
tencel, viscose fabrics

The New Cotton Debate: What is sustainable cotton?

While rummaging through the Cotton, Inc. web site (which is a

fascinating and well done site), I quickly realized that the Great Cotton Debate is
being recast. During the early growth of organic clothing in the late 1990s and early
2000s, organic cotton was recognized as the healthy choice – healthy for the
individual, healthy for the environment, and healthy for workers growing and
harvesting cotton. Conventional cotton relied upon heavy doses of toxic chemical
herbicides and pesticides. We’ve all seen the statistics:
 Conventionally grown cotton accounts for 25% of all agricultural pesticides
used in the U.S.
 1/3 of a pound of chemical fertilizers and pesticides is used to grow each
pound of cotton harvested which is the amount of cotton needed to
manufacture one cotton t-shirt;
Unfortunately, the statistics often cited about chemical pesticide usage for
conventionally grown cotton are now incorrect.  They were derived from studies
conducted in the 1990s such as the report from Allen Woodburn Associates, Ltd titled
“Cotton: The Crop and its Agrochemicals Market” published in 1995. Since then, there
has been a change in the playing field … or perhaps we should say in the cotton field.

Conventional cotton is being recast as the sustainable savior and organic

cotton is being portrayed as the tiny niche bungler, the old and inadequate solution
that is as out-dated as last year’s fashions. The organic cotton vs. conventional cotton
debate is being reshaped by the conventional cotton industry through a series of
Cotton Incorporated sponsored conferences on sustainable cotton and web articles
trumpeting conventionally grown as “sustainable cotton”, “an important eco-fiber”,
and a fiber that is “making the eco-movement matter” while promoting claims such
as:
 Sustainability is defined “as balance between growing profitability, protecting
the environment and promoting social responsibility”;
  “Technology is the driver behind more eco-friendly agriculture and
manufacturing, finding alternative fuel sources and reducing the
environmental footprint”;
 Biotechnology and the resulting genetically modified varieties of cotton are
helping drive environmental improvements;
 Recent advances in cotton manufacturing have helped the “global textile
industry be more cost-efficient and environmentally-friendly”;
 According to their three requirements for sustainability, conventional cotton
production has become sustainable and conventional cotton now qualifies as
sustainable cotton;
 Cotton grown by conventional agricultural methods is renewable,
biodegradable and environmentally-friendly – all adding to their claims for
sustainability;
 Conventionally grown cotton has become more drought- and heat-tolerant
and requires less chemicals and pesticides;
 Environmentally-concerned consumers are more apt to buy conventionally-
grown, sustainable cotton textiles over organic cotton because of the
greater selections in styles and designs;
 Organic cotton will never be a viable option for large retailers such as the
British department store chain Marks & Spenser because it “costs upwards of
100 percent more than conventionally grown cotton due to lower yields, a
segregated supply chain and reliance on manual labor …”;
 "Organic" is a limited term that doesn't adequately address spent energy and
resources across all phases of cotton growing, ginning, spinning and fabric
manufacturing.
Conventionally grown cotton has undergone an amazing PR transformation from being
the most heavily poisoned crop on the face of the earth to being proclaimed the new
sustainable eco-fiber. There are several factors that have contributed to this
astounding morphing:
1. Improvements in general agricultural practices such as integrated pest
management practices, no-till farming (reduced soil erosion and lower
carbon emissions from farm tractors) and lateral move irrigation
(improved irrigation efficiency resulting in lower water consumption).
The integrated pest management practices are teaming up with
improvements in pesticides (comprised of insecticides, herbicides and
fungicides) that allow for lower application levels and more targeted
application. The improved pesticides are not necessarily less toxic or
harmful to workers or the environment;
2. Improvements in textile manufacturing facilities and processes to
reduce toxic chemicals lost in waste waters and released into the
environment;
 3. And the most important and ubiquitous factor is the rapidly increasing
use of GMO cotton seed stock in U.S., Australia, India and China. The
International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications
(ISAAA) estimates that in 2005 about 28% of the global cotton field
acres were planted in transgenic GM cotton, according to “Cotton
Outlook to 2010-11” by Drum, Roberts and Smirl. The USDA reports
that 87% of the U.S. cotton crop was genetically engineered in 2007.
All three of these factors apply to other major conventionally grown crops such as
corn and soybeans. But the self-proclaimed advances toward sustainability and
environmental friendship in conventionally grown cotton are largely founded upon the
conversion of conventional cotton to GMO cotton fields. We have reviewed the GMO
cotton issues in our post Perspectives on GM Cotton.
Claims for conventional GMO cotton sustainability are based upon the generic three-
cornered definition of sustainability: growing profitability, environmental protection,
and social responsibility. Let’s look at these three self-proclaimed sustainability
factors.
Growing profitability – the promise.  Cotton yields – and therefore farmers’ income
and profitability – are threatened by three major forces: insects, weeds, and weather.
Bio-engineering companies, such as U.S. biotech giant Monsanto, have invested
heavily in developing Bt cotton seeds, which have been genetically modified to
contain a slice from the insecticidal gene Bacillius thuringiensis (Bt) to make it
resistant to insect pests such as the bollworm. The theory being that when insect
pests eat and digest the Bt cotton plant the Bacillius thurengiensis bacteria spliced
into the genetically modified Bt cotton will cause a lethal paralysis in the digestive
tract of the devouring insect.
Competition in weed-infested fields can reduce cotton yields by 50% or more. The
biotechnology solution has been to genetically modify cotton to become resistant to
herbicides so that weed killers can be liberally applied to cotton fields to kill the
weeds without doing in the cotton. Monsanto developed herbicide-tolerant (HT)
cotton plants that would be tolerant to Monsanto’s widely used Roundup herbicide.
Roundup contains the active ingredient glyphosate, the most commonly used
herbicide in the U.S. and widely used globally. The isopropylamine salt in glyphosate
kills actively growing plants by inhibiting an enzyme involved in the synthesis of
selected amino acids needed for plants to grow. Monsanto has genetically engineered
genes into cotton seeds that allow the growing GMO cotton to be resistant to the
Roundup that is applied to fields of cotton. The Roundup kills growing weeds but
doesn’t affect the “Roundup Ready” GMO cotton.
While improvements in agricultural practices are helpful, a report by the Foreign
Agricultural Service of the USDA reveals that many conventional cotton farmers in
Brazil believe that the key to increased yields and therefore increased profitability is
in large-scale plantings of GMO cotton. This promise has been sold to cotton farmers
and producers across the globe. In Brazil where GMO cotton was recently legalized,
cotton farmers converting to GMO Bt cotton seed and Roundup-ready cotton varieties
are lead to expect cost savings of 15-30% due to reductions in manual labor costs and
herbicide usage needed to control weeds.
Burkina Faso, the largest cotton producing country in Africa, has been conducting
studies supported by the U.S. biotech giant Monsanto on GMO cotton since 2003 and
plan to begin large scale commercial cotton growing in 2009. GMO cotton has already
been introduced into South Africa and Egypt. Government leaders in Burkina Faso
believe that they must use GMO cotton to achieve higher production efficiencies that
will allow their poor cotton farmers to compete more effectively with developed
countries such as the U.S. where cotton is subsidized by the U.S. government. This is
the promise.
Growing profitability – the results.  The economic benefits to cotton farmers of GMO
cotton have been hotly debated.  India passed legislation in 2002 opening the door for
GMO cotton into India’s quickly blooming cotton agriculture. In 2007 an estimated 19%
of the global cotton production came from India with per acre cotton yields and total
number of acres in planted in GM cotton steadily increasing. Most cotton in India iis
grown on small farms. A survey funded by Monsanto reported that Indian GMO Bt
cotton farmers in 2004 harvested 58% more cotton per acre with net profits 163%
greater than non-GMO conventionally grown cotton. Other biotech-industry funded
studies proclaimed similar results in South Africa and the U.S.
A comprehensive study by Friends of the Earth International titled “Who Benefits from
GM Crops?” attempts to examine the complex issues surrounding genetically modified
crops and sort out cause and effect, fact and fiction, hype and actuality. Their
primary findings were that the positive results from the studies most often cited by
Monsanto funded studies were largely due to favorable weather and rain during the
study period and improvements in irrigation. The Friends of the Earth study reported
that GMO cotton farmers’ costs actually increased over time rather than decreased
because GM seeds are more expensive than conventional cotton seeds and farmers
actually used more expensive herbicides than they did previously while still requiring
significant levels of insecticide spraying.
An extensive and independent survey, “Economic Impact of Genetically Modified
Cotton in India” by Bennett, Ismael, Kambhampati and Morse of the University of
Reading in the UK, compared Bt and non-Bt cotton production in the Indian state of
Maharashtra across 7,751 cotton plots in 2002 and 1,580 cotton plots in 2003. The
results indicated:
1. Bt cotton yields were at least 45% higher than for non-Bt cotton;
2. The amount and costs of insecticides needed to control aphids and other sap
sucking insects pests were the same for Bt and non-Bt cotton fields;
3. The amount and costs of insecticides needed to control bollworms were 70% to
80% lower for Bt cotton fields than for non-Bt cotton fields;
4. The costs for conventional non-BT cotton seeds are only one third the price of
Bt cotton seeds for planting and farmers are prohibited by the large chemical
seeds companies such as Monsanto from saving seeds from their harvest for
 planning next year. Every year, cotton farmers must buy new, expensive Bt
seeds from the GM seed companies;
5. The costs of seeds plus the cost of insecticides is slightly higher for Bt cotton
crops compared with non-Bt cotton crops. Higher yields for Bt cotton enable Bt
cotton to be more profitable.
While the Bennett, et al. study is comprehensive with a well designed methodology
and lacking any apparent bias, it is also significant in what isn’t in the study. The
study did not compare Bt cotton costs with organically grown cotton nor did it
consider the costs of conventional non-Bt cotton when the farmers use their own seed
harvested from their previous crop. The study also did not address environmental
costs or field worker health costs from herbicide and insecticide toxic chemical
sprays. Issues of GMO safety and long-term considerations were also not part of the
study. The study examined only economic effects of Bt cotton and did not examine
issues of herbicide-tolerant (HT) generically modified cotton. Herbicide-tolerant
cotton has been genetically modified to resist weed sprays, specifically Monsanto’s
costly Roundup weed killer. Herbicide-tolerant (HT) cotton plants allow farmers to
liberally use Monsanto’s popular Roundup weed spray to kill weeds sprouting up in
cotton fields. Strains of weeds are developing which are resistant to Roundup. Also,
the study only looks are results for the first two years of commercial planting of Bt
cotton in one state in India. A longer, multi-year study is necessary to evaluate longer
term effects.
As a note concerning insecticide usage on Bt cotton, three different categories of
insects plague cotton – chewing caterpillars and cutworms which eat leaves and stems
of the cotton plant; insects such as bollworms and boll weevils which attack and feed
on the fluffy white cotton bolls; and sucking aphids and mites which pierce the cotton
plant leaves and stems to suck the sap from the plant. The types and severity of
cotton insect pests varies from local to global regions. Bt cotton with its genetically
implanted soil bacterium gene is resistant to bollworms, a major cotton pest in the
U.S., but not to the other insects which feast upon cotton plants and cotton bolls.
Depending upon the region, Bt cotton must still be sprayed with insecticides to
control for the other categories of insects.  The resistance of Bt cotton to bollworms
is not total, however, and Bt cotton still requires spraying with insecticides but at a
much lower level of application to control for bollworms.
Another evolving concern affecting long-term profitability of GM cotton is that Nature
is adaptive and over time bollworms and other insects will develop insect strains that
are resistant to the toxins in Bt cotton. An extensive study by Gould, et al.of the
Department of Entomology at North Carolina State University, published in the
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science reported that within a few years
varieties of bollworms were being naturally selected that have a resistance to the Bt
toxins. With farmers exercising careful pest management techniques, the period of
naturally selective resistance could be delayed for a few more years but insects
developing Bt resistant strains are inevitable. The more effective pest management
techniques involved planting 4% of their cotton crop in non-Bt refuge zones to harbor
susceptible insects and slow down the evolution of pests resistant to the Bt gene.
Protecting the environment – the promise. The second pillar of the conventionally
grown cotton industry’s claim to sustainability is in their assertion to protecting
environmental quality. The premise of the promise for improved environmental
stewardship by the conventional cotton industry is in attempting to transform their
image from being a toxic chemical polluter to sustainability by reducing and
improving their environmental impact in the cotton field and in the manufacturing
factory.
In the cotton field, growers are encouraged to implement soil conservation techniques
such as no-till farming and improved irrigation to reduce soil erosion and integrated
pest management techniques to better control insect pest. Most of these farming
techniques are also practiced by organic cotton farmers. Cotton farmers in the U.S.
and globally are being heavily pressured to plant GM cotton seeds from the large
chemical biotech companies such as Monsanto. The promise is that Bt cotton will
require lower levels of costly and environmentally harmful insecticides.
Protecting the environment – the results.  A short history of the genealogy of
pesticide families will help to understand the issues of sustainability swirling around
cotton. Pesticides refer collectively to chemical herbicides used against herbs or
plants considered weed pests, insecticides used against insect pests, and fungicides
used against fungi which can grow on cotton plants reducing their vitality and yield.
Pesticides are a cornerstone of conventional cotton agriculture which credits
pesticides with reducing cotton pests and increasing cotton yields, but the damage to
the health of the environment, wildlife, field workers, and nearby communities has
been considerable and well documented. In a report “Problems with Conventional
Cotton Production” the Pesticide Action Network of North America (PANNA) warns
that “these pesticides can poison farm workers, drift into neighboring communities,
contaminate ground and surface water and kill beneficial insects and soil micro-
organisms.”
Because of environmental protection regulations in the U.S. and countries around the
world, new classes of chemical pesticides are continually being developed which are
applied at lower rates of active ingredients per acre of cotton grown. These newer
classes of chemical pesticides still contain toxic and hazardous chemicals but the
environmental and health impacts have been reduced. A meaningful interpretation of
any global reductions in pesticide usage over time is difficult because of vast
differences in geographies, climates, agricultural practices, cultures, the changing
active ingredients in pesticides, and the ever-changing nature of threats from local
pest. A study title “Global Impact of Biotech Crops: Socio-Economic and
Environmental Effects in the First Ten Years of Commercial Use” by Brookes and
Barfoot of PG Economics Ltd (a private consultancy largely funded by the biotech
industry) estimated that GM insect-resistant cotton has reduced insecticide usage by
19.4% with a corresponding Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) reduction of 24.3%
during the period of 1996 to 2005. The Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) was
developed by Kovach, Petzoldt, Degni and Tette of the Integrated Pest Management
Program at Cornell University. The EIQ provides a standardized method for calculating
the environmental impact for various agricultural pesticides and pest management
systems.
A study title “Do GM Crops Mean Less Pesticide Use?” by Charles Benbrook of the
Northwest Science and Environmental Policy Center analyzed official U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) data on GM crops grown in the U.S. from 1995 through 2000 and
concluded that “Bt cotton has reduced insecticide use in several states.” Benbrook
points out the difficulties in identifying cause-effect relationships in multi-year multi-
state cotton insecticide use trends. Bollworm-budworm complex insecticide usage in
some states went down and in other states went up. The data suggests that Bt cotton
was a significant factor in declines in some states but not in others. In some states
with high Bt cotton adoption, insecticide usage actually increased, and some low-
adoption Bt cotton states saw a marked reduction in bollworm-budworm insecticide
treatments.
Benbrook states that the data overall indicates that GM cotton reduces insecticide
applications but that bio-engineering is only one factor and that sustainable pest
management requires a total system approach. An important consideration in a
sustainable pest management system is in ways to reduce the concentration and use
of pesticides – applied externally in sprays and also bio-engineered into the genes of
cotton plants – to delay the rise of pesticide resistance in insects and weeds.
Besides environmental protection regulations from governments, another motivating
factor for chemical pesticide manufacturers to develop new classes of pesticides is
because natural selection begins to develop strains of insects and weeds resistant to
the popular pesticides du jour. Resistance to specific pesticides is governed by many
factors but typically tends to develop within four to ten years depending upon the
degree to which the pesticide is used. Generally, the more a pesticide is used in an
area, the more quickly resistant strains of insects will begin developing. A central
focus of integrated pest management systems is to delay the rise of pesticide
resistant insects and weeds.
The study by Brookes and Barfoot also suggests that GM cotton reduces the level of
green house gas (GHG) emissions by requiring fewer pesticide sprayings by crop
dusting spray airplanes or tractors and soil tillage that use fuel guzzling farm tractors
with their supporting fleet of trucks to deliver pesticides and operators to the fields.
They also report that “no-till and reduced-till farming systems that utilize less
plowing increase the amount of organic carbon (in the form of crop residue) that is
stored or sequestered in the soil. This carbon sequestration reduces carbon dioxide
emissions to the environment.” Of course, no-till farming practices are not unique to
GM crops and havelong been a component of organic farming.
Conventional cotton (including GM cotton) plants are sprayed with a variety of
harvest-aid chemicals to help improve cotton harvesting yields, preserve high fiber
quality before cotton bolls can become ruined by late-season insect damage, and to
improve cotton harvest efficiencies. Conventional cotton harvest-aid chemicals
include chemical defoliants which cause the cotton plants to shed their foliage
allowing the cotton bolls to be more effectively machine harvested. Chemical
defoliants are composed of reactive organic compounds and volatiles which lead to
increased air pollution and have an adverse environmental impact. The organic cotton
and the conventional cotton industries are researching environmentally healthy
defoliation methods such as thermal defoliation which “eliminates water and air
pollution caused by harvest-aid chemicals, reduces the need for insecticides, protects
the crop from insect sugar deposits and is independent of the weather.”  A hot blast
of typically propane-fired air in what is essentially a moving furnace wilts tender
leaves on cotton plants and also kills insects, parasites and possibly some plant
diseases.
Depending upon weather, time-of-year, and cotton plant condition, the conventional
cotton industry uses a variety of harvest-aid chemicals to prepare cotton for
harvesting. The University of California Integrated Pest Management Program
has categorized and detailed the wide range of harvest-aid chemicals that are sprayed
on cotton fields to:
1. Defoliate cotton plants by using chemicals that disrupt plant growth
hormones causing leaves to die and drop so that automated machines can
pick the cotton bolls more easily;
2. More quickly strip leaves from plants by using chemical desiccants which are
more severe than defoliants and cause leaf dehydration and death within a
couple days. Desiccants are often applied as a follow-up after application of
defoliants;
3. Encourage late blooming cotton bolls to open earlier so that cotton
harvesters can make only one pass over cotton fields. It has also been found
that these chemicals can also reduce vegetative re-growth;
4. Inhibit new growth on cotton plants nearing harvest or to help enhance the
effects of defoliants
Many of the harvest-aid chemicals are listed in the Pesticide Action Network as being
possible carcinogens, ground water contaminants, cholinesterase inhibitors, and
moderately to highly toxic. Harvest-aid chemicals are included in computations of
conventional cotton pesticide usage.
Does GM and conventionally grown cotton improve the environment? The studies
indicate that it hurts the environment less than it did a decade ago but to what
degree is difficult to quantify. The Institute of Science in Society published a press
release in 2007 “Picking Cotton Carefully” which declared that “conventional and GM
cotton accounts for 16 percent of global chemical pesticide use, more than any other
single crop.” Considering the rising degree to which rivers, streams and ground water
systems are testing positive for toxic chemicals used in cotton pesticides, it is very
difficult to justify how conventional cotton agriculture could be considered
sustainable. Improved farming techniques – many of which have also been
incorporated in organic agriculture – have also reduced farming’s environmental
impact. And then there is the unknown impact of biotechnology and genetic
modification on the environment and the health and safety of people.
Promoting Social Responsibility – the promise. The textile and garment industries
have long been plagued by unethical labor practices from child labor in fields and
factories and sweatshop factories to unfair and exploitive purchasing of clothing and
textiles produced by native and indigenous peoples. Change will only occur when
consumers, manufacturers, retailers and governments demand fair and healthy labor
practices.
Another aspect of social responsibility is in maintaining community welfare and health
by respecting the environment and not polluting the air, water and land that
communities depend upon, and also by insuring the health of the community members
who work the fields and factories.
Promoting Social Responsibility – the results. When these abuses are exposed in the
media, the garment industry in general and specifically the large retailers buying
from sweatshop-tainted manufacturers are displayed in a very bad light. In an
attempt to convince consumers and shareholders that they are really good global
citizens, most large clothing manufacturers and retailers have adopted Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) statements to explain how they will monitor for and avoid
abusive labor practices among their suppliers and manufacturers … while still
maintaining high investor returns. Our post “The Fog of CSR” has gone into these
issues.
The result has been that clothing manufacturers and large chain retailers have
become much for sensitive and responsive to charges of sweatshops and child labor.
Many have teamed with independent and ethical organizations to help monitor and
reduce abuses and there have been improvements. Large retailers, such as Wal-Mart
in the U.S. and Marks & Spencer in the U.K., are encouraging farmers in developing
countries to adopt restrictions in child-labor and reduce pesticide usage. Large
corporations are beginning to realize that greening their product lines and reducing
their corporate environmental footprint is good business and helps to reduce their
costs and improve operating efficiencies.

Fair trade is another concern of the ethical shopper (see our post
“Ethical Shopping and Fair Trade”). Independent non-profit organizations such as
the Fairtrade Foundation offer fair trade certification so shoppers can have
confidence that marginalized producers and workers in developing countries received
a fair and sustainable wage for their products and labors.
 Marks & Spencer offers a number of Fairtrade certified cotton clothes.
Almost all organic clothing standards such as Control Union’s Global Organic Textile
Standard (GOTS) identify minimum social criteria that a textile must meet as part of
the overall requirements to achieve organic textile certification. These include freely
chosen employment, collective bargaining, safe and healthy working conditions, no
child labor, a fair wage, reasonable working hours, and a non-discriminatory and non-
abusive work environment. Note that these ethical social standards apply to textile
manufacturing and processing and not to the fields that grow the natural fibers.

The Better Cotton Initiative was founded to take it to the field and

“promote measurable improvements in the key environmental and social impacts of
cotton cultivation worldwide to make it more sustainable (economically,
environmentally, and socially).” Social responsibility must also include safeguarding
the community welfare from toxic pesticides that threaten community water supplies
and the health of workers and families that live near sprayed crop lands. Reducing
and eliminating pesticides on crops is an important component of a social
responsibility agenda.
So how does conventional cotton shape up to the social responsibility factor in their
sustainability equation? Improving but still a long way to go. Textile manufacturers
and retailers seem to be trying to improve working conditions in manufacturing and
garment factories but they face an inherent conflict of interest between the
increased costs necessary to improve social responsibility and the need to improve
profits by lowering costs. Consumer pressure will be key in the future.
Considering community welfare, as long as toxic pesticides are sprayed on cotton
fields there will be community health problems which detract from any claims of
sustainability.
Final score on conventional cotton sustainability. With improved soil and pest
management agricultural practices and some improvements in reducing the chemical
toxicity of pesticides, conventionally grown cotton has improved but still hasn’t
achieved any common definition of sustainability addressing trade, good
environmental stewardship, and social responsibility.
A thorough and comprehensive study in 2006 by Kooistra, Termorshuizen and Pyburn
of Wageningen University titled “The Sustainability of Cotton” reported that cotton is
grown globally on about 2.4% of the world’s farm lands but consumes an estimated
11% of the agricultural chemical pesticides. Cotton plants are more sensitive to
insects than most other crops and tend to be more heavily sprayed. Many developing
countries which grow cotton do not monitor or poorly regulate pesticide use and many
of their pesticides are stronger and more toxic than pesticides approved for use in the
U.S.
Kooistra et al. report that “worldwide 15% of cotton yield loss is due to insect
damage”. Integrated Pest Management programs can contribute to significant
reductions and perhaps elimination of hazardous chemical pesticides. Pressure will
also increase on cotton farmers to fight the insect and weed threats by planting GM
cotton.
Conventionally grown cotton is still one of the most chemically sprayed crops in the
U.S.  In May 2006, the U.S. Department of Agriculture released a report “Agricultural
Chemical Usage 2005 Field Crops Summary” for the major U.S. crops. For all U.S. corn
crops, 2.124 pounds of pesticides were used per acre; for all oats, 0.166 pounds
pesticides per acre; for all soybeans, 1.23 pounds of pesticides per acre; for cotton
(upland), 4.486 pounds of pesticides per acre of cotton. An acre of conventionally
grown cotton requires more than twice the dosage of chemical pesticides as corn, the
next highest consumer of chemical pesticides. It’s interesting to note that in 2005,
almost 80% of the U.S. cotton crop was from genetically engineered cotton seeds. In
2007, the USDA estimated that 87% of the U.S. cotton crop was genetically modified.
In some locals, herbicide-resistant GM cotton actually increased herbicide usage.
Where previously, cotton farmers used spot spraying to attack localized outbreaks of
weeds, they now sprayed the entire field because there wasn’t the concern about
affecting the cotton plants with the herbicide and it was more cost-effective.
Using the USDA statistics from 2005, we calculate that 0.0947 oz of pesticides is used
to grow one pound of conventionally grown U.S. cotton. When 2005 synthetic
fertilizer usage (nitrogen, phosphate, potash and sulfur) is included in the calculation
then the combined synthetic fertilizer and pesticide usage is 2.85 ounces per pound of
conventionally grown cotton, and is considerably less than the 5 ounces reported in
the late 1990s.  This is in keeping with the 0.08637 ounces calculated by Coral Rose of
Eco-Innovations and published in her Sustainable Action Leadership blog and the
pesticide usage per pound of cotton reported in the Cotton Incorporated site.
Conventionally grown cotton will need to improve its environmental impact through
improved pest management and will need to reduce and eventually eliminate
hazardous chemical pesticide usage before it can approach sustainability. Hazardous
chemical pesticide usage is not sustainable.
And then there is also the little issue of bio-engineered, genetically modified cotton.
The Global Organic Textiles Standard prohibits “genetically modified organisms
(GMO’s) and their derivatives (including enzymes derived from genetically modified
micro-organisms).” The SKAL International Standards for Sustainable Textile
Production states that all agricultural fibers have to “originate from an organic
production method that is recognized by Control Union Certifications” and all organic
production methods exclude genetically modified plants.
When you hear claims of "sustainable" always look upon the cotton kimono to see
what it really means.
April 21, 2008 | Permalink | Comments (9) | TrackBack (0)
Tags: cotton, cotton clothing, cotton clothing, organic cotton, organic cotton clothing, sustainable
cotton

Bamboo: Facts behind the Fiber

What do conventional fashion designers Diane vonFurstenberg, Oscar de

la Renta, Kate O’Connor, Agnes B and eco-fashion designers Amanda Shi of Avita,
Linda Loudermilk, Katherine Hamnett, Miho Aoki and Thuy Pham at United Bamboo,
Sara Kirsner at Doie Designs, and clothing manufacturers Bamboosa, Shirts Of
Bamboo, Jonano, HTnaturals in Canada and Panda Snack, and fabric
manufacturers Table Bay Spinners of South Africa, Richfield Tang Knits Ltd.
in Mauritius have in common? Bamboo.

In part because of its luxurious softness, smooth hand, flowing and

gentle drape, and easy price – at least compared with silk and cashmere – and eco
friendly cachet, bamboo has gained entry throughout the fashion industry. But it has
been the trumpets heralding bamboo as the latest and hottest sustainable eco-fabric
that have been the most strident. And some of the hoopla is justified. Growing
bamboo is a wonderfully beneficial plant for the planet and most is naturally organic
bamboo. The manufacturing processes where bamboo the plant is transformed into
bamboo the fabric are where the sustainability and eco-friendly luster of bamboo is
tarnished because of the heavy chemicals, some of which are toxic, that are often
required.  Very, very little bamboo clothing would qualify as sustainable or organic
clothes.  Here’s the scoop.

Botanically categorized as a grass and not a tree, bamboo just might be

the world’s most sustainable resource. It is the fastest growing grass and can shoot up
a yard or more a day. Bamboo reaches maturity quickly and is ready for harvesting in
about 4 years. Bamboo does not require replanting after harvesting because its vast
root network continually sprouts new shoots which almost zoom up while you watch
them, pulling in sunlight and greenhouse gases and converting them to new green
growth. And bamboo does this the natural way without the need for petroleum-
guzzling tractors and poisonous pesticides and fertilizers.
Bamboo the plant is wonderfully sustainable; bamboo the fabric isn’t so easy to
categorize. There are two ways to process bamboo to make the plant into a fabric:
mechanically or chemically. The mechanical way is by crushing the woody parts of the
bamboo plant and then use natural enzymes to break the bamboo walls into a mushy
mass so that the natural fibers can be mechanically combed out and spun into yarn.
This is essentially the same eco-friendly manufacturing process used to produce linen
fabric from flax or hemp. Bamboo fabric made from this process is sometimes called
bamboo linen. Very little bamboo linen is manufactured for clothing because it is
more labor intensive and costly.
Chemically manufactured bamboo fiber is a regenerated cellulose fiber similar to
rayon or modal. Chemically manufactured bamboo is sometimes called bamboo rayon
because of the many similarities in the way it is chemically manufactured and
similarities in its feel and hand.
Most bamboo fabric that is the current eco-fashion rage is chemically manufactured
by “cooking” the bamboo leaves and woody shoots in strong chemical solvents such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH – also known as caustic soda or lye) and carbon disulfide in a
process also known as hydrolysis alkalization combined with multi-phase bleaching.
Both sodium hydroxide and carbon disulfide have been linked to serious health
problems. Breathing low levels of carbon disulfide can cause tiredness, headache and
nerve damage. Carbon disulfide has been shown to cause neural disorders in workers
at rayon manufacturers. Low levels of exposure to sodium hydroxide can cause
irritation of the skin and eyes. Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkaline base also known
as caustic soda or lye. In its dry crystalline form, caustic soda is one of the major
ingredients of Drano. This is basically the same process used to make rayon from
wood or cotton waste byproducts. Because of the potential health risks and damage
to the environment surrounding the manufacturing facilities, textile manufacturing
processes for bamboo or other regenerated fibers using hydrolysis alkalization with
multi-phase bleaching are not considered sustainable or environmentally supportable.
While specifics can vary, the general process for chemically manufacturing bamboo
fiber using hydrolysis alkalization with multi-phase bleaching technology – which is the
dominate technology for producing regenerated bamboo fiber – goes like this:
1. Bamboo leaves and the soft, inner pith from the hard bamboo trunk are
extracted and crushed;
2. The crushed bamboo cellulose is soaked in a solution of 15% to 20% sodium
hydroxide at a temperature between 20 degrees C to 25 degrees C for one to
three hours to form alkali cellulose;
 3. The bamboo alkali cellulose is then pressed to remove any excess sodium
hydroxide solution. The alkali cellulose is crashed by a grinder and left to
dry for 24 hours;
4. Roughly a third as much carbon disulfide is added to the bamboo alkali
cellulose to sulfurize the compound causing it to jell;
5. Any remaining carbon disulfide is removed by evaporation due to
decompression and cellulose sodium xanthogenate is the result;
6. A diluted solution of sodium hydroxide is added to the cellulose sodium
xanthogenate dissolving it to create a viscose solution consisting of about 5%
sodium hydroxide and 7% to 15% bamboo fiber cellulose.
7. The viscose bamboo cellulose is forced through spinneret nozzles into a large
container of a diluted sulfuric acid solution which hardens the viscose
bamboo cellulose sodium xanthogenate and reconverts it to cellulose
bamboo fiber threads which are spun into bamboo fiber yarns to be woven
into reconstructed and regenerated bamboo fabric.
This gives some feel for how chemically intensive the hydrolysis-alkalization and
multiphase bleaching manufacturing processes are for most bamboo fabrics that are
promoted as being sustainable and eco-friendly.

Newer manufacturing facilities have begun using other technologies to chemically

manufacture bamboo fiber that are more benign and eco-friendly. The chemical
manufacturing process used to produce lyocell from wood cellulose can be modified
to use bamboo cellulose. The lyocell process, also used to manufacture TENCEL®,
uses N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide to dissolve the bamboo cellulose into a viscose
solution.  N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide is a member of the amine oxide family.  Amine
oxides are weak alkalines that act as surfactants and help break down the cellulose
structure.  Hydrogen peroxide is added as a stabilizer and the solution is forced
through spinnerets into a hardening bath which causes the thin streams of viscose
bamboo solution to harden into bamboo cellulose fiber threads. The hardening bath is
usually a solution of water and methanol, ethanol or a similar alcohol.  The
regenerated bamboo fiber threads can be spun into bamboo yarn for weaving into
fabric. This lyocell processing is substantially healthier and more eco-friendly because
N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide is supposedly non-toxic to humans and the chemical
manufacturing processes are closed-loop so 99.5% of the chemicals used during the
processing are captured and recycled to be used again. Only trace amounts escape
into the atmosphere or into waste waters and waste products.
Other chemical manufacturing processes for bamboo fabric are appearing such as
using acetic anhydride and acetic acid with sulfuric acid as a catalyst to form acetate
fiber which is then spun into a yarn.
 New nano-technologies are also being introduced into the bamboo
clothing industry. GreenYarn, a new startup located in Boston, is developing a
bamboo clothing line made from nano-particles of bamboo charcoal. GreenYarn’s
“Eco-fabric” is manufactured from 4 to 5 year old Taiwanese-grown bamboo that has
been dried and burned in 800 degree C ovens until it is reduced to charcoal. The
bamboo is processed – we don’t know how – into fine nano particles which are then
embedded into cotton, polyester or nylon fibers. This conventional fiber yarn that
contains trapped bamboo charcoal nano particles is then woven into fabrics … mostly
socks and blankets now.
Greenyarn’s Eco-fabric is promoted as being anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-static,
de-odorizing, breathable, thermal regulating (cool in hot weather and warm in cool
weather), and environmentally friendly. Obviously, a significant part of Eco-fabric’s
claims to sustainability depend upon the sustainability of the original cotton,
polyester or nylon fibers that have been impregnated with the bamboo charcoal nano
particles. In a footnote, Greenyarn mentions that the active bamboo charcoal
ingredients will only remain active in the clothing for about six months of active use.
Chemically-manufactured bamboo rayon has some wonderful properties which are
adored by conventional and eco-aware designers and consumers:
 Bamboo fabric has a natural sheen and softness that feels and drapes like silk
but is less expensive and more durable.
 Bamboo clothing is easy to launder in a clothes washer and dryer.
 Because of the smooth and round structure of its fibers, bamboo clothing is
soft and non-irritating, even to sensitive skin. Some people with chemical
sensitivities can not tolerate bamboo clothing. We are not sure if this
intolerance is due to the intrinsic nature of bamboo but it more likely
because of other chemicals added or used during the manufacturing and
finishing processes of the clothing.
 Bamboo is naturally anti-bacterial and anti-fungal supposedly because of a
bacteriostatis agent unique to bamboo plants called “bamboo kun” which
also helps bamboo resist harboring odors. “Kun” is also sometimes spelled
“kunh”. The bamboo kun in bamboo fabric stops odor-producing bacteria
from growing and spreading in the bamboo cloth allowing bamboo clothing
to be more hygienic and to remain fresher smelling.
 Bamboo clothing is hypoallergenic.
 Bamboo is highly absorbent and wicks water away from the body 3 to 4 times
faster than cotton. In warm, humid and sweaty weather, bamboo clothing
helps keep the wearer drier, cooler and more comfortable and doesn’t stick
to the skin.
  The structure of bamboo fibers make bamboo fabrics more breathable and
thermal regulating than cotton, hemp, wool or synthetic fabrics.
 Bamboo clothing is naturally more wrinkle-resistant than cotton, and while it
might still require ironing after washing, bamboo fabric can be ironed at a
lower temperature than cotton. Shrinkage during washing and drying is
minimal at warm temperatures.
 Bamboo fibers and fabrics absorb dyes faster and more thoroughly than
cotton, modal and viscose with better color clarity. Bamboo fabrics do not
need to be mercerized to improve their luster and dye-ability like cotton
requires.

  Designers such as Kate O’Connor use bamboo fabric as an eco-

friendly replacement for silk. Speaking of bamboo eco-fashion, Kate
O’Connor calls bamboo fashion “so much cheaper [than silk] and it’s really
good for the environment.” “It is the perfect summer fabric” according to
Kate O’Connor. Linda Loudermilk, another savvy eco-fashion designer,
frequently incorporates bamboo into her eco-fashions.  Amanda Shi
of Avitahas some of the most exciting and originally beautiful eco-fashion in
bamboo.
Bamboo the plant and also bamboo the fabric can rate high as an environmentally
friendly and renewable resource:
 Bamboo grows rapidly and naturally without any pesticides, herbicides or
fertilizers.
 Bamboo clothing (both mechanically and chemically manufactured) is 100%
biodegradable and can be completely decomposed in the soil by micro-
organisms and sunlight without decomposing into any pollutants such as
methane gas which is commonly produced as a by-product of decomposition
in landfills and dumps.
 Growing bamboo improves soil quality and helps rebuild eroded soil. The
extensive root system of bamboo holds soil together, prevents soil erosion,
and retains water in the watershed.
 Bamboo grows naturally without the need for agricultural tending and large
diesel exhaust-spewing tractors to plant seeds and cultivate the soil.
  Bamboo plantations are large factories for photosynthesis which reduces
greenhouse gases. Bamboo plants absorb about 5 times the amount of
carbon dioxide (a primary greenhouse gas) and produces about 35% more
oxygen than an equivalent stand of trees.
 Bamboo fabrics and clothing can be manufactured and produced without any
chemical additives although eco-certification such as Oeko-Tex is necessary
to insure that the manufacturing and finishing processes are healthy.
 Currently, there are no known genetically modified organisms (GMO) variants
of bamboo. Let’s hope it stays that way.
The bottom line on bamboo. The growing of bamboo is environmentally friendly but
the manufacturing of bamboo into fabric raises environmental and health concerns
because of the strong chemical solvents used to cook the bamboo plant into a viscose
solution that is then reconstructed into cellulose fiber for weaving into yarn for
fabric.
Bamboo clothing marketers have found a variety of ways to put the most eco-friendly
and sustainable face on the manufacturing of bamboo fabric. The dominant
manufacturing process of hydrolysis alkalization and multi-phase bleaching is
generally referred to as a rather benign process utilizing caustic soda and bleach. The
chemicals used are known to create a variety of health problems and neural disorders
which can be hazardous to the health of fiber manufacturing workers. If the
manufacturing facility lacks adequate pollution control systems – all too common in
developing countries where regulations and enforcement are nearly non-existent –
then these toxic chemicals can escape into the atmosphere through air vents and
smokestacks and into waterways through inadequately treated waste water disposal
systems.
Some bamboo fiber manufacturing facilities trumpet their sustainability and green
credentials by establishing ISO 9000 Quality Management policies and ISO 14000
Environmental Management policies. This is largely a PR red herring tossed by the
manufacturing facilities and marketers because these ISO standards do not mean that
the facilities, their manufacturing processes or their fabrics have been certified by
any of the international certification bodies such as SKAL, Soil Association, Demeter,
KRAV, or OKO-tex.

The International Organization for Standardization, ISO, is an

international NGO that defines industrial and commercial standards. ISO 14000 gives
the requirements for an Environmental Management System. This means that ISO
14000 “…is a tool for helping organizations to implement good environmental practice
and to aim for continual improvement of their environmental performance” according
to an ISO press release.
ISO 14000 does not certify that a company’s manufacturing processes are sustainable
or environmentally friendly. ISO 14000 is simply a generic set of standards and tools to
help businesses – any kind of business such as financial services or media companies
and not just manufacturing companies – define their environmental concerns and how
to meet them. ISO 14000 does not guarantee that once a company has defined their
Environmental Management System that they will meet their goals. There is also no
guarantee that a company’s implementation of their Environmental Management
System using ISO 14000 will meet the criteria for sustainability. ISO has posted an
interesting introduction to ISO 14000 on YouTube. Because ISO 14000 is a very
“flexible” standard, it is impossible to know what and how a company is actually
implementing their ISO 14000 Environmental Management System.
Some manufacturers also boast that they have implemented ISO 9000 as if this
improves their “green” credentials. ISO 9000 is another set of generic standards and
tools for defining and implementing a company’s quality management system. The
domain of ISO 9000 is quality management and has nothing to do with environmental
issues.
ISO 14000 and ISO 9000 are important and useful tools and standards but, without
knowing the specifics of a company’s ISO 14000 implementation, it is impossible to
know if their manufacturing processes are actually sustainable and conform to
environmental regulations. Also, environmental regulations, controls, enforcement
and attitudes vary greatly from country to country as does transparency into what
really happens within a country’s manufacturing facilities. For example, getting
reliable data and information from garment manufacturers in China, where most
clothing is now manufactured, is very difficult.

What to do? If you are thinking of purchasing bamboo clothing or any

clothing that has been made outside the U.S., look for certification from an
independent and reliable certification company such as Oeko-Tex, Soil Association,
SKAL, KRAV or similar organic or sustainable certification body. Currently, the Oeko-
Tex label is the most comprehensive label for insuring that the garment is healthy for
consumers but it does not certify the manufacturing processes that produced the
garment as being environmentally friendly and sustainable.
Some people many find our critique of the environmental and human health impact of
bamboo clothing to be harsh but we based our statements on the best research that
we could find from medical research journals, trade information, patent applications
and consumers’ experiences. We tried contacting a number of bamboo fiber
manufacturers for additional information on their manufacturing processes but we
received only bland statements about how they satisfied all governmental
environment regulations or just radio silence. We would be highly appreciative of any
documented facts from bamboo fiber and fabric manufacturers that correct any of our
findings and we promise to publish your corrections. Bamboo fabric and clothing has
wonderful potential as a sustainable and environmentally friendly product if it can
demonstrate that it is sustainable and friendly to the health of the planet,
manufacturing and garment workers, and consumers.
Enjoy.
Michael
September 18, 2007 | Permalink | Comments (33) | TrackBack (1)
Tags: bamboo, bamboo clothing, bamboo fabric, bamboo manufacturing, bamboo rayon

Cotton: Facts Behind the Fiber

We had written this post as the first in a series on organic cotton.  The second in the
organic cotton series was "Cotton: African Savior or Curse".  Somehow this blog post
disappeared so we are reposting it again.
Cotton - From Field to Fashion. 
There has been some confusion about what really are natural fibers used in textiles. 
In some people’s opinion, natural fiber clothing is the same as organic clothing.  In
conversations, “natural clothing” is sometimes used to refer to organic clothing
because the clothing is completely natural and was not grown with any toxic
chemicals nor manufactured using toxic chemicals. But natural fiber clothing simply
refers to clothing made from fibers found in nature, such as cotton, wool or hemp,
which may not be grown or manufactured under conditions which would allow them
to be certified as organic.
Natural fibers fall into three main groups: vegetable fibers which come from plants;
protein fibers, which come from the wool and hair of animals; and the strong elastic
fibrous secretion of silkworm larvae in cocoons which is used to create silk. The main
ingredient in all vegetable fibers is cellulose, a carbohydrate found in all plant life.
The most common natural fibers used to make clothing are cotton, hemp, ramie,
linen, lyocell / Tencel, wool, and silk.
This article on cotton is the first in a series that examines each of these natural fibers
in their journey from the field to the fashion runway as they journey to rise to
ecofashion stardom or sink into conventional toxic Margarittaville. 
Cotton – hero or villain?  When we think about global warming, growing cancer rates,
deepening poverty in some of the world’s poorest countries, and even increasing
chemical sensitivities, our clothes closets are probably not the first villain that comes
to mind, but our clothes can be a significant, quiet co-conspirator. 
 Cotton evokes images of white, fluffy purity and many people think of
cotton as being a natural, pure fabric.  Cotton is a wonderfully versatile and globally
important fiber that is used for a vast variety of fiber and food products, making it
one of the most widely traded commodities on earth.  Versatility, softness, breath-
ability, absorbency, year-round comfort, performance, and durability are just a few
of the qualities that have earned cotton its popular status.  Due to its unique fiber
structure which can absorb up to 27 times its own weight in water, cotton breathes
and helps remove body moisture by absorbing it and wicking it away from the skin. 
Not only is cotton the most popular and best selling fabric in the world, due to its
huge commercial value, cotton also represents an essential component of foreign
exchange earnings for more than fifty countries.  The value and reach of cotton
extends far past the fashion runway.
But, the global cotton industry has a worldwide Dark Side of which most of us are not
aware as we fill our shopping bags with inexpensive cotton shirts from major clothing
stores.  The simple act of conventionally growing and harvesting the one pound of
cotton fiber needed to make a T-shirt takes an enormous and devastating toll on the
earth’s air, water, and soil that impacts global health.  Also, policies and practices
within the cotton industry from crop subsidies to garment sweatshops create poverty
and misery that stretch around the world. Cotton industry trade organizations such as
Cotton Incorporated spend millions and millions of dollars attempting to convince
American consumers of the hoax that conventional chemical cotton is pure and
friendly to the health of the wearer.
Let’s take a tour of the major steps in the journey of cotton from field to fashion.  At
each step, we will compare the processes for conventional cotton and for organic
cotton.  Ready?
There is a general four-step process to turn a cotton seed into cotton apparel.
1. Planting and growing
2. Harvesting
3. Cleaning or “ginning” of the cotton boll
4. Manufacturing
The manufacturing step consists of several important activities:
 Spinning the cotton fibers to create yarn,
 Weaving or knitting to create bolts of cotton fabric,
 Fabric dyeing,
 Finishing process to create the smooth fabric,
  Cutting and sewing of garment for consumers.

Step 1.  Planting & Growing.  The cotton fiber and seed grow in a pod
called a boll which develops from the flowers of cotton plants and opens when the
cotton plant is mature.  After cotton is harvested, the cotton boll is then taken to a
gin which removes the fiber from the seed. The fiber is then packaged into bales
weighing almost 500 pounds.  The seed is pressed into cottonseed oil and used in
processed foods for people or it is fed to livestock.   A sample of cotton fiber from
each bale is tested for strength, length and
  color. Cotton spinning mills buy the cotton
 In California, five of the top nine bales based on these qualities, and then
pesticides used on cotton are process the fiber into spun yarn.
cancer-causing chemicals A textile mill will process the yarn into
(cyanazine, dicofol, naled, woven or knitted fabric. The fabric will
propargite and trifluralin). then be transported to a garment
 In Egypt, more than 50% of cotton manufacturing shop (often in a low wage
workers in the 1990s suffered region or country) where it will be cut and
symptoms of chronic pesticide sewn into the final garment.  Cotton may
poisoning, including be dyed at the fiber stage, the yarn stage,
neurological and vision the fabric stage, or the final garment
disorders. stage.
 In India, 91% of male cotton Conventionally grown cotton.  Farmers in
workers exposed to pesticides the United States apply nearly one-third of
eight hours or more per day a pound of chemical fertilizers and
experienced some type of health pesticides for every pound of cotton
disorder, including chromosomal harvested. When all nineteen cotton-
aberrations, cell death and cell growing states are tallied, cotton crops
cycle delay. account for twenty-five percent of all the
 In the US, a 1987 National Cancer pesticides used in the U.S. Some of these
Institute Study found a nearly chemicals are among the most toxic
seven-fold higher risk of classified by the U.S. Environmental
leukemia for children whose Protection Agency. In developing countries,
parents used pesticides in their where regulations are less stringent, the
homes or gardens. amount of herbicides and insecticides and
 The World Health Organization their toxicity is often greater than in the
estimates that at least three U.S.
million people are poisoned by   
pesticides every year and 20-
40,000 more are killed.
 Over 1 million Americans will
learn they have some form of
cancer and 10,400 people in the
U.S. die each year from cancer
related to pesticides:   
 
Perspective, just 2.4% of the world's arable land is planted with cotton yet it accounts
for 24% of the world's insecticide market and 11% of global pesticides sales, making it
the most pesticide-intensive crop grown on the planet.  The pesticides used by
farmers not only kill cotton pests but also decimate populations of beneficial insects
such as ladybugs and parasitic wasps.   Because their natural enemies have been
eradicated, these target insects, which were once only minor nuisances for farmers,
become greater problems and ever-increasing quantities of toxic chemicals must be
sprayed to keep them in check.  Farmers then become stuck on what is known as the
‘pesticide treadmill’.
Pesticides not only disrupt the balance of nature in the field, but also harm people
who come in contact with them.  According to the Organic Consumers Association, the
use of pesticides, which includes insecticides, herbicides and fungicides, for
conventional cotton production has created serious problems for human health and
the environment in all cotton-growing regions worldwide.

The health of our planet has also been adversely affected by

pesticides.  The pesticides and synthetic fertilizers used on cotton routinely
contaminate groundwater, surface water and pollute the water we drink.  Fish, birds
and other wildlife are also affected by the movement of these chemicals through the
ecosystem.  Many of these problems have been documented by the Pesticide Action
Network North America.
 In 1995, pesticide-contaminated runoff from cotton fields in Alabama killed
240,000 fish.
 It is estimated that pesticides unintentionally kill 67 million birds each year.
 14 million people in the U.S. are routinely drinking water contaminated with
carcinogenic herbicides and 90 percent of municipal water treatment
facilities lack equipment to remove these chemicals.
The growth of industrial agriculture and consolidation in the seed industry has
replaced hundreds of cotton varieties with only a handful.  The practice of planting
thousands of acres all of the same variety is known as monoculture and has left the
crop extremely vulnerable to pests and diseases which also forces cotton farmers onto
the “chemical treadmill.”  Conventional farmers using toxic chemicals have found
themselves embroiled in an endless battle with crop pests.  Over 500 species of
insects, 180 weeds and 150 fungi have developed resistance to the chemicals used to
kill them off.  Agricultural biotech companies continually develop new products to
keep up with this resistance and keep farmers on the ‘chemical treadmill’. 
Organically grown cotton.   Working with rather than against nature is the guiding
principle behind organic farming. Organic farmers use biologically-based rather than
chemically dependent growing systems to raise crops.  While many conventional
farmers are reacting to the ecological disorder created by monocultures, organic
farmers focus on preventing problems before they occur. 
By focusing on managing rather than completely eliminating troublesome weeds and
insects, organic farmers are able to maintain ecological balance and protect the
environment.  Organic cotton is now being grown in more than 18 countries
worldwide.  In the United States, approximately 10,000 acres of organic cotton were
planted in 1998 in the Mid-South, Texas and California.
The Soil:  Organic Farming starts with healthy soil.  The soil is seen as a living system
and not simply a growing medium for plants.   Compost, efficient nutrient recycling,
frequent crop rotations and cover crops replace synthetic fertilizers to keep the soil
healthy and productive.
 
  Weed Control:  Organic Farmers have
 In Peru, cotton farmers have saved many options to control weeds including:
over $100 per acre in pesticide and hoes and other mechanical weeding
fertilizer costs by switching over implements, crop rotations, planting
to organic production. several crops together (intercropping),
more efficient use of irrigation water, the
 In Tanzania organic cotton farmers use of mulches, and even adjusting the
plant sunflowers to encourage planting dates and densities of their
beneficial ants that feed on the crops.
larvae of the bollworm, and
fertilize the soil with manure from Pest Control:  By encouraging biological
their cattle. diversity, farmers create conditions which
 In India organic farmers intercrop reduce the likelihood of any insect, bird
cotton with pigeon peas and make or mammal doing any major damage to
insecticidal sprays from garlic, their crop.  To control pests, organic
chili and the neem tree. farmers may use beneficial predator
insects, crop rotations, intercropping, and
 In California, organic cotton farmers biological pesticides such as neem oil. 
plant habitat strips of vegetation
such as alfalfa near their fields as a Step 2.  Harvesting.
refuge for beneficial insects. Conventionally Harvested Cotton.  After
  the toxic debacle of the growing season,
the chemical woes only continue. During
harvesting, herbicides are used to defoliate cotton plants to make picking easier. The
global consequences are that chemicals pollute ground water and rivers with
potentially carcinogenic compounds.  Large harvesting machinery compacts the
ground reducing soil productivity.
Organic Harvested Cotton. Organic cotton is often hand picked, especially in
developing countries, without the use of defoliants, machinery, or chemicals.  Hand
picking also means less waste.
Step 3.  Cleaning & Ginning.  So far, we have journeyed only to the end of the cotton
field, but the story doesn’t end there.  Manufacturing cotton fiber into fabric and
garments consists of several major processes – cleaning, spinning, knitting or weaving,
dyeing, cutting and assembly, finishing, and cleaning.
Before cotton fiber can be manufactured from cotton plants, several cleaning steps
are required. After the plants have been processed at a cotton gin, the product is
distributed to fiber producers. The fiber manufacturer further removes plant material
and other debris by dividing and carding the lint. The waste from this process is a
mixture of stems, leaves, soils, and lint.
Cotton is also an important food source for humans and animals.  Cotton is comprised
of 40% fiber and 60% seed by weight. Once separated in the gin, the fibers go to
textile mills, while the seed and various ginning by-products are used for animal feed
and for human food, mostly in the form of cottonseed oil.  Cottonseed, which is rich
in oil and high in protein, is a common ingredient in cookies, potato chips, salad
dressings, baked goods, and other processed foods.
Conventional Cotton By-Products.  With conventionally grown cotton, the pesticide
residues from the cottonseeds concentrate in the fatty tissues of these animals, and
end up in meat and dairy products.
Organic Cotton By-Products.  Organically grown cotton can be used to produce
organic food products for people and animals.  Organic cotton is important not just in
the clothing chain but also in the food chain.
Step 4.  Manufacturing – Spinning, Weaving, Knitting, Dying, & Finishing
Conventionally Manufactured Cotton. Conventionally manufactured cotton must be
chemically processed to become the soft fiber that consumers love.  Although cotton
is one of the most heavily sprayed crops in the United States, much of the pesticide
and herbicide is bleached out or washed away during the manufacturing process, but
a variety of toxic chemicals, oils, and waxes are used to manufacture, knit and weave
convention cotton fabrics.  The chemical residues of these processes constitute the
major sensitivity problems experienced by people suffering from Multiple Chemical
Sensitivities.
Only in the spinning process where cotton fibers are spun into yarn is cotton
untouched by chemicals or oils.  After spinning, the yarn receives a polyvinyl alcohol
sizing to make the yarn easier to weave. After weaving, the fabric is then bleached. 
Half the companies in the U.S. use hydrogen peroxide, but half still use highly toxic
chlorine.  Companies outside the >U.S. and Europe, where most garments are
produced, are more likely to use chlorine.  The sizing is then removed from the fabric
with a detergent.  Next, it is washed or “scoured” with sodium hydroxide. Finally, it
is piece-dyed, often with formaldehyde-fixing agents.  An additional washing is
needed to attempt to remove the formaldehyde-fixing agents. 
The last step is finishing and this is where many chemical sensitivity problems begin. 
A urea-formaldehyde product which cross-links molecules is routinely applied to all
United States cottons to reduce shrinkage and wrinkling.  Cotton is a fiber designed by
nature to absorb, and heat is used to lock finishes into the fiber.  When heat is
applied, this molecule expands and becomes permanently bound in the fiber.  That is
why it cannot be washed or dry cleaned out. 
“Pure finish” indicates that nothing has been applied to the fabric at this point, but
this does not always guarantee that people who are chemically sensitive will be able
to wear the garment.  Detergents and softeners are heavily used in making fabrics,
and some of these will leave a residue that will never wash out completely.   
Knitted fabric goes through similar processes.  To be knittable, yarn must be waxed
and oiled.  The knit fabric is then washed in detergents and softeners.  An anti-curl
chemical is added to the wash for all jerseys and many fleeces.  Knit goods that are
piece-dyed after knitting follow the same course as woven fabrics.  Yarn-dyed knits
are washed, framed, steamed, and finished with heat and, usually, formaldehyde
resin.
Sweaters and some circular knits are just washed with detergent and softeners and
tumble-dried to remove oils and to reduce shrinkage.  No finish is put on them, but
again their wearability depends on the chemicals used to wash and soften them.  The
low-foam industrial detergent Aresolve is one of the worst offenders around.  As with
woven fabrics, heat is used as part of the processing and can actually lock chemicals
into the fiber.
It is impossible to knot yarn without waxing and oiling and the oil must be washed out
with some kind of detergent.  Jerseys must be de-curled to lie flat on a table for
cutting.  Traditional cotton fabrics are often scoured, washed, and bleached with
chlorine, APEO (alkylphenoloxylate, a hormone disrupter), EDTA (ethylenediamine
tetra-acetate which binds with heavy metals in rivers and streams), and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) that react with sunlight to form ground-level ozone. These
toxic chemicals are slow to biodegrade and recent research has shown links to the
production of “probable” carcinogens.
The dyeing and printing of conventional cotton fabrics often use compounds of iron,
tin, potassium, VOCs and solvent-based inks containing heavy metals, benzene, and
organochlorides that require large quantities of water to wash out the dye residues. 
This waste water is polluted by these heavy metals.  The toxic residues found in the
waste water can cause problems of the central nervous system, respiratory system,
and skin, as well as head-aches, dizziness, and eye irritations.
“Finishing” is the final processing step for many conventional cotton garments to
create easy care clothing that is soft, wrinkle-resistant, stain and odor resistant,
fireproof, mothproof, and anti-static. Chemicals often used for finishing include
formaldehyde, caustic soda, sulfuric acid, bromines, urea resins, sulfonamides,
halogens, and bromines.  The resulting waste water has a high acid content. Residual
chemical traces on the fabric can cause burning eyes, nose, and throat, as well as
difficulties with sleep, concentration, and memory and they can increase
susceptibility to cancer.  The emissions from these residual chemicals in conventional
cotton fabric increase with temperature.   Unless clothes are 100 percent organic, you
should always wash new clothes or bedding first before wearing or putting on the bed.
That "new" smell is a potent mixture of chemicals such as formaldehyde and urea
resins that can be reducedS through repeated washings.
Some imported clothes are now impregnated with long-lasting disinfectants that can
be identified by the smell alone. These disinfectants are very hard to remove and the
healthiest action is to not buy the clothes.
Manufacturing organic cotton.  At each manufacturing step, organic clothing
manufacturers do not add petroleum scours, silicon waxes, formaldehyde, anti-
wrinkling agents, chlorine bleaches, or other unauthentic materials.  Natural
alternatives such as natural spinning oils that biodegrade easily are used to facilitate
spinning; potato starch is used for sizing; hydrogen peroxide is used for bleaching;
organic color grown cottons and low-impact dyes and earth clays are used for
coloration; and natural vegetable and mineral inks and binders are used for printing
on organic cotton fabric.  These natural alternatives are used to reduce and eliminate
the toxic consequences found in conventional cotton fabric manufacturing. 

Cultivating Poverty Globally.  Conventional cotton is also involved in a

further global social tragedy: the devastating economic impact on some of the
poorest people and countries in the world caused by subsidized cotton in the U.S. and
the proliferation of garment sweatshops located in developing countries.  An
unfortunate combination of large U.S. subsidies to U.S. cotton growers and corporate
greed in outsourcing garment manufacturing to sweatshops has created economic
hardship for cotton farmers and garment workers throughout some of the world’s
poorest countries and most vulnerable people in the world.
Cotton is a global crop native to Southern Africa and South America and is grown on
over 90 million acres in more than 80 countries worldwide.  The millions of tons of
cotton produced each year account for 50% of the world’s fiber needs with wool, silk
and flax together accounting for only 10%.  Besides being the world’s most popular
fabric, cotton is widely used as livestock feed and in food products such as salad
dressing and crackers.  The United States is the second largest cotton producer in the
world after China and the world’s largest cotton exporter.  Approximately 19 million
bales of cotton were grown in 18 U.S. states.  A major factor in cotton’s popularity
with American growers and exporters is that the U.S. Government heavily subsidizes
American growers for growing cotton.  The result is that American growers can sell
their cotton cheaply because they are also receiving generous payments directly from
the U.S. Government which paid U.S. cotton farmers $2.3 billion in 1999 and $2.06
billion in 2001, according to the Department of Agriculture.
American cotton subsidies are destroying livelihoods in Africa and other developing
regions.  By encouraging over-production and export dumping by U.S. cotton growers,
these subsidies are driving down world cotton prices on an inflation-adjusted basis to
their lowest levels since the Great Depression.  While American cotton barons get rich
on government subsidies, African farmers suffer the consequences.  Meanwhile,
America’s share of world cotton exports has risen from under 20% in 1999 to more
than 40% in 2004, estimates the International Cotton Advisory Committee. Estimates
indicate that United States cotton output would have fallen by 29% between 1999 and
2002, and world prices would have risen by 12.6% if it were not for America's
offending subsidies.

Many cotton growing countries around the world such as Brazil and
Central and West African countries, including Burkina Faso, Benin and Mali, are
heavily dependent on cotton for the bulk of their export earnings.  More than 10
million people in Central and West African countries depend directly on cotton
production with many more millions being indirectly affected.  According to the World
Bank, these African regions are among the lowest-cost producers of cotton. Yet
despite this comparative advantage, they are losing world markets and their farmers
are suffering rising poverty.  They have been hit hard by sharp falls in cotton prices in
recent years and contend that U.S. subsidies distort prices and harm competition. 
Recent rulings by the World Trade Organization find that the U.S. has been illegally
using domestic cotton subsidies to bolster its dominant position in the market.
The scale of government support to America’s 25,000 cotton farmers is staggering,
reflecting the political influence of corporate farm lobbies in key states. Every acre of
cotton farmland in the U.S. attracts a subsidy of $230. In 2001/02 farmers reaped a
bumper harvest of subsidies amounting to $3.9billion – double the level in 1992.  To
put this figure in perspective, America’s cotton farmers receive more in subsidies
than the entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Burkina Faso – a country in which
more than two million people depend on cotton production. Over half of these
farmers live below the poverty line.
The small size of the Central and West African cotton producing countries and their
high level of dependence on cotton magnify the effect of US policies.  The economic
losses inflicted by the U.S. cotton subsidy program far outweigh the benefits of the
financial aid that they receive from the U.S. Mali, for example, received $37million in
U.S. aid in 2001 but lost $43million as a result of lower cotton export earnings due to
depressed cotton prices and competition from subsidized U.S. cotton growers.
Notwithstanding constant references to the ‘family farm’ on the part of U.S. policy
makers, farm subsidies are designed to reward and encourage large-scale, corporate
production. The largest 10% of the U.S. cotton farms receive three quarters of total
cotton subsidy payments.  One of the biggest subsidy gatherers in the U.S. is Tyler
Farms, an Arkansas-based corporation that controls 40,000 acres – an area almost as
large as the District of Columbia. The farm also grows corn, rice, sorghum, and
oilseeds. All of these crops generate a healthy return by way of government subsidies.
However, cotton is Tyler Farms’ major subsidy crop, generating almost $6million in
2001. This one farm receives subsidies from the U.S. Government equivalent to the
average income of 25,000 people in Mali. 
When measured by cost per acre, farmers in Africa are among the most cost-efficient
in the world, despite climatic uncertainties, limited infrastructure, and high levels of
poverty. On a level playing field, they could compete with U.S. cotton farms. What
they cannot compete with is U.S. cotton farms selling cotton on international markets
at prices that bear no relation to the costs of production, courtesy of corporate
welfare checks underwritten by the world’s most powerful treasury.

Sweatshop Apparel. Sweatshop apparel – that is clothing and shoes

produced under sub-standard labor and environmental conditions – is so all-pervasive
as to be almost invisible. The availability of cheap, almost throwaway clothes that
change with each fashion season has become deeply embedded in our culture and yet
there is a face behind the $150 pair of Nike sneakers or the Kathie Lee blouse.  Since
it's now considered "too expensive" to pay a living wage and protect the environment,
US, European, and Japanese textile and clothing manufacturers, have, for the most
part, closed down production and moved to "outsource" their production overseas,
preferably in the lowest-wage countries like Viet Nam, China and India. Since women
and children are the easiest to exploit,  
they are the preferred workers in these  A United Nations study in 1997
sweatshops. Rights of free speech, free found that in 80% of developing
association, and the right to form a countries, manufacturing wages
trade union are routinely repressed. are now lower than they were in
Water pollution, air pollution, social the 1970s and early 80s.
dislocation, and economic exploitation
are too often the consequences of the  Hourly wages paid by clothing
global marketplace. giants such as Wal-Mart, Ralph
Lauren, Ann Taylor, Esprit, Liz
  Claiborne, Kmart, Nike, Adidas,
J.C. Penney and others in China's
Organizations such as The Sustainable
"special economic zones," are as
Cotton
low as 13 cents an hour, well
Project, www.sustainablecotton.org,
below the estimated 87 cents an
are committed to promoting fair trade
hour minimum living wage for an
organic and sustainable cotton clothes.
assembly-line worker in China.
They are building a large network of
consumer activists, designers, students,  More than 200 American textile
labor unions, farmers, social and mills have closed since 1998.
economic justice groups, clothing  
manufactures, and environmentalists to
increase consumer demand for organic and sustainable cotton apparel in our
communities, companies and campuses.  The key element is the consumer.  More and
more people are demanding products made without exploitative labor – Fair Trade
made, not sweatshop made.
For more information on this and related topics, please visit these sites:
Organic Consumers Association  An informative site that campaigns for food safety,
organic agriculture, Fair Trade, and sustainability.
Institute Of Science In Society  For articles on the science related to the hazards of
genetically engineered cotton and other agricultural products.
Unified Sustainable Textile Standard  Unified Sustainable Textile Standard is an
emerging standard. The purpose of the standard is to provide a market-based
definition for a Sustainable Textile, establish performance requirements for public
health and environment, and address the triple bottom line, economic-environmental-
social, throughout the supply chain. The Standard is inclusive, is based on life cycle
assessment (LCA) principles, and provides benchmarks for continuous improvement
and innovation.

USDA Organic  Rules implementing the U.S. Organic Foods Production Act were
finalized in December 2000. The word "organic" on U.S. products means that the
ingredients and production methods have been verified by an accredited certification
agency as meeting or exceeding USDA standards for organic production. In addition to
food, the final rule allows for certification of organically produced fibers such as
wool, cotton, and flax. However, the processing of these fibers is not covered by the
final rule. Therefore, goods that utilize organic fibers in their manufacture may only
be labeled as a "made with..." product; e.g., a cotton shirt labeled "made with
organic cotton."
Organic Trade Association  The Organic Trade Association has developed standards for
the processing of organic fibers. OTA's organic fiber processing standards, approved
January 2004, address all stages of textile processing, from post-harvest handling to
wet processing (including bleaching, dyeing, printing), fabrication, product assembly,
storage and transportation, pest management, and labeling of finished products. They
also include an extensive list of materials permitted for, or prohibited from, use in
organic fiber processing under the standards.
Enjoy.
Michael