Chapter 3

Evolution of e-Governance

3.1 Introduction

In his Grundlegung Zur Metaphysik de Sitton, Immanual Kant says, “So act as to treat
humanity, whether in their own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal,
never as means only”. Kant’s observation is relevant even in today’s world. Various
stakeholders like citizens and businesses are ends in themselves, rather than as means to other
ends. In colonial times, government was viewed as a “controller” and “ruler”. Government’s
role is now that of a coordinator and provider; it is responsible for providing specific services
to citizens and businesses, just like an organization is responsible for managing a value chain
that leads to output.

The primary purpose of governance is the welfare of citizens. While one aspect of governance
relates to safeguarding the legal rights of all citizens, an equally important aspect is concerned
with ensuring equitable access to public services and the benefits of economic growth to all.
The components of governance include an input mechanism, a data repository, a processing
methodology, and an output mechanism. In traditional governance systems, data repository is
in the form of a pile of physical files in geographically distributed offices of the government.
Input usually comes in the form of paper applications and forms, along with optional
payments, from stakeholders. These are processed manually by the hierarchy of government
officers and employees. The output is generated in the form of government orders,
certificates, payments, etc. These manual procedures usually encourage discretion, delay and
corruption on the part of government officers and employees. The stakeholders are forced to
physically visit various offices and departments for different service requirements. As a
whole, this results in an inefficient delivery system and causes harassment to the stakeholders.

Efficient governance requires efficient institutions. The efficiency and effectiveness of

institutions, in turn, depends on their adopted delivery mechanism and the supportive
framework of rules and procedures, each of which has to work in harmony with the other to
discharge the functions for which the institutions have been created. Only then would one
expect the institutions to fulfill their stated objectives and carry out their assigned
responsibilities in managing the affairs of the society. More importantly, with the changing
 Evolution of e-Governance

context – domestic as well as global – a change in the profile and requirements of society and
development, there has to be a capacity for evolution, a continuous adaptation in each of these
elements

Experience shows that while good governance can help secure human well being and
sustained development, it is equally important to recognise that poor governance could well
erode the individual capabilities, as well as institutional and community capacities to meet the
needs of sustenance.

3.2 Use of ICT in Governance

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) [14] is the tools and techniques used to
capture, store, manipulate, communicate and use information. Fully exploiting the capability
of ICT is of critical importance to the delivery of modern government and businesses in a
knowledge-driven economy. (ICT) plays a critical role in speeding up the flow of information
and knowledge between government and citizens and transforming the way in which
governments and citizens interact. According to the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) the challenge for all countries is to create and develop a system of governance that
promotes, supports and sustains human development. Governments in many parts of the
world including India have made huge ICT investments aimed at improving governance
processes.

Figure 3.1: Key Components of Government ICT

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 Evolution of e-Governance

Figure 3.1 shows a simple representation of the four key components of government ICT:
policies and strategies, its operational uses, people and governance. It is the interaction of
all of these that influences value for money.

3.2.1 Policies and strategies

Across government there is a broad range of policies that underpin how ICT is used in public
services, how it is developed and ultimately brought into operation. This includes business
policies on transparency of information and how it is managed and secured, commercial
policies on strategic supplier relationships and more technical policies relating to common
standards for ICT [3].

3.2.2 Operational Uses

ICT is used in many ways across government but five broad applications are generally
recognized. These are:

Online services: A growing number of public services are now available online, reflecting
trends in the private sector and the need to reduce the costs of delivering services. Citizens
and businesses are able to use the Internet to file tax returns, make benefit claims, apply for
immigration visas, renew vehicle road tax, apply for passports or book medical appointments.
Websites guide citizens and businesses to the information they need and the External Affairs
Office uses the Internet to disseminate overseas travel advice.

Business intelligence systems: These systems typically automate the collation, analysis and
presentation of financial information, management information and metrics about business
performance and relevant progress indicators across an organization. When combined with
effective systems for budgeting, planning, forecasting and optimization, business intelligence
systems provide the means to navigate through and share management information across an
organization and are key to informed decision-making in knowledge-intensive organizations.

Business systems: These systems sit at the heart of public service delivery. They can range
from simple database applications through to large transactional systems supporting the
operation of tax collection and benefits payments. Many areas of government have been made
more efficient through the deployment of business systems, but these have also presented the
biggest challenges to value for money. Usually business systems are developed from scratch
by large IT suppliers to deliver very specific and customized solutions for government.

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Back office systems: Every public sector body relies on a range of finance, human resources,
procurement and facilities management systems to manage its operations effectively. These
systems deliver core functions that all organizations need for strong financial control.

Infrastructure: ICT provides all of the basic tools for the modern working environment.
Desktops, printers, laptops, telephones, servers, software applications and email are all
necessary for efficient government operations. They are ICT commodities that are available
from the market. Infrastructure can directly affect other costs such as office accommodation.
It influences how productive and mobile the front line and civil service workforce is, and the
extent to which flexible and collaborative working is possible.

3.2.3 People

The people involved in government ICT include change specialists, business strategists and
analysts, as well as the more traditional systems architects, software engineers, service
managers and database administrators. ICT professionals are responsible for the continuous
design of operating models and business processes to take advantage of rapidly evolving
technology. Successful organizations will typically rely on them as a central part of strategic
decision-making and design of new services, not just for applications development and the
running of operating systems.

3.2.4 Governance

ICT governance is the people, systems and processes that direct, approve, control and assure
an organization’s ICT. It operates both across government and within government bodies.

3.3 Concept of e-Governance

e-Governance is the application of ICT for delivering Government Services, exchange of

information, communication transactions, integration various stand-alone systems and
services between Government and Citizens (G2C), Government and Business (G2B) as well
as back office processes and interactions within the entire Government frame work. Common
interactions in e-Governance have already been introduced in section 1.3. Through e-
Governance, government services will be made available to the citizens in a convenient,
efficient and transparent manner. The Government being the service provider, it is important
to motivate the employees for delivering the services through ICT. To achieve this, the
Government employees are being trained on technology and started realizing the advantage of

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ICT. The aim is to make them thorough with e-Governance applications and responsive to the
technology driven administration.

Defined broadly, e-Governance is the use of ICT to promote more efficient and effective
government, facilitate more accessible government services, allow greater public access to
information, and make government more accountable to citizens. e-Governance has emerged
beyond electronic service delivery and is part of the ongoing reform and transformation of
government enabling participatory governance and partnerships to improve efficiency and
effectiveness [5]. e-Governance is about transforming government to be more citizen-
centered. Technology is a tool in this effort. e-Governance successes require changing how
government works, how it deals with information, how officials view their jobs and interact
with the public.

e-Governance comprises the use of ICTs to support public services, government

administration, democratic processes, and relationships [23, 37] among citizens, civil society,
the private sector, and the state. Developed over more than two decades of technology
innovation and policy response, the evolution of e-Governance is examined in terms of five
interrelated objectives: a policy framework, enhanced public services, high-quality and cost-
effective government operations, citizen engagement in democratic processes, and
administrative and institutional reform. This summary assessment of e-Governance in U.S.
states and local governments shows that the greatest investment and progress have been made
in enhanced public services and improved government operations. Policy development has
moved forward on several fronts, but new policy issues continually add to an increasingly
complex set of concerns. The least progress appears to have occurred in enhancing democracy
and exploring the implications of e-Governance for administrative and institutional reform.
ICT-enabled governance will continue to evolve for the foreseeable future providing a
dynamic environment for ongoing learning and action.

Different experts and institutions have defined e-Governance but before presenting an overall
definition of e-Governance, it is essential to understand the relation between governance, e-
democracy and e-Government.

E-democracy refers to the processes and structures that encompass all forms of electronic
interaction between the Government (elected) and the citizen (electorate) whereas e-
Government is a form of e-business in governance and refers to the processes and structures
needed to deliver electronic services to the public (citizens and businesses), collaborate with
business partners and to conduct electronic transactions within an organizational entity.

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 Evolution of e-Governance

According to a research report no. 3, April 2001 on “e-Governance and Developing

Countries- Introduction and examples” by Michael Backus e-Governance is defined as the
application of electronic means in
(i) The interaction between government and citizens and government and businesses, as well
as and (ii) Internal government operations to simplify and improve democratic, government
and business aspects of Governance.

As per above definition of e-Governance, the term interaction stands for the delivery of
government products and services, exchange of information, communication, transactions and
system integration. Government consists of levels and branches. Government levels include
central, national, regional, provincial, departmental and local government institutions.
Examples of government branches are Administration, Civil Service, Parliament and
Judiciary functions. Government operations are all back-office processes and inter-
governmental interactions within the total government body. Examples of electronic means
are Internet and other ICT applications.

Hence, e-Governance is fast emerging as an important tool for achieving good governance
especially with regard to improving efficiency, transparency and making interface with
government user friendly. So far the emphasis has been on providing connectivity,
networking, technology upgradation, selective delivery systems for information and services
and a package of software solutions.

3.3.1 e-Governance objectives

The strategic objective of e-Governance is to support and simplify governance for stake
holders i.e. government, citizens and businesses. The use of ICTs can connect all three parties
and support processes and activities. In other words, in e-Governance electronic means is
used to support and stimulate good governance. Therefore, the objectives of e-Governance are
similar to the objectives of good governance. Good governance can be seen as an exercise of
economic, political, and administrative authority to better manage affairs of a country at all
levels, national and local.

The two main objectives of e-democracy are:

(i) To provide citizens access to information and knowledge about the political process, about
services and about choices available and

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(ii) To make possible the transition from passive information access to active citizen
participation by:
 Informing the citizen
 Representing the citizen
 Encouraging the citizen to vote
 Consulting the citizen
 Involving the citizen

Regarding e-Governance, the distinction is made between the objectives for internally
focused processes (operations) and objectives for externally focused services.

External strategic objectives: The external objective of e-Governance is to satisfactorily

fulfill peoples’ needs and expectations on the front-office side, by simplifying their
interaction with various online services. The use of ICTs in government operations facilitates
speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and effective interaction with the public, citizens,
business and other agencies.

Internal strategic objectives: In the back-office, the objective of e-Governance in

government operations is to facilitate a speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and
effective process for performing government administration activities. Significant cost
savings (per transaction) in government operations can be the result.

It can be concluded that e-Governance is more than just a Government website on the
Internet. Political, social, economic and technological aspects determine e-Governance.

3.3.2 Principles of good governance

Five principles underpin good governance: openness, participation, accountability,

effectiveness and coherence.

Openness: The Government should work in a more open manner. Together with the State
Governments, they should actively communicate about what the Center does and the
decisions it takes. They should use language that is accessible and understandable for the
general public. This is of particular importance in order to improve the confidence in public at
large.

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Participation: The quality, relevance and effectiveness of Government policies depend on

ensuring wide participation throughout the policy chain – from conception to implementation.
Improved participation is likely to create more confidence in the end result and in the
Institutions which deliver policies. Participation crucially depends on central governments
following an inclusive approach when developing and implementing government policies.

Accountability [1]: Roles in the legislative and executive processes need to be clearer. Each
of the Government Institutions must explain and take responsibility for what it does in the
country. But there is also a need for greater clarity and responsibility from States and all those
involved in developing and implementing Government policy at whatever level.

Effectiveness: Policies must be effective and timely, delivering what is needed on the basis of
clear objectives, an evaluation of future impact and, where available, of past experience.
Effectiveness also depends on implementing Government policies in a proportionate manner
and on taking decisions at the most appropriate level.

Coherence: Policies and action must be coherent and easily understood. The need for
coherence in the Government is increasing: the range of tasks has grown; enlargement will
increase diversity; challenges such as climate and demographic change cross the boundaries
of the sectoral policies on which the Government has been built; regional and local authorities
are increasingly involved in Government policies. Coherence requires political leadership and
a strong responsibility on the part of the Government to ensure a consistent approach within a
complex system.

Each principle is important by itself. But they cannot be achieved through separate actions.
Policies can no longer be effective unless they are prepared, implemented and enforced in a
more inclusive way.

3.3.3 Advantages of e-Governance [7]

There are numerous potential advantages related to the implementation of e-Governance such
as (Figure 3.2 [30]):
 Lower overall administrative costs to government
 Provide more efficient government operations
 Create a stronger and closer relationship between citizens and government
 Provide easier access to government for all
 Improve the level of service to citizens

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 Evolution of e-Governance

 Allow greater access to decision-making

 Empowerment of citizens
 Provide more transparency in government with more responsibility

Figure 3.2: Advantages of e-Governance

The main advantages presented by e-Governance to public can be summarized as follows:

paper reduction [26], transaction efficiency, and improved governance. As we know,
Governance refers to the systems, methods and procedures that define how a government
operates. Improved governance and increased accountability is possible through the inclusion
of societal participants in the major activities of governments. e-Governance provides the
tools for increasing transparency in public administration.

Information in the hands of citizens makes them more connected to government and aware of
internal processes that may initially have been perceived as a black box. When a citizen is
able to access information, forms and reports, and execute transactions themselves in real-
time, they achieve greater ownership of the process. The Internet provides the platform for
active participation in government, as well as an avenue for activism and lobbying that can
affect the political process. Participation by a large number of interest groups can improve
overall governance in a particular region or country.

In a democratic society, increased transparency, as it relates to public policy, is generally

perceived as a positive outcome. However, in more restricted societies, control of the Internet
and Web-based activities is used as a tool for maintaining government control and affecting
governance. Improved governance is thus an advantage of e-Governance that is constrained
by the societal and political norms of the region in which it is implemented.

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3.3.4 Impact of ICT on Governance

The use of ICT means Governance has impact on the following aspects:

24/7 Service Model

Systems and processes have to be adapted to a completely new service model. Intake
processes are made self-service and even in the middle of the night a citizen should get an
immediate (automated) response about the status of the application. Citizen’s expectations
towards government’s response times will change because of the new communication
medium. E-mail is being used as a new but serious channel besides the traditional channels
such as telephone, physical counter, post and fax.

Need for Content

Websites consist of content (information). Governments will have to collect (buy), produce
and update content daily. Content managers in each (large) department are responsible for the
information on the website.

Human Resources
Effective use of ICTs in an organisation requires training of people. People should feel
comfortable with the tools they use otherwise they will return to their old working patterns
and habits. Maintaining technological infrastructure requires IT skilled resources.
Governments will have to compete with the private (commercial) sector to recruit the
necessary IT skilled people.

Security
Just about any computer system is vulnerable to external attacks. As the government moves
its core processes (information, communication and transactions) to the Internet, it is
becoming far more vulnerable. Internet increases the number of entry points exponentially.
Protection is possible with anti-virus software, firewall at gateways, encryption technology,
and identification & authentication tools.

Privacy
Governments possess detailed information about citizens and businesses, which is often held
in multiple offices on many different computer systems (or still in paper files). The
integration of data can result in situations where the privacy of individual citizens is in
danger. It is the responsibility of the government to restrict the utilization of private

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information, and secure such information from access by unintended parties. Due to public
concern regarding privacy several countries have already passed data protection laws.

IT Department
ICTs are key elements supporting the growth of e-Governance initiatives. With the
implementation of e-Governance, IT is becoming more and more important in government
operations. The need for a professional IT department will inevitably increase, not only
during implementation, but also for maintenance of software, hardware and infrastructure for
sustainability.

3.4 e-Governance Models

The three main target groups that can be distinguished in e-Governance concepts are
government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. The external strategic objectives focus
on citizens and businesses and interest groups, the internal objectives focus on government
itself.

Central
Government
G2C G2B Civil Society
Business
Citizen G2G &
G NGOs
G2E

Local Government

Figure 3.3: Interactions between main groups in e-Governance

The most common group interactions in e-Governance are presented schematically in Figure
3.3. The three abbreviations in the figure, G2C, G2B, and G2E are explained in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Main group interactions in e-Governance

e-democracy e-government
External
G2C: Government to X X
Citizen
G2B: Government to X
Business
Internal
G2G: Government to X
Government
G2E: Government to X
Employee

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Different experts and institutions have developed different e-Governance Models as per
requirements of different systems [11]. Some of the important models are described below.

3.4.1 UN Approach

There are 5 stages of e-Governance according to United Nations:

 Emerging: In this phase a government web presence is established through a few
independent official websites and the information will be limited, basic and static
(G2C and G2B). The value to the public is that the information is publicly accessible.
Internally (G2G) the government can also disseminate information with static
electronic means.

 Enhanced: The content and information on these government portals will be

updated regularly to give the citizen the up to date information. In this phase the
processes are described and thus become more transparent, this improves democracy
and service.

 Interactive: In this phase interaction between the government and the public (G2C
and G2B) is stimulated with various applications. The citizens will be able to
download forms, contact officials and make appointments and requests online which
previously would have been only possible with long queues near counters. Internally
(G2G) the government organizations can use LAN, WAN, intranet and e-mail to
exchange information. The citizens can give their feedback and some suggestions on
some policy decisions etc. This will bring a sense of participation for the citizen and
improves the confidence of the citizen in the government.

 Transactional: In this phase, users can actually pay for services or conduct financial
transactions online. That is, all the transactions are done online without the citizen
going to the office to finalize the decision. In this phase, internal (G2G) processes
have to be redesigned to provide good service. Government needs to create new laws
and legislation that will enable paperless transactions with legal certification.

 Seamless: Under this phase a total seamless integration of e-functions and services
across administrative and departmental boundaries. That is the public can get G2C
and G2B services at one virtual counter. One single point of contact is the ultimate
goal. This needs a drastic change in the culture, processes and responsibilities within

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the government (G2G). Government employees in different departments have to work

together in a smooth and seamless way. In this phase cost savings, efficiency and
customer satisfaction are reaching highest possible levels.

3.4.2 Gartner Approach

Gartner (an international e-business research consultancy firm) has developed an e-

Governance Model also known as the e-Governance maturity model. This e-Governance
model can serve as a reference for governments to position where a project fits in the overall
evolution of an e-Governance strategy.

According to Gartner, e-Governance will mature according to the four-phase e-Governance

maturity model (Table 3.2). It has the following four phases:
 Information
 Interaction
 Transaction
 Transformation

These phases have been defined based on experiences with e-commerce and e-Governance in
Europe and other Western regions.

Table 3.2: e-Governance Maturity Model (Gartner)

e-democracy e-government
Early 90’s Information
Mid 90’s Interaction
Present Transaction
Future Transformation

In each of the four phases, the delivery of online services and use of ICTs in government
operations serve one or more of the aspects of e-Governance: democracy, government,
business. The model does not mean that all institutions have to go through all phases and all
at the same time. On the contrary, in the Western world government institutions are in phase
1, 2 or 3. The differences can be huge: the tax department can be in phase 3, while the
department of public works is just in an early stage of phase one. It all depends on where the
advantages are highest.

Here it should be seen that this model shows four phases for different e-Governance (e-
democracy and e-government) solutions. The assumption is made that the government has
already defined an overall vision and e-policy.

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This is similar to the UN model except that the “Emerging” and “Enhanced” phases which are
clubbed to form the Information phase in the Gartner model. The complexity will increase
when going from one phase to the other.

Information Phase
In the first phase, e-Governance means being present on the web, and providing external
public (G2C and G2B) with relevant information. The format of the first government websites
is similar to that of a brochure or leaflet. The value to the public is that government
information is publicly accessible; processes are described and thus become more transparent,
which improves democracy and service.

Internally (G2G) the government can also disseminate information with static electronic
means, such as the Internet. This phase it is all about information. From a one-page presence
website to a site with all relevant government information available to the public, in order to
improve transparency in democracy.

Table 3.3: Examples of Government Information

Examples of information that Government …

… wishes to disseminate … may make available … is required to supply
press notices geographical data performance indicators
consultation papers demographic data environmental indicators
policies economic data audited accounts
white papers information collected personal data
news information generated routinely internal policy documents
health and safety advice value added services correspondence
benefits and entitlements business yellow pages management reports
applicable regulations

Interaction Phase
In the second phase the interaction between government and the public (G2C and G2B) is
stimulated with various applications. People can ask questions via e-mail, use search engines
for information and are able to download all sorts of forms and documents. These
functionalities save time. In fact the complete intake of (simple) applications can be done
online 24/7. Internally (G2G) government organizations use Local Area Networks (LAN),
intranets and e-mail to communicate and exchange data.

The bottom line is that more efficiency and effectiveness is achieved because a large part of
the intake process is done online. However, one still have to go to the office to finalize the

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transaction, by paying a fee, handing over evidence or signing papers. The use of electronic
communications tools speed up the internal government processes.

Transaction Phase
With phase three the complexity of the technology is increasing, but customer (G2C and
G2B) value will also be higher. Complete transactions can be done without going to an office.
Examples of online services are filing income tax, filing property tax, extending/renewal of
licenses, visa and passports and online voting. Phase three is mainly complex because of
security and personalization issues – e.g., digital (electronic) signatures are necessary to
enable legal transfer of services. On the business side the government is starting with e-
procurement applications.

In this phase, internal (G2G) processes have to be redesigned to provide good service.
Government needs to create new laws and legislation that will enable paperless transactions
with legal certification. The bottom line is that now the complete process is online, including
payments, digital signatures etc. This saves time, paper and money.

Table 3.4: Overview of e-Governance solutions for each phase

Phase External: G2C External: G2B Internal: G2G

Information Phase Local/Departmental/National information Business information Knowledge base
mission statements and organizational Addresses, opening hours, (static intranet)
structure Addresses, opening hours, employees, telephone Knowledge
employees, telephone numbers, Laws, numbers, Laws, rules and management
rules and regulations, Petitions, regulations (LAN)
Government glossary News.
Interaction Phase Downloading forms on Websites Downloading forms on E-mail
Submitting forms websites Interactive
Online help with filling in forms (permits, Submitting forms knowledge
birth / death certificates) Online help with filling in databases
Intake processes for permits etc. forms (permits) Complaint
E-mail, Newsletters, Discussion groups Intake processes for permits handling
(e-democracy), Polls and questionnaires, etc. tools
Personalized web pages, Notification E-mail notification
Transaction Phase License applications /renewals License applications and Inter-
Renewing car tags, vehicle registration, renewals via website governmental
Personal accounts (mytax, myfines, Payment of taxes transactions
mylicenses etc.) Procurement
Payment of (property) taxes
Payment of tickets and fines
Paying utility bills
Registering and voting online
Transformation Personalized website with integrated Personalized website with Database
Phase personal account for all services integrated business account for integration
all services

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Transformation Phase
The fourth phase is the transformation phase in which all information systems are integrated
and the public can get G2C and G2B services at one (virtual) counter. One single point of
contact for all services is the ultimate goal. The complex aspect in reaching this goal is mainly
on the internal side, e.g. the necessity to drastically change culture, processes and
responsibilities within the government institution (G2G). Government employees in different
departments have to work together in a smooth and seamless way. In this phase cost savings,
efficiency and customer satisfaction are reaching highest possible levels.

3.4.3 Vikas Nath Approach [17]

Vikas Nath has classified e-Governance models into the following categories:
 Broadcasting / Wider-Dissemination Model
 Critical Flow Model
 Comparative Analysis Model
 E-Advocacy/ Lobbying and Pressure Group Model
 Interactive- Service Model

1. Broadcasting Model
The model is based on broadcasting or dissemination of useful governance information,
which already exists in the public domain into the wider public domain through the use of
ICT and convergent media. The utility of this model is that a more informed citizenry is better
able to benefit from governance related services that are available for them.

2. Critical Flow Model

The model is based on broadcasting or dissemination information of 'critical' value (which by
its very nature will not be disclosed by those involved with bad governance practices) to
targeted audience using ICT and convergent media. Targeted audience may include media,
opposition parties, judicial bench, independent investigators or the wider public domain itself.

3. Comparative Analysis Model

Comparative Knowledge Model is one of the least-used but a highly significant model for
developing country which is now gradually gaining acceptance. The model can be used for
empowering people by matching cases of bad governance with those of good governance, and
then analyzing the different aspects of bad governance and its impact on the people.

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4. E-advocacy Model
E-Advocacy / Mobilization and Lobbying Model is one of the most frequently used Digital
Governance model and has often come to the aid of the global civil society to impact on
global decision-making processes. The strength of this model is in its diversity of the virtual
community, and the ideas, expertise and resources accumulated through this virtual form of
networking.

5. Interactive Model
Interactive-Service model is a consolidation of the earlier presented digital governance
models and opens up avenues for direct participation of individuals in the governance
processes. Fundamentally, ICT have the potential to bring in every individual in a digital
network and enable interactive (two-way) flow of information among them.

3.5 Challenges of e-Governance

There are numerous potential barriers [22] related to the implementation of e-Governance.
Fahnbulleh [25] identified the following as key barriers:
 Concerns about inadequate security and privacy of data
 Unequal access to computer technology by citizens
 High initial costs of setting up an e-Governance solution
 Resistance to change

Different platforms identify these challenges in different manners. The main challenges
identified are trust, resistance to change, digital divide, cost and privacy and security
concerns. It should be remembered that they do not exist in isolation. One challenge can have
an effect on one or more of the other categories. For example, resistance to change might be
influenced by a lack of trust, or the digital divide can be further widened because of
inadequate funding.

3.5.1 Trust

Trust can be defined along two dimensions: as an assessment of a current situation, or as an

innate personality trait or predisposition. Trust in itself varies with the individual and the
situation. Issues pertaining to government can stimulate strong feelings of trust or mistrust in
different constituents. The implementation of public administration functions via e-
Governance requires the presence of two levels of trust. The first is that the user must be
confident, comfortable and trusting of the tool or technology with which they will interact.

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The second dimension of trust pertains to trust of the government. If a constituent has limited
trust in either the technology or the government, it hampers their use of e-Governance
systems.

Trust is an important recurring theme in user decision making. More specifically, trust has
been examined in the context of electronic commerce and it is a significant factor affecting
an individual's purchase decision. By extension, an individual constituent that has previously
not established trust in the e-commerce domain can transfer that lack of trust to other areas,
such as government.

3.5.2 Resistance to Change

The innovation diffusion theory states that over time an innovation will diffuse through a
population, and the rate of adoption will vary between those who adopt early—referred to as
“early adopters”—and to those who adopt the innovation much later, referred to as
“laggards”. The varying rates of adoption indicate that some users are more resistant to
accepting the innovation which, in this case, is e-Governance.

The resistance to change phenomenon can explain much of the hesitation that occurs on the
part of constituents in moving from a paper-based to a Web-based system for interacting with
government. Income, age, and education are all contributing factors that can result in
resistance to the use of e-Governance initiatives. Further, innate personal characteristics, such
as dogmatism, can work to increase an individual's resistance to change. If there is a great
preference to maintain the existing status quo, then there is a greater likelihood that resistance
to new methods of operation will persist. Long-term employees may be particularly
susceptible to this problem, since they may have completed tasks the same way for many
years.

Citizens, employees and businesses can all have their biases with respect to how transactions
should be processed. However, government entities and public policy administrators cannot
ignore the changes that occur as a result of the implementation of information and
communication technology (ICT). In the early 1990s Freeman identified the important role
that ICT would have in shaping public policy, and cautioned both rich and poor governments
about neglecting its significance. Education about the value of the new systems is one step
toward reducing some of the existing resistance.

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3.5.3 Digital Divide

The digital divide refers to the separation that exists between individuals, communities, and
businesses that have access to information technology and those that do not have such access
[40, 8]. Social, economic, infrastructural and ethno-linguistic indicators provide explanations
for the presence of the digital divide. Further the presence of the digital divide indicates that a
community might not be fully equipped with the tools or knowledge to benefit from the
implementation of e-Governance projects.

Many non-profit and community based organizations (CBO) provide valuable public services
to various communities. Some of these organizations work very closely with government
agencies via grant requests and information sharing. With the use of e-Governance for the
dissemination of critical information, many of the smaller agencies that lack the necessary
infrastructure may not reap the benefits available through the Web. In fact, many of the
smaller CBOs succumb to the “organizational divide” where they lack the means to remain
informed and current with the new technology. The limited access to information can indeed
impede an organization’s willingness to support the adoption of new e- governance projects in
the public domain.

Economic poverty is closely related to limited information technology resources. An

individual living at or below the poverty level is less likely to have a personal computer at
home and may need to rely on work or public domains (such as public libraries) to provide
access to e- governance and other online services. Limited availability of the necessary
information technology infrastructure can serve as a great deterrent to the adoption of any
Web-based initiatives. As the digital divide narrows, broader adoption of e- governance
services in the public domain becomes possible.

3.5.4 Cost

Cost is generally a prohibitive factor in the implementation of information technology,

particularly in the public sector where other projects and initiatives might have a higher
priority than e-Governance. Elected officials responsible for allocation of funds may also be
unwillingly to promote such projects where the returns are not always visible in the short term
and utilization of the technology is not guaranteed. Typically costs associated with e-
governance projects include: hardware, software, testing, training, migration to new system
and maintenance. In the near future, cost will continue to be a significant challenge to
extensive and comprehensive implementation of e-Governance projects for government.

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3.5.5 Privacy and Security

With the implementation of e- governance projects, effective measures must be taken to

protect sensitive personal information. A lack of clear security standards and protocols can
limit the development of projects that contain sensitive information such as income, medical
history, etc. Further, users must be confident that the Websites they visit and transactions they
complete are safeguarded against theft, fraud and unauthorized access. A one size model
cannot fit all consumers.

3.5.6 Issues for e-Governance Implementation

In the light of above discussions, demand (requirements) of the citizens and changing global
scenario, there are certain issues which need attention [77].

Funding: This is the foremost issue in e-Governance initiatives. The projects that are part of
the e-Governance initiatives need to be funded either through the Government sector or
through the private sector. For the private sector to step into the funding activity their
commercial interests needs to be ensured. The projects can be built either on BOO (Built Own
Operate) or BOOT (Built Own Operate Transfer) basis. Also the Government interest of
value addition in services also needs to be taken care of while transferring the services to
private sector. Advertising, sharing of Government information etc could be a few revenue
generators for the Government.

Change Management: The delivery of Government services through the electronic media
including EDI, Internet and other IT based technologies would necessitate procedural and
legal changes in the decision and delivery making processes. It demands fundamental changes
in Government decision management. The employees need to be delegated more authority.
De-layering of the decision-making levels leads to re-engineering and appropriate sizing of
the decision-making machinery. These changes need not only be accepted by the Government
and citizens but also be accepted by various interests groups like Employees unions. Under
such circumstances bringing in a change will involve changing the mindsets of the people,
and a complete reengineering process needs to be carried out for the same. This will involve
training of the personnel at all levels, more so, at the lower rung of Government management
organizations. There will also be a loss of vested interests and power amongst the legislature
and the executive, which may lead, to resistance to change.

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Authentication: Secured ways of transactions for the Government services are another issue
of concern. The identity of citizens requesting services needs to be verified before they access
or use the services. Here digital signature will play an important role in delivery of such
services. But the infrastructure needed to support them is very expensive and requires
constant maintenance. Hence a pertinent need still survives, compelling the authorities to
ensure the authenticity in their transactions thereby gaining absolute trust and confidence of
the citizen.

Interoperability: A major design issue for integrated service delivery sites is, how to capture
data in a Web-based form and transfer it to an agency’s systems for processing and sharing
that information in a common format. In fact the interoperation of various state Governments,
the various ministries within a state Government is a critical issue. Further how the various
islands of automation will be brought together and built into one is another key issue of e-
Governance.

Delivery of services: The ability of citizens to access these services is another major issue.
Since the penetration of PCs and Internet is very low in the country, some framework needs to
be worked out for delivery of the e-Services that would be accessible to the poorest of the
poor. What will be the Government’s network to deliver those services? Could we have
something like a single stop shop of the Government? A proposed mechanism is delivery of
the same through the Government Post Offices, for they already have the brick and mortar
support and the most extensive network in the nation.

Standardization: Defining the standards for the various Government services is another issue
that needs to be addressed. The standards need to be worked out not only for the technologies
involved but also for issues like naming of websites to creating E-Mail addresses, capturing of
biometric data etc.

Technology Issues: A number of organizations, both in the Centre and the States, have taken
commendable initiatives to develop hardware and software platforms to address the
challenges offered by e-Governance. At the central level in particular, the NIC and C-DAC,
and a number of others are noteworthy. The e-Governance initiative would have to address
these Technology Issues/Objectives by identifying the appropriate hardware platforms and
software application packages for cost-effective delivery of public services. This knowledge
repository should be widely available through appropriate Demo- Mechanisms. Offering a
basket of these models to the State departments, both in the Center and the State, could be
suitably customized as per location and work specific requirements.

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Use of local languages: The access of information must be permitted in the language most
comfortable to the public user, generally the local language. There already exist technologies
such as GIST and language software by which transliteration from English into other
languages have been attempted.

3.6 Initiatives of the Government of India [57]

A major initiative of the Government for ushering in e-Governance on national scale, called
National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) was approved on 16 May 2006. The main objective of
NeGP is to “make all government services accessible to the common man in his locality,
through common service delivery outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency & reliability of
such services at affordable costs to realize the basic needs of the common man”.

Broadly NeGP consists of 31 Mission Mode Projects (MMPs) encompassing 11central

MMPs, 13 state MMPs and 7 integrated MMPs that span multiple backend Ministries/
departments. It also includes 8 program support components aimed at creating the right
governance and institutional mechanisms, core infrastructure, policies & standards and the
necessary legal framework for adoption of e-Governance in the country. It is implemented at
the Central, state and Local Government levels. Major achievements of NeGP are as under.
Under NeGP, Government had approved a Scheme for facilitating establishment of more than
100,000 broadband Internet-enabled Common Service Centres (CSCs) in rural areas of the
country at a total cost of Rs. 1649 crore. It is being implemented under Public Private
Partnership mode. As of 30th April, 2012, more than 88000 CSCs have been operationalised.
Under NeGP, Government had approved the Scheme for establishing State Wide Area
Networks (SWANs) across the country in 29 States/ 6 UTs at a total outlay of Rs. 3,334 crore.
Under this Scheme, it is envisaged to provide secured Network from State Headquarters up to
the Block level with a minimum bandwidth capacity of 2 Mbps. As of April 2012 SWANs in
30 States/ UTs have been rolled out, while in other States/ UTs they are expected to be rolled
out by March 2013.

State Data Centre (SDC) has been identified as one of the important elements of the core
infrastructure for supporting e-Governance initiatives under NEGP. The Government has
approved the scheme in January 2008 at an estimated outlay of Rs. 1623.20 crore to cover 28
States and 6 UTs across the country. So far the SDCs in 16 State/UTs have been set up.

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In order to provide a mechanism for adequate capacity building and training for end user, a
Capacity Building Scheme at an outlay of Rs. 313 crore has been approved in January 2008.
This envisions establishment of institutional framework for State Level Strategic decision-
making including setting-up of State e-Governance Mission Teams (SeMTs). A Capacity
Building Management Cell (CBMC) has been set up in DeitY for overall coordination and
implementation of Capacity Building Scheme.

To provide transparent, speedier and efficient Justice, the Government has initiated several
steps to transform the Indian Judiciary in about 13,000 District & Subordinate courts across
the country.

The last decade represented an era of strong growth in the domain of e- governance.
However, issues related to security continue to be a challenge. As more information is
collected, additional vulnerabilities are exposed. Indeed, security is poised to be a recurring
problem in this domain as the growth in this area continues to take place. Great strides have
been made in recent years and new practices and procedures are in the developmental stage.

Besides security, universal access to government services will also be an important issue in
the future. In particular, individuals with special needs, seniors and persons with disabilities
will be given strong focus. Full e-Governance access to persons with a disability is yet to be
achieved. As the world's population ages, senior citizens will present unique needs and will
request services that must be delivered in a manner that is readily accessible to them.

3.7 Summary

The strategic and contemporary importance of e-Governance has been recognised across the
world. The emergence and use of ICT is clearly one of the major potential solutions in the
desire to achieve improved governance. The use of e-Governance services to improve public
administration functions will continue to have a strong impact on the operation of Central and
State governments in India and the rest of the world. e-Governance can also serve as a
catalyst for the radical redesign of governmental organizations and agencies. There are
numerous benefits [28] and challenges that can result from these changes. The following
major challenges will remain in the next decade: trust building in e-Governance, ICT
management, and privacy and security.

Designing and implementing more effective approaches and plans for securing e-Governance
projects is an important issue, because, the governmental information is usually highly

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sensitive. Thus e-Governance projects cannot be planned from outside. A holistic approach
has to be adopted in order to understand the needs of the citizens, the capabilities of the
government organisations, their processes and structures, based on these points the
technology based solution would have to be devised. Furthermore, security has an important
role in trust formation of citizens and their adoption of e-Governance. Security for e-
Governance system also is to be designed and managed from a holistic point of view.

The following chapters identify the information security requirements for e-Governance
services, and suggest appropriate controls to meet the same.

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