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Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Planning
PART II
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CHAPTER 3
Fundamental Principles of Planning

Planning is a cornerstone of effective construction project management and

improving performance, yet there exists little or no framework or guidance on how
to do effective planning (Thomas and Ellis 2007). Most published discussions on
planning are presented in conjunction with the development of a critical path
method (CPM) schedule. These discussions of planning are limited to the presen-
tation of text material defining activities or establishing precedence relationships
(Hinze 2008). The questions of what steps should be taken, what should be done,
and how one should plan remain unanswered. In this chapter, a 17-step procedure is
described in which a holistic view of planning is presented, from risk analysis to the
development of submittal schedules. If this procedure is followed, the result will be
lower costs, shorter schedules, and increased profits.
3.1 Risk-Based Planning
Relative to planning, project risks can be organized into the following four catego-
ries: (1) things that can go wrong, (2) surprises (or the unknown), (3) contractual
risks, and (4) relations with project team members. These risks are shown concep-
tually in Fig. 3-1. There is no relationship between the categories listed above and the
proportions shown in Fig. 3-1. The focus of planning is to develop plans to avoid the
risks or to minimize the economic effects from events in these four categories. Two
situations commonly occur on a construction site: things go wrong, and there are
surprises. One can anticipate and plan for many of the things that can go wrong. One
can also plan for some surprises. Other elements of risks include contractual risks
and relations with project team members. Some planning can be done for these two
areas of risk. Where the risks are foreseeably high, the contractor may choose not to
submit a bid. Through a risk-based planning process, a contractor can plan for and
negate many project risks, or if the project is too risky, decline to submit a bid.
Negating risks leads to a more profitable construction project.
This chapter defines the short-range (as opposed to strategic) steps that make up
an effective contractor risk-based project planning process for small- and medium-
size projects. Because many larger projects can be viewed as a collection of smaller
33
34 CONSTRUCTION SITE MANAGEMENT AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT
Elements of Risk
Things Go Wrong Surprises Contractual People or Team
Fig. 3-1. Broad Categories of Project Risk
projects, there is application to larger projects as well. Following these steps will lead
to better labor productivity, lower cost, and shorter schedules. Thus, the objective of
risk-based planning is to anticipate surprises and things that may go wrong and to
negate or eliminate these risks through better planning. Thus, it is important for a
contractor to answer the question: What can go wrong?
3.2 Steps in Risk-Based Planning
The general approach to planning involves two broad steps: (1) deciding on prelimi-
nary considerations and (2) developing detailed plans. The preliminary considera-
tions include a risk assessment to decide whether to submit a bid. If a decision is made
to submit a bid, bid preparation involves deciding on a preliminary plan followed
by optimizing the preliminary plan through the preparation of various detailed
plans (step 2). Other preliminary considerations refer to preparing a preliminary
schedule; developing a contracting strategy and a general strategy; selecting major
means, methods, and equipment; and revising the preliminary schedule. Once the
preliminary considerations have been finalized, various detailed plans need to be
developed. Detailed plans include material delivery schemes, site layout plans, erosion
and sediment control (E&S) plans, environmental considerations, CPM analyses,
sequences that are essential to success (ETS sequences), and operational plans.
Because these are specific to the project and the techniques used may vary.
The techniques used to develop detailed plans are described in lieu of describing
the plans themselves. The techniques described are the short interval production
schedule (SIPS), velocity (production rate) charts, and linear scheduling. A critical

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING 35
path method (CPM) schedule is another technique that is frequently used, but it is not
discussed herein because there are numerous texts that are devoted exclusively
to CPM schedules (Hinze 2008). Other techniques include sequence plans and
coordination drawings. Many of the detailed aspects of planning and executing and
for formulating low-cost plans are covered in subsequent chapters. The goal
is to construct the project in as short a time as practical while minimizing the need
for field labor. After the notice of award is given, the planning function does not cease.
Contractors must plan for submittals and managing changes.
3.3 Case Study—State College Municipal Building
The steps in the planning process are best illustrated with a case study project where
the lack of planning was readily obvious. The steps are applied retrospectively to this
project. The case study project is the three-story State College Municipal Building
(SCMB). It was constructed in State College, Pennsylvania, in 2002 at a cost of about
$5 million.
The building superstructure is structural steel, and the floor slabs are precast
concrete. The project also contains a full-footprint basement. Construction of the
basement required excavation, rock removal, footers, and the construction of a
reinforced concrete wall. The building facade is masonry. An auditorium is included
on the top floor. Fig. 3-2 shows the status of the SCMB construction after the precast
slabs were installed.
The construction site was small and was constrained on all four sides by city
streets and existing buildings. Ingress and egress points to the site were limited.
Fig. 3-2. State College Municipal Building (SCMB) during Construction

Spoil Material Storage

Parking
Trailer
Pile
Trailer
Tools
Site Utilities
Fig. 3-3. Actual Site Layout for SCMB
The building footprint took about 60–70% of the site area, so space for on-site
storage was minimal. The constrained nature of the site is shown in Fig. 3-3, which
is the site layout used by the contractor throughout the project. The contractor
used only one ingress and egress point for material deliveries. Using this layout,
delivery trucks had difficulty accessing the site, and drive-through deliveries were
not possible. The contractor chose to allocate space for an earthen spoil pile,
trailers, and a parking area within the site boundary. Trailers and the parking
area were located first. Material storage and other needs were assigned to the
remaining unoccupied space.
The construction of this project was challenging, even though it was a relatively
small project. Careful planning was justified.
3.4 Paramount Determination
For all projects during the bid period and before beginning to prepare the estimate,
a paramount question to answer is this: Using conventional means and methods, can
the contractor complete the project within the time allotted by the contract? If not,
unconventional means and methods may need to be applied. Because time is money,
the goal of contractors should always be to complete the project in as short a time as
practical, even if adequate time is provided for in the contract. Shorter schedules
minimize the contractor’s risk exposure. It has been observed by the authors that
contractors tend to use all the time allowed by the contract, even if a shorter
schedule is practical. Some of the planning steps outlined in the following may be
deferred on some projects until after the intent to award is given, but all steps should
be done before project execution begins.

3.5 General Approach to Planning
Effective planning requires (1) assessment of risks, (2) settling on preliminary

strategies, (3) considerations that reflect the risk assessments, and (4) making
detailed plans that incorporate the assessments and strategies. All functions are
linked. The assessment of risks includes the following:
• Things that can go wrong;

• Surprises;
• Contract risk;
• Other (e.g., people or payments); and
• Can I finish on time?
A risk assessment should always be done before the decision to submit a bid is
made. Contractors may choose to avoid bidding on projects where there are high
risks. Once the decision to bid is made, preliminary considerations must be decided
upon. These include the following:
• Strategies and preliminary considerations;

• A preliminary execution plan (schedule);
• Contractual strategy (Which parts should be subcontracted?);
• General strategy (Where should I begin and how should I proceed?);
• Unconventional means and methods (e.g., multiple workstations);
• Construction equipment; and
• A revised execution schedule.
Once strategies and considerations have been decided upon, various plans need
to be developed that describe in detail how the work will be done. Following these
plans will minimize risks. These plans include the following:
• Detailed plans:
○ Material delivery schemes,
○ Site layouts, and
○ Weather mitigation plans,
• Erosion and sediment control (E&S) plans,

• Additional drainage plans,
• Footprint drainage,
• Drainage of the rest of the site,
• Runoff from off site onto the site,
• Building enclosure and sealing,
• Environmental and regulatory considerations,
• CPM analyses and time windows,
• Sequences that are essential to success (ETS sequences),

• Operational plans,
• Floor or area completion,
• Material delivery plans,
• Material distribution plans,
• Sequence plans,
• Coordination drawings,
• Final execution schedule,
• Submittal and shop drawing schedule, and
• Change management.
Of course, other risk assessments, preliminary strategies and considerations, and

plans may be justified.
To illustrate the relationship between risk assessments, preliminary considera-
tions, and detailed plans, consider an example. Suppose that a risk assessment has
been made that by using conventional means and methods, there is a high
probability that concrete placement will be delayed until the winter months. This
poses a significant risk to the contractor’s operation. Nevertheless, the contractor has
decided to submit a bid.
To expedite the placement operation, the contractor adopts the following
preliminary consideration and incorporates any added cost into the bid: Use several
pump trucks at multiple workstations and apply concurrent scheduling practices.
These strategies will minimize the risk of winter placements. Next, during the
planning process, he or she develops detailed plans to ensure that the strategies
are effectively implemented.
3.6 The Project Planning Process
The process described here should be viewed as a starting point, and more steps can be
added as the need arises. However, the process described is generalized so as to be
applicable to numerous projects. The steps in the planning process include assess-
ments, strategies, and plans. The planning process is shown in Fig. 3-4. The steps are the
following: (1) assess risks, (2) develop a preliminary execution plan, (3) decide on key
macro strategies, (4) determine equipment needs and methods, (5) revise the prelimi-
nary execution plan, (6) decide on material delivery schemes, (7) develop E&S and
site drainage plans, (8) understand environmental and regulatory issues, (9) develop
site layout plans, (10) identify the sequences that are essential to success (ETS),
(11) calculate time windows, (12) develop detailed operational plans, (13) develop
proactive strategies to ensure construction input into design, (14) finalize the execu-
tion plan (schedule), (15) communicate and enforce plans, (16) develop a submittal
and shop drawing schedule, and (17) plan for change management. Because the
process should be flexible and each step should provide input to the next step, it is
permissible to revise prior step(s) if a better plan emerges.

1. Assess Risks
Decision to Bid
Preliminary Considerations
2. Develop a Preliminary Execution Plan
3. Decide on Key Macro Strategies
4. Determine the Major Means, Methods, and Equipment Needs
5. Revise Preliminary Execution Plan
Detailed Plans
6. Decide on Material Delivery Schemes
7. Develop E&S and Site Drainage Plans
8. Understand Environmental and Regulatory Issues
Bid Development
9. Develop Site Layout Plans
10. Identify ETS Sequences
11. Calculate Time Windows
12. Develop Detailed Operational Plans
13. Proactive Strategies To Assure Construction Input Into

Design
14. Finalize the Execution Plan (Schedule)
15. Communicate and Enforce the Plans
Intent to Award
16. Develop a Submittal and Shop Drawing Schedule
17. Plan for Change Management
Fig. 3-4. The Planning Process
Assess Risks
Contractual Risks—The discussion on planning begins with an assessment of the
contract risks. Some contracts are known to contain harsh language that imposes
significant risks on contractors and subcontractors (Thomas et al. 2000). These risks
need to be known before a decision to bid is made. Additionally, contracts may
contain language related to means and methods, when certain operations can be
performed, liquidated damages, intermediate milestone dates, and much more.
A careful reading of the contract is paramount. Pay special attention to the
termination clause, payment provisions, and the acceleration clause.
Noncontractual Risks—Risks go beyond what is written in the contract. One
noncontractual risk that should be evaluated is the likelihood of a time extension,
irrespective of the contract language. This aspect is often a function of the type of
project. For instance, for schools and sports stadiums, extensions of time are unlikely.
If a wastewater plant is under a court order to upgrade its treatment processes, the
owner will be reluctant to grant an extension of time, regardless of what the contract
says. These situations increase the contractor’s risk and are especially problematic if
the start of construction is delayed.
The reputation of the key players and organizations is another important risk
consideration that needs to be evaluated. Some people are just hard to get along
with. Others are sticklers for details. Will the owner pay on time? Do the contract
documents appear complete and generally free from errors and omissions? Will the
parties make timely decisions? These are but a few considerations that can make a
project risky for the contractor.

A contractor should know the risks in a project before making a decision to

submit a bid. One good rule of thumb is to leave risky projects to your competitors.
There is little, if any, profit to be made on a risky project. After the risks are known,
an educated decision can be made on whether to submit a bid.
Example
How an owner handles requests for an extension of time on a construction project is
filled with risks. The court case of Alexander & Shankle, Inc., v. Metropolitan Government
of Nashville and Davidson County (A&S) sheds some light on contractor risks and
owner obligations (Alexander & Shankle, Inc., v. Metropolitan Government of Nashville
and Davidson County 2007). Some of the more notable risks that materialized and
adversely affected A&S were the following:
• Delays at the beginning of the project,

• Owner tardiness in decision making,
• Termination,
• Winter masonry work, and
• Scope changes.
If the contractor had done a diligent risk assessment, some or all of these risks
could have been foreseen, and the decision to submit a bid might have been
different. The factual aspects of the case are given below.
The Project
On March 25, 2003, the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson
County (Metro) entered into a contract with Alexander & Shankle, Inc. (A&S),
under which A&S became general contractor for the construction of Oliver Middle
School and Shayne Elementary School, which were both to be constructed on the
same site. The A&S bid was $11,841,000. A&S experienced numerous delays;
however, Metro refused to extend the substantial completion date of the project.
The Contract
The contract provided the following:
[a]ll limitations of time set forth herein are material and are of the essence
of this contract.
The contract provided that A&S would be liable for liquidated damages as a
result of any delay until the project was substantially complete. Metro reserved the
right to refuse payment if Metro was of the opinion that A&S’s rate of progress was
such that substantial completion of the project would be delayed.
The contract provided that if A&S was delayed in performing a critical task
because of some act or omission of Metro or someone acting on Metro’s behalf,
including an authorized change order, then A&S could submit a written request for

an extension of time with Metro or its architect or engineer, setting forth in detail all
known facts and circumstances supporting the claim.
Finally, the contract provided for two methods of termination by Metro. The first
allowed Metro to terminate the contract for convenience. If the contract were
terminated in this fashion, A&S was to be compensated for labor, material, equip-
ment, and services accepted under the contract, and certain costs that had been
incurred in preparing to perform and in performing the terminated portion of the
work.
The second method of termination by Metro was “for cause.” If A&S failed to
perform any portion of its work in a timely manner; failed to supply adequate labor,
supervisory personnel, or proper equipment or materials; or violated any material
provision of the contract, then Metro had the right to terminate A&S’s performance,
assume possession of the site, and complete the work. If the costs and expenses of
completing the work exceeded the contract price, then A&S was liable for the excess
costs. If such costs and expenses were less than the unpaid amount of the contract
price, then A&S was to be paid the unused amount.
Several provisions of the contract should have been cause for concern to A&S.
The owner’s right to not pay A&S if the owner was of the opinion that A&S’s rate
of progress was such that substantial completion of the project would be delayed
should have been a cause for concern because nonpayment would probably result
in delayed completion. The termination clauses also pose high risks.
Contractor Execution
A&S was given notice to proceed under the contract on April 1, 2003. From the
beginning, there were significant delays on the project. Excavation at the site was
initially delayed because a house located on the site had not been moved. A&S was
not allowed to demolish the house because it had been given to a private individual
and Metro was waiting for that individual to make arrangements to have it moved.
The house was finally moved on April 23, 2003. A&S requested a 15-day extension of
time because of the delay. The project architect responded to this request stating,
“The additional time of 15 days is approved. It has been stated by the Owner that the
original date of substantial completion should remain intact until the end of the job,
at which time, a change order will be issued if the additional time is needed to
complete the work.”
Once the site preparation began, it was immediately discovered that poor soil
conditions not anticipated by the contract documents would require corrective
measures. It was not determined what would be done to remedy this condition until
August 26, 2003 (approximately four months later), when the parties agreed to lower
the elevation of Oliver Middle School and the surrounding area to provide fill
material for the Shayne Elementary School building. A&S requested an additional
110-day extension of time, including “71 days for soil, 15 days for house removal
delays, 3 days for providing additional drainage at Shayne Elementary, and 21 days
for additional undercut of soil on the site : : : ” A&S signed Change Order

No. 1 (CO1) on September 10, 2003. CO1 provided for an extension of 50 days, and
the date of substantial completion was set as July 15, 2004.
Because of the delay in the commencement of the project, the masonry work,
which represented a significant portion of the work to be performed, was pushed
into the winter months rather than the summer and fall months as originally
contemplated. By mid-January 2004, it was apparent that the project would not be
completed on time. About that time, Metro’s architect was said to have admitted that
the July 15, 2004, completion date was not based on what was practical, but only on
the desire of Metro to have the schools ready for the beginning of the 2004–2005
school year. After that time, however, Metro continued to revise the scope of the
work but steadfastly refused to alter the substantial completion date.
On February 23, 2004, the parties executed Change Order No. 2 (CO2). This
change order required A&S to remove and replace an additional 15,436 cubic
yards of unsuitable soil at the Shayne Elementary site. A&S requested an
additional 21 days to perform this work, but Metro refused to grant any time
extension. Before executing CO2, A&S notified Metro in writing that A&S was
unable to sign the change order because of the denial of the requested extension
of time. A&S explained that in an effort to keep the project moving forward, A&S
would sign the change order with the understanding that A&S reserved the
right to recapture the days lost during performance of the work. A&S ultimately
signed CO2.
From mid-February 2004 through the end of July 2004, Metro continued to
make changes in the scope of the work. There were 13 letters from A&S to Metro
requesting a total of 235 days additional time. No additional contract time was given
by Metro. Three of the letters are worthy of note.
A letter dated February 17, 2004, quoted the cost to “make kitchen hood and
mechanical equipment room piping and cooling tower piping changes” and
requested 14 days additional contract time to perform the changes. The project
manager (PM) for Metro wrote “Proceed” on the letter and signed it with the date
June 9, 2004.
By letter dated June 15, 2004, A&S quoted the cost of providing ceiling diffusers
at Shayne Elementary School and requested an additional 40 days of contract time
after authorization for their installation. The PM returned this letter with the
notation, “Proceed with installation. Time extension to be determined.” This
notation was dated June 28, 2004.
In the third letter, dated June 3, 2004, A&S quoted the cost of providing an
outside air supply for three heat pumps in Shayne Elementary School and noted that
the “mechanical subcontractor has requested 18 calendar days of contract time to
perform the necessary work required to supply outside air to the heat pumps.”
On the same day, the architect instructed A&S to advise the mechanical sub to
“[p]roceed with the work relative to adding a fresh air duct to HP-A1.2, and 3.”
Despite Metro’s PM and architect having seemingly approved time extensions,
Metro continued to assert that the substantial completion date was July 15, 2004.

After that date, Metro allowed A&S to continue working on the project and
continued paying for work performed. There is evidence that Metro revised the
scope of the project five times during the month of July 2004, with three of the
revisions coming after July 15, 2004. A&S and Metro agreed to alter the construction
schedule to allow certain portions of each school to be constructed to accommodate
students on the opening day of school. On July 27, 2004, A&S’s mechanical
subcontractor, by letter, quoted a price to Metro for acceleration at the Oliver
School to complete its work there by August 8. The Metro PM accepted this proposal
on July 27, 2004, and noted on the letter that the mechanical subcontractor’s work at
Shayne Elementary should be completed by August 2, 2004. On July 29, 2004, Metro
agreed to a proposal by another subcontractor to accelerate fire alarm and moni-
toring installation and to complete their work by August 3, 2004. Also on July 29,
2004, Metro accepted a proposal from the plumbing and HVAC subcontractor to
accelerate its work and complete it by August 8, 2004, at Oliver, and by August 2,
2004, at Shayne.
On July 29, 2004, Metro delivered to A&S a termination letter stating that, as of
Friday, July 30, 2004, A&S would be relieved of their services because they had failed
to meet the July 15, 2004, substantial completion date. A&S removed itself from the
site and did no further work on the project. Metro completed construction of the
schools by hiring a construction superintendent and primarily using A&S’s sub-
contractors. A&S’s PM stated that he was told by the director of plant planning and
construction for Metro that A&S was terminated to recoup the additional costs of
having A&S’s subcontractors accelerate their work.
Many of the risks described in the above example were foreseeable. The
written contract posed certain risks that could have been foreseen. The owner’s
resistance to a time extension was foreseeable. A careful examination of the
geotechnical report might have suggested the presence of unsuitable soil.
Furthermore, an inquiry of other contractors about their past experiences with
Metro might have revealed that this owner or designer was not desirable to work
with or was untimely in making decisions. Despite the foreseeable risks, A&S
nevertheless chose to submit a bid. Is it likely that A&S made a profit on this
project? The reputation of the company may have been permanently damaged.
There may be a risk of insolvency.
3.7 Preliminary Planning Considerations
Develop a Preliminary (Leisure Time) Execution Plan

A preliminary execution plan (schedule) should be developed at the outset. This
plan should be developed at a macro level. The format may be best done as a bar
chart. This schedule is used to determine if conventional means and methods and
sequences will allow the contractor to complete the project on time (if nothing goes
wrong and if there are no surprises).

This preliminary schedule usually has several sequential operations and should
reflect how a contractor would approach the job if given a generous amount of time
to perform the work. This schedule establishes whether the plan needs to be cost
oriented or time oriented. A cost-oriented schedule relies on conventional methods
and often applies sequential scheduling practices. A time-oriented schedule is driven
by unconventional methods and relies on concurrent scheduling practices. The plan

for the State College Municipal Building (SCMB) is shown in Fig. 3-5. Because
Fig. 3-5 relies on conventional methods and sequential scheduling practices, it is a
cost-oriented schedule.
Fig. 3-6 illustrates a cost-oriented schedule versus a time-oriented one. It relies
on the Outreach Building project shown in Fig. 3-7. Fig. 3-6 shows only two activities:
exterior insulation and masonry. For a cost-oriented schedule, these two activities are
done sequentially, that is, the insulation activity is completed before the masonry
begins. Presumably, this is the least expensive way for masonry to proceed. It requires
sufficient scaffolding to accommodate one masonry crew. In a time-oriented sched-
ule, the masonry proceeds in two areas simultaneously. This method requires two
masonry crews and more scaffolding, and it involves a faster consumption rate of
brick.
A schedule is cost oriented if there is ample time for conventional means and
methods to be used. However, a time-oriented schedule is usually preferred even if
the time allowed by the contract is adequate. A contractor should try to complete a
project as soon as possible because a longer schedule is exposed to more risk. Also,
time is money.
Fortunately, there are a limited number of ways to build most projects and to
develop a macro schedule. As more detail is developed in subsequent steps, the
preliminary plan or schedule and general strategy can be revised. Table 3-1
presents some fundamental principles for developing and revising a preliminary
schedule. The preliminary schedule is called a leisure time schedule. Fig. 3-5 is a
leisure time schedule for SCMB. It is a 36-week schedule, which exceeds the
allotted contract time by a factor of about two. Thus, the leisure time schedule is
likely unacceptable.
Principles Applied in Developing the Preliminary (Leisure Time) Schedule—
The preliminary execution plan should be done at a macro level (Principle 1.1) and
should be based on the application of conventional means, methods, and equipment
(Principle 1.2). Conventional means, methods, and equipment are probably eco-
nomical and ones with which the contractor is most familiar. This schedule is
developed early, when little schedule detail is available.
The preliminary schedule should make effective use of constructed areas
(Principle 1.3), such as ground and elevated slabs, parking areas, and basements.
Using constructed floors of a facility for material storage is not preferred; it can lead
to the double-handling of materials and limits schedule flexibility. Materials and
equipment will need to be removed from these areas before other construction
activities planned for these areas are indicated.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

Fig. 3-5. Preliminary Execution Plan (Leisure Time Schedule), SCMB
45
Exterior
Insulation
Masonry
Cost Oriented
Exterior
Insulation
Masonry
(Area 1)
Masonry
(Area 2)
Time Oriented
Fig. 3-6. Cost-Oriented versus Time-Oriented Schedule
Fig. 3-7. The Outreach Building
Rain is a fact of life for many construction projects. Contractors can ill afford for
the site to become muddy or for water to pond on the site. Installing and using
permanent site drainage can help alleviate these problems (Principle 1.4). These
facilities should be installed early and integrated into an erosion and sediment
control (E&S) plan. Principle 1.4 should be part of the contractor’s conventional
scheduling practices.
Shortening the Schedule—At least four ways of achieving shorter schedules
may be investigated. The first is the use of alternate methods. Different methods
may require different resources, space needs, or access, and alternate methods
may be more expensive. The second way involves the preassembly of components.
These first two alternatives may offer limited schedule advantages. The third way
involves applying multiple workstations and concurrent scheduling practices.
This approach can yield significant schedule shortening advantages (see Fig. 3-6).
A fourth way to potentially shorten a schedule is to select equipment that is larger
than ordinarily required. The increased power, greater leverage, and increased

Table 3-1. Fundamental Principles of Developing and Revising a Preliminary Execution Plan
No. Principle
Developing and Revising Preliminary Schedules
1.1 Plans and schedules should be done at a macro level.
1.2 Preliminary plans and schedules should be based on the use of conventional means,
methods, and equipment.
1.3 Make effective use of constructed and footprint areas.
1.4 To allow more room and to mitigate rain runoff, install utilities and permanent site
drainage first.
Shortening Preliminary Schedules
2.1 Minimize storage area needs by off-loading directly from the delivery truck.
2.2 Minimize storage area needs, enhance the schedule, and improve labor
performance by preloading materials onto each floor or area.
2.3 Make use of service elevators to transport lightweight or bulky items like duct and
drywall to each floor or area.
2.4 Develop multiple site layout plans.
2.5 Sequence activities so as to avoid making noncritical activities critical.
2.6 Execute activities concurrently, rather than sequentially.
2.7 Seek opportunities to offer input into design.
2.8 Minimize the number of times a crane has to be moved.
2.9 Involve subcontractors in developing operational plans.
2.10 Unless necessary, do not plan the same activity to occur on the same day of
subsequent weeks, for example, we plan to place concrete every Thursday.
Developing Operational Plans
3.1 Partition the site into work area or zones.
3.2 Use multiple workstations to accelerate the work.
3.3 Vary crew sizes and teams to speed up or slow down the pace of the work and reduce
crew idle time.
3.4 Integrate the work of multiple contractors.
3.5 Apply time lags or buffers.
3.6 Schedule the work to accommodate continuity of work of key resources.
3.7 Begin work in a location where the work is the hardest because this work takes the
longest time.
3.8 Begin the work with the critical path work.
reach of oversized equipment may offer important schedule advantages, depend-

ing on the activity.
On SCMB, a quick and efficient method of removing rock from the footing
trench needed to be found. Blasting could have been considered for the revised
preliminary schedule. The schedule improvement and increased labor efficiency
might have more than offset any increase in cost. Multiple workstations and
concurrent scheduling should have been adopted.

Decide on Key Macro Strategies

Decisions must be made on two categories of macro strategies: contractual and
general. At this point, it is known whether the revised schedule will need to be cost
oriented or time oriented and if the contractor can finish the work on time.
Contracting Strategy—Some activities are specialized and can best be done by
specialty contractors or subcontractors. The work may involve special equipment or

labor and management skills. The work may require close vendor coordination or
scheduling that is best suited to a specialty contractor. Examples include curtain wall
erection, steel erection, precast erection, blasting, and much of the interior service
work, such as mechanical, piping, and ductwork. Activities requiring special skills or
knowledge are often best left to subcontractors.
General Strategy—In developing a general strategy, a contractor must decide
where the work will begin and how the work will proceed.
There should be a reason for starting the work in a particular place. The
footprint area should then be partitioned into work areas or zones to facilitate this
strategy. Avoid partitioning into too many areas. The direction of the work progres-
sion, say clockwise or from one area to another, should be established.
It is probably beneficial to start work on the difficult-to-complete activities
because these activities take the longest amount of time (Principle 3.7). If there
is adequate time lag between the activity and follow-on activities, congestion and idle
time will be reduced or eliminated. Be sure that this work is on the critical path
(Principle 3.8). The work should also be on the facility being built, not peripheral
structures like retaining walls, unless there is good reason to do so. Sometimes it may
be necessary to start on peripheral structures to mitigate certain risks. Try to do work
on the facility concurrently with mobilization, peripheral structures, drainage struc-
tures, and site utilities. Concurrent scheduling practices and partitioning of the
worksite offer significant schedule benefits.
The direction the work flows is an important part of the general strategy. If work
starts concurrently at opposite corners of a structure, it may be possible to avoid
congestion, depending on daily production rates. The general strategy is unique to
each project, but it should be simple and should accelerate the work.
Examples—Consider the construction of a three-story, 97,000-ft2 office or
classroom building known as the Outreach Building in State College, Pennsylvania
(see Fig. 3-7). The project contains a 50-plus-ft curtain wall and about $15 million of
electronic and satellite equipment. Both the curtain wall and the equipment installa-
tion were subcontracted. The building had to be enclosed and sealed before equip-
ment installation could begin.
The footprint area was partitioned into two areas, right and left, with the work
progression flowing from right to left. As a general strategy, the contractor could
begin the foundation work (footings, piers, and grade beam) on the half where the
curtain wall is located (the right half). This strategy expedited the structural steel
erection for the curtain wall and masonry in that area and may have expedited the

installation of the curtain wall. If successful, this strategy might have allowed the
building enclosure to occur sooner, meaning that electronic equipment installation
could have been expedited. This simple example illustrates how general strategies
can be applicable to all sizes and types of projects, even small, simple ones. If
everything goes as planned, the schedule may be shortened because the work began
on the right half.

As another example, consider the SCMB. One excavation strategy might be as
shown in Fig. 3-8. The following strategy recognizes that most of the rock in the
footer trench is on the northwestern and western sides (point A to point B).
There may be some rock from point B to point C. The earth excavation is followed
by (1) rock removal and trench excavation, (2) footing construction, and
(3) concrete wall construction. The footprint area (for the earth excavation)
is divided into four parts. The earth excavation begins in Area I (at point A) and
proceeds in a counterclockwise manner followed soon thereafter by the work in
Area II. As the excavation approaches point C, a second rock removal and trench
excavation crew can begin work at point B. The footer and wall formwork crews
follow the rock removal and trench excavation crews, beginning at point A. An
appropriate time lag is applied because footing construction is much faster than
the rock removal and trench excavation activity. The trenching work from point B
to point C is much faster than the trenching work from point A to point B because
there is little or no rock. Footing construction should not “catch up with” the rock
removal and trench excavation activity. This strategy allows all crews to proceed at
an unimpeded pace, a practice that promotes efficiency. The practice of concur-
rent scheduling and multiple workstations (for rock removal and trench excava-
tion) expedites the construction of footers and the basement wall, which are
critical path activities. This simple strategy may shorten the overall construction
schedule by a month or so.
Temporary N (project)
Access
A D
Area IV
Area I
Area III
Area II
B C
Fig. 3-8. Partitioning of SCMB (Excavation Only)

These two examples show that where the work is started is not a trivial matter.
The key principles used are beginning where the work is hardest, partitioning,
concurrent scheduling, and using multiple workstations. The benefits are that the
time the work is exposed to inclement weather is reduced, and the potential for
schedule shortening is significant.
Determine Major Means, Methods, and Equipment Needs

At this point in the planning process, one should select major means, methods, and
equipment needs. It is important that the selection be compatible with the schedule
orientation. To illustrate this point, a crane and bucket operation is often used for
concrete placement. It is a relatively low-cost piece of equipment, although highly
inefficient. If the schedule is time oriented, a pump truck may be a preferred
alternative. On the SCMB project, removal of rock using hand tools (the practice
that was actually applied) is consistent with a cost-oriented schedule. If utilities are
done early (see Fig. 3-3) and the work begins at point A (see Fig. 3-8), all wall
concrete placement can be discharged directly from the delivery truck. Selection of
major equipment should be done at this time to ensure availability. In some
instances, renting equipment may be advantageous.
Revise Preliminary Execution Plan

At this point in the planning process, the preliminary execution plan may need to be
revised to conform to the time requirements of the contract or some desired project
duration. Fig. 3-9 shows a revised preliminary schedule where activities are executed
concurrently rather than sequentially (Principle 2.6). There has been a 25%
reduction in the scheduled weeks, even though the activity durations are the same.
The main differences between the schedules in Fig. 3-5 (preliminary) and
Fig. 3-9 (revised) are that in the revised schedule, the excavation can begin as
mobilization begins or shortly thereafter, excavation–rock removal–basement wall
construction activities are done concurrently, structural steel erection–precast floor
planks–preloading (not shown) activities are integrated, underground utilities are
completed before structural steel begins, and the order of cast-in-place (CIP) ground
slabs–masonry partition wall activities (in the basement) and the precast slab activity
is changed. No activities were added or deleted, no activity durations were changed,
and only four activity sequences were altered, hardly radical changes. Yet, there has
been about a 25% reduction (eight weeks) in the scheduled (reduced from 36 to 28
weeks) simply by applying Principles 2.5 and 2.6.
Principles 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 form a part of a comprehensive material management
plan. The service elevator can be used for lightweight and bulky items. Loading
directly from the delivery truck and preloading are practices that will improve labor
productivity and schedules and will minimize on-site storage requirements (see
Chapter 6).


Fig. 3-9. Revised Preliminary Execution Plan, SCMB
51
Principle 2.4 states that contractors should develop multiple site layout plans as
required (see Chapter 4). Plans should be simple and should require minimal
change from one phase to the next. Site plans ensure the optimum use of the site.
Principles 2.5 and 2.6 relate to the sequencing of activities. The application of
these principles can lead to the significant shortening of schedules. A fundamental
principle is that noncritical activities should be delayed as long as practical. Activities

like building retaining walls, grade slabs, and basement ground slabs are not usually
critical activities, yet they are often sandwiched between critical activities. This
normally makes them critical activities when they need not be critical.
On critical activities that require considerable time, consider working multiple
workstations (Principle 3.2). Theoretically, the schedule can be shortened consid-
erably. The schedule through the first half of many building projects is often
observed as being mostly sequential. Many opportunities to work a concurrent
schedule are overlooked. This principle is often ignored, despite obvious schedule
advantages.
To illustrate Principle 2.5, consider the scheduling of three activities shown in
Figs. 3-10 and 3-11. The three activities are the concrete basement wall construction,
steel erection, and construction of the grade slab. Critical activities are shown in the
dark color. Because there is only one concrete crew, the basement wall and grade slab
cannot be done simultaneously. If the basement wall and grade slab are done back to
back (to get all the major concrete work completed), then the grade slab is a critical
activity and its duration lengthens the overall project schedule. This schedule assumes
that steel erection cannot begin until the grade slab is complete. If, however, it is
possible to delay the work on the grade slab and erect steel immediately after the
basement wall is finished, then the grade slab is no longer on the critical path. This
strategy requires that a scheme be developed for placing concrete for the ground slab.
Principle 2.8 states that cranes should be moved a minimum number of times.
Whenever a crane is moved, the crew(s) using the crane have nothing to do. Idle
time increases, and costs soar. Crane relocations may take two to three hours or
Basement
Wall
Ground Slab
Steel Erection
Conventional Schedule
Basement
Wall
Steel Erection
Ground Slab
Revised Schedule
Non Critical Critical
Fig. 3-10. Illustration of How Sequencing Affects the Critical Path

Fig. 3-11. Basement Wall under Construction, SCMB
more. Crane locations should be planned carefully. In some instances, crane

relocations can be minimized by using a larger crane than needed.
Principle 2.9 is obvious but is often ignored. If subcontractors are expected to
fully commit to a schedule, they must be involved in making the schedule.
A practice often adopted is to reserve a key activity to be done the same day
each week. Such as, “we place concrete each Thursday.” Such a practice is not
always wise (Principle 2.10). Suppose that it takes four and a half working days to
make the necessary preparations to pour concrete. What will happen the other
half day? The crew will do busy work or cleanup. This half day will be wasted.
A short interval production schedule (SIPS) is helpful in planning the appropri-
ate cycle time.
3.8 Recapitulation
At this point in the planning process, it is worthwhile to summarize what has

occurred. An affirmative decision to submit a bid has already been made. Most
project risks are known. Planning began with the development of a leisure time
schedule. By comparing the duration of this schedule to the contract requirements
or some desired duration, it was determined whether the schedule is cost oriented or
time oriented. Key strategies, means, methods, and equipment were selected that are
compatible with the schedule orientation. A revised schedule that relies on doable
means, methods, and equipment is produced that complies with the desired time
requirements. Further shortening of this schedule may be accomplished by short-
ening activity durations, although an occasional resequencing may be justified. From
this point forward, the main focus is to produce optimum work plans to make the
work as efficient as possible.

3.9 Detailed Plans
Decide on Material Delivery Schemes

Material delivery schemes have much to do with how the site is used and the
efficiency of site operations. The contractor may choose to deliver most or all of the
materials to the site before beginning work. This scheme would require large
amounts of storage space. Alternatively, the contractor may choose to erect certain
materials directly from the delivery truck. While storage space will be lessened,
delivery routes must be carefully planned. Preloading is a practice that can be highly
efficient, but it must be carefully planned (see Chapter 6). Carrying materials up the
stairs, one component at a time, is inefficient. Off-site staging areas or surge piles can
sometimes be effectively used.
Develop E&S and Site Drainage Plans

In some locales, an erosion and sediment control (E&S) plan must be filed and
approved by a local governmental entity or regulatory body. The E&S plan deals
largely with runoff from the site, but there are more elements that constitute a
complete site drainage plan. So the contractor should integrate other elements with
the E&S plan (see Chapter 5) to produce a comprehensive site drainage plan. There
are three elements of site drainage that should be addressed: (1) drainage of the
facility footprint, (2) drainage of the remainder of the site, and (3) runoff from off-
site areas into the site.
The application of Principle 1.4 contributes to site drainage and reduces the
likelihood of water ponding on the site. The facility footprint is often ignored, but
runoff that collects in footings can lead to significant disruption and rework. Shallow
drainage trenches are probably adequate. These trenches should be installed before
the need arises because rainfall does not always occur during normal working hours.
A sump pump may be needed. A system of shallow trenches is probably sufficient to
drain runoff from storage areas and other site areas. The E&S plan may require that
the runoff be channeled into a retention basin before the water is discharged from
the site.
Drainage from places such as off-site parking areas and steep slopes is often
overlooked. These areas may funnel large amounts of water onto the site.
A simple, shallow trench or ditch will probably solve the problem (Thomas and
Ellis 2009).
Understand Environmental and Regulatory Issues

Environmental and regulatory considerations are an important part of being viewed
by the public as a responsible contractor. Disregard for these requirements can easily
damage the company’s reputation and can lead to fines and lost profits. Additionally,
there is a clause in all standard form contracts and in most nonstandard form

contracts that requires the contractor to comply with all laws, ordinances, and
regulations. Failure to comply constitutes a breach of contract. The project engineer
and project manager need to be aware of a voluminous collection of federal, state,
and local requirements. Ignorance is not an option.
A construction project requires various permits. Not all permits are acquired by
the contractor, but compliance is still required. It is therefore incumbent on the

contractor to know what permit commitments have been made by others.
Local ordinances may limit noise. You may be asked to do some things that are
not in ordinances, such as dust control or adjusting the hours of work (e.g., not
working before 7:00 a.m. in residential areas).
Statutes, Ordinances, and Regulations—It is not possible to list all the laws,
ordinances, and regulations with which the contractor must comply. Federal, state,
and local laws and regulations range from OSHA regulations, minimum wage rate
requirements, and worker’s compensation, to local ordinances, such as limits on
noise levels. The contractor must be aware of the regulatory requirements. There is
hardly a part of the contractor’s site management practices that is not touched in
some way by a regulation.
Permits—There is also a proliferation of permits that are required. Only four are
mentioned herein. These are the erosion and sediment control (E&S) permit,
wetlands permit, blasting permit, and building permit. Full compliance by the
contractor is required.
E&S Permit
E&S permits may not be required in all locales, yet it is frowned upon to discharge
sediment into a stream, especially an environmentally sensitive one. State pollution
laws and regulations may apply.
Wetlands Permit
A wetlands permit is required from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers before
infringing on a wetland. Wetlands are not entirely defined by the amount of water
that is present, but the definition also takes into consideration the type of vegetation
and type of soil. Other criteria may be applied. Fig. 3-12 shows the economic
consequences of noncompliance.
Blasting Permit
In most places, blasting operations need to be supervised by a licensed blaster.
There are many other restrictions on blasting operations. The authors have
observed numerous projects that were plagued by ineffective blasting operations,
so a skilled blaster is a valuable resource who can save the contractor time and
money.

Must follow
permit
Other
Environmental
concerns
Consequences
$45,000 fine
Submit a mitigation plan
Cease operations at the

site
Comply with the

approved permit
requirements
Fig. 3-12. Consequences of Failure to Comply with Permit Requirements
Building Permit
Building permits are usually supplied by the contractor, but practices may vary.
Other permits may be required. The contract needs to be consulted.
Develop Site Layout Plans

Now that drainage facilities are located and material delivery schemes are
finalized, site layout plans can be prepared. Generally speaking, many contractors
do a subpar job of site layout planning. In monitoring more than 200 projects
over the past 35 years, the authors have yet to observe a project where there were
comprehensive site plans. Additionally, research offers little insight into the
mechanics of developing suitable site plans. A simple procedure is explained in
Chapter 4. Through thoughtful site layout planning, the use of the site is
optimized, and there is often more available space than is initially apparent
(Principle 2.4).

Identify ETS Sequences

One does not have the resources or time to plan in intricate detail all the aspects
of constructing a project. Fortunately, on most projects it is possible to identify
one or more aspects of the project that are essential to success (ETS). In this step,
ETS sequences, which may be a single activity or a string of activities, are
identified, and the contractor’s limited resources are marshaled to plan these
sequences in detail.
ETS sequences differ from critical path activities in that in a CPM schedule,
critical path activities cover the entire project, whereas ETS sequences may be only
one activity or a limited number of loosely connected activities covering a limited
portion of the project. Thus, an ETS sequence need not include a critical activity in
the CPM vernacular. ETS sequences are unique to each project. The common
denominator is that the sequence of activities must be done in an orderly or timely
manner if the project is to be successfully completed.
Several ETS sequences are of utmost importance on most projects.
For example, on building projects, it is always desirable to complete the founda-
tion work quickly to minimize the risk of exposure to rain and mud. In colder
climates, it is often desirable to enclose the building before winter weather
arrives. In rainy climates, it is desirable to seal the building to prevent mold.
There can be several ETS sequences on a single project, but probably no more
than two to four.
On the SCMB project (see Fig. 3-2), two ETS sequences are identified. These are
the following:
• Foundation: Excavation–rock removal–footings–concrete wall construction

• Superstructure: Structural steel erection–precast plank installation–preloading
service and finish contractor materials.
The concrete foundation wall activities are selected because the foundation wall
must be completed before the steel erection can begin, which is a critical activity, and
because of the desire to limit weather-related risks. The rapid removal of rock is
essential, and the selection of an appropriate method of rock removal is of
paramount importance.
The steel erection–plank installation–preloading activities are also selected as an
ETS sequence because the work of multiple contractors must be integrated. If steel is
completely erected first (sequentially), then inefficient work methods will be needed
to install the floor planks and to deliver the service and finish materials to each floor.
These three activities may not be linked in a CPM schedule, yet how this work is
integrated will have much to do with how productive and efficient the service and
finish work will be done. If a few more activities are added, this ETS sequence can
culminate in the building being enclosed and sealed to allow for temporary heat and
to prevent water infiltration.

Calculate Time Windows

The detailed scheduling process includes a CPM analysis. A CPM schedule yields
early-start and late-finish times for each activity in the revised execution plan. These
times (dates) establish the boundaries or windows in which each activity can be
scheduled.
CPM texts often refer to early-start and late-start schedules. The authors have
never observed either schedule being used on a construction project. Both have
significant disadvantages relative to time and cost. An early-start or late-start CPM
schedule is likely not an optimum schedule. For an early-start schedule, there is no
continuity of key resources, resource leveling may be needed, and the work of
multiple contractors may not be satisfactorily integrated. There may be other
deficiencies. A late-start schedule has little slack time, and most delays cannot be
tolerated. For these reasons, the CPM schedule is the starting point, not the end
point in the scheduling process.
At the end of this step, one should have a reasonable schedule that will allow
timely completion and time windows in which noncritical and critical activities can
be scheduled. Equipment and methods should be mostly finalized.
Develop Detailed Operational Plans

Most of the schedule reduction in the revised schedule has been achieved through
specifying multiple workstations, applying concurrent scheduling practices, sequenc-
ing to minimize the number of critical activities, and selecting proper equipment
and methods. Further schedule reductions can be achieved largely through the
shortening of activity durations. The main goals of developing detailed operational
plans can be many and varied. Some of the more common goals are to (1) accelerate
the schedule, (2) ensure an efficient work plan and methods, (3) determine
resource needs, (4) ensure continuity of work for key resources (reducing idle
time), (5) determine time lags, (6) integrate the work of multiple contractors,
(7) ensure safety and quality, and (8) ensure access.
Some principles for developing operational plans are given in Table 3-1. As a
minimum, detailed operational plans should be developed for all ETS sequences.
Multiple tools can be used to develop operational plans. Some common tools are
listed in Table 3-2 along with some of the major functions and usages. The most
common tools are (1) bar charts, (2) CPM schedules, (3) short interval production
schedules (SIPS), (4) linear schedules, (5) velocity or production rate charts, and
(6) sequence plans. These tools (except for bar charts and CPM schedules) and
Principles are discussed in the following.
Partitioning—The work area may be partitioned into zones or work areas
(Principle 3.1). The partitioning may need revision as the details of the operational
plans are developed. Multiple work areas facilitate multiple workstations, which
facilitate concurrent work practices (Principles 2.6 and 3.2). Principles 2.6 and 3.2

Table 3-2. Tools Used in Developing Operational Plans
Tools Function
Bar chart Communicate the work plan.
CPM schedule Determine project duration and calculate time windows.
SIPS Accelerate the cycle time or schedule, integrate the work of multiple
contractors, draw attention to efficient work methods, define
needed resources and feasibility, and ensure continuity of work for
key resources.
Linear scheduling Ensure continuity of work for key resources, draw attention to
appropriate crew sizes and avoid idle time, and avoid congestion.
Velocity charts Determine time lags and ensure continuity of work for key resources.
Sequence plans Combine all planning knowledge into an efficient work plan.
cannot be easily applied without the application of Principle 3.1. Collectively,

partitioning and using multiple workstations can accelerate the work by allowing
work to progress on a single activity in multiple locations. Partitioning also supports
the development of site plans, facilitates the creation of linear and SIP schedules,
and aids in determining minimum time lags.
Fig. 3-8 shows the partitioning scheme for the earth excavation only on the
SCMB. It is partitioned into four areas. Fig. 3-13 shows the partitioning plan for rock
removal and trench excavation, footings, and concrete walls. A review of the two
portioning plans shows that the excavation, when done as prescribed, allows the
work on rock removal and trench excavation to begin early (at point A). Excavation
is always performed before other operations. The temporary access is the last area to
be excavated. Two crews are used for the rock removal and trench excavation
activity, and one crew is used for footing construction and wall construction. Finally,
structural steel erection can begin on an expedited schedule. Figs. 3-8 and 3-13 are
compatible with one another.
Short Interval Production Schedules (SIPS)— The short interval production
schedule (SIPS) is a detailed plan that shows what work will be performed and when.
It covers a short period of time (say, one to three weeks) and is often applied to
cyclical work. It is not a look-ahead schedule because there is no element of hope in
the SIPS. Once finalized, it becomes a commitment for all parties involved.
A contractor is expected to add labor resources or work overtime to meet the
production goals. A SIPS should be developed for all ETS sequences, and subcon-
tractors need to be intricately involved in its development. The SIPS is useful for
establishing appropriate crew sizes and teams to efficiently meet production com-
mitments (Principle 3.3) and for integrating the work of multiple contractors
(Principle 3.4). Principles 3.3 and 3.4 ensure that adequate resources are applied
and that a realistic target time value is established. The SIPS may need to be modified
as actual time values become known.

Temporary N (project)
Access
START HERE
(Crew 1)
A
D
B C
RR, Footings, Wall START HERE

(Crew 2)
Fig. 3-13. Partitioning of SCMB (Rock Removal, Footings, and Concrete Basement
Wall)
Example 1
An example of a SIPS for an apartment building is given in Fig. 3-14. On this
project, it was determined that one ETS sequence was the completion of the roof
by the end of November. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to complete one
floor of the superstructure per week. The superstructure consisted of reinforced
masonry walls (both interior and exterior) and precast concrete floor planks.
Thus, the ETS was the superstructure: interior and exterior reinforced masonry
walls–wall grouting–installation of precast floor planks–plank grouting–curing–
preloading of masonry units for the next floor. The SIPS showed that this plan was
barely feasible. The resources needed were (1) about 35 masons and helpers
working at seven workstations; (2) a mortar and grout mix that cures to the
required strength in about 18 hours during colder weather; and (3) regimented
deliveries of block, mortar, grout, and floor planks.
On the basis of the SIPS, it was decided that the goal was feasible, although tight.
Notice that the SIPS makes it possible to assess feasibility and the requirements for
the plan to be doable. A word of caution is warranted. If the time for this work is
made too liberal, it can cost the contractor money; flexibility to modify the schedule
is needed. For instance, suppose one task is scheduled for three days in the SIPS
schedule, but it can actually be completed in two and a half days. Unless the schedule
is adjusted, the workers may stretch the work on that task to the full three days or
spend the last half day in preparation for the next day or in cleanup (see Chapter 7).
It is probably a mistake to schedule certain work to occur at the same time each week
without the benefit of experience to ensure that the time allotted is suitable
(Principle 2.10).

Day 6
Day 5
Day 4
Day 3
Day 2
Day 1
Ext. Masonry (load bear.) Int. Masonry (load bear.) Grout and Cure Set Fl. Planks Grout Planks Proload CMUs, etc.
Corridors and overnight
Superstructure Production Schedule

Quantity (ft^2) 5400 4000
Productivity (wh/ft^2) 0.10 0.10
No.of workhours 540 400
Work Sch: 4-10s
Crew Size 15 16
Fig. 3-14. SIPS for the Superstructure ETS, Bryce Jordan Tower
61
Example 2
This example is for the SCMB, and the ETS sequence is the structural steel erection–
precast plank installation–preloading service and finish materials. Efficient methods
and timely completion of this work are essential to success of the project because if
the steel is completely erected (as would be the case if sequential scheduling
practices are applied), then the precast planks and preloading activities likely cannot
be done using a crane.
Fig. 3-15 shows a SIPS for the steel erection–plank installation–preloading to be
done using three cranes. The partitioning plan and crane locations are shown in
Fig. 3-16. The planning process begins by partitioning the work area into three zones.
The plan is to proceed in a counterclockwise direction. In each zone, one level of
steel is erected, followed by one floor of precast floor planks, and finally by
preloading of service materials for that zone. Steel can be easily delivered to each
crane location, and if the cranes are sized and located properly, only one crane setup
for each crane is needed. Service and finish subcontractors need to arrange for the
early and timely delivery of their materials. If they are late, their materials will not be
preloaded. Steel and plank deliveries must also be on a strict delivery schedule. Duct
will be stored in the basement (Principle 1.3). Notice that there is continuity of work
for each activity.
Velocity (Production Rate) Charts—A velocity chart shows the daily production
rate of one or more concurrent activities versus time. Fig. 3-17 shows a hypothetical
example for the excavation–rock removal and trench excavation–footings–concrete
wall ETS sequence on the SCMB. Fig. 3-17 shows that the duration of the foundation
ETS for the SCMB has been shortened by using two rock removal crews. The velocity
chart is particularly useful when the production rate of one activity is much slower
than the others; in the case of SCMB, the rock removal and trench excavation is
slowest. The velocity chart can also be used to estimate the time lag or buffer for the
Day I. II. III.

11 Preload
10 Distribute Materials Planks, Set
9 Preload Materials and Grout
8 Planks, Set Structural
7 and Grout Steel Erection
6 Align
5 Planks, Set Structural
4 and Grout Steel Erection
3 Align
2 Structural
1 Steel Erection
Fig. 3-15. SIPS for the Superstructure ETS, SCMB

Concrete discharge and crane pick points
Material storage
Selected
material
deliveries
II I
Office
I
on 1st Craft
III floor ingress &
egress
Site Utilities I
Fig. 3-16. Partitioning Plan, Superstructure Phase, SCMB
100%
)
(II
al
ov
m
Re
ck
Ro
Percent Complete
s
n
ting
tio
ll
va
Wa
Foo
ca
(I)
Ex
al
ov
m
Re
ck
Ro
Time
Time Lag
Fig. 3-17. Hypothetical Velocity Chart for Foundation and Basement ETS, SCMB
footing construction activity (Principle 3.5). Without time lags or buffers, all the
ensuing work (footings and wall formwork) will be highly inefficient because of
congestion. In this instance, the velocity chart can be used to evaluate various
alternatives for accelerating the schedule, such as multiple workstations, multiple
crews for rock removal and trench excavation, or faster methods. With partitioning
and multiple work teams, time lags can be optimized or reduced to a minimum.
Linear Schedules—Linear schedules show the relationship between time and
location. These graphical schedules are usually associated with linear projects,
e.g., highways or pipelines, but they also have limited application on nonlinear

projects in ensuring continuity of work by key resources, such as a concrete crew

or crane (Principle 3.6). Ideally, to avoid inefficient downtime, a crew should
proceed from one activity to the next without delay. Linear schedules allow one to
visualize how to efficiently plan for a resource to be used to maintain continuity.
The application of linear scheduling during the planning process minimizes crew
idle time by ensuring that work is always available for the key resource. Harmelink
and Rowings show how to identify controlling activities with linear schedules
(1998).
To illustrate the linear schedule, the foundation ETS on the SCMB is used.
Fig. 3-8 shows that the excavation work area was partitioned into four work areas
(Principle 3.1). Note that if the work area is not partitioned, the development of a
linear schedule for this ETS will be challenging. Two rock removal and trench
excavation crews are to be used. Fig. 3-18 shows the linear schedule and a bar chart.
Following some minor adjustments, it is possible to have continuity of work for the
excavation and for the footing and wall formwork crews. Only one crew for each of
these activities is required. The same cannot be said for the rock removal and trench
excavation crew. A single rock removal and trench excavation crew will extend the
schedule, and so two crews are planned (Principle 3.2). The crew sizes can be
adjusted to ensure that the daily production goals are met (Principle 3.3). Time lags
are also visible in Fig. 3-18. For example, the time lag in Area 1 between the
completion of rock removal and the start of the footings is about 10 days (Principle
3.5). Without time lags, the work will become congested as fast activities catch up
with slower ones.
Sequence Plans—Sequence plans as used herein show when subcontractors plan
to work at any point in time. Sequence plans are usually thought of as pertaining to
the service trades (e.g., mechanical, electrical, or drywall), but they may relate to any
situation where the work of multiple trades or subcontractors needs to be coordi-
nated. Sequence plans can be conveyed as a bar chart, SIPS, linear schedule,
coordination drawing, or any other convenient format.
A hypothetical sequence plan was developed for the second floor of the SCMB. It
is shown in Fig. 3-19. The first step in developing a sequence plan is to partition the
work area. Fig. 3-20 shows how the second floor of the SCMB was partitioned. The
corridor and other areas were partitioned into five unique areas. It may be
advantageous for the scope of work in each area to be roughly equal, but this is
not necessarily a requirement. The partitioning scheme shown in Fig. 3-20 is but one
of many possibilities. For the sake of simplicity, only the following activities are
shown:
Area I (corridor)
• Feeder duct,
• Feeder sprinkler pipe, and
• Feeder conduit.

% Activity Days
Area IV Ex 8
Area III 100 Wall 8
75 Ftg 4
50 RR 13
25 Exc 3
Area II 100 Wall 5
Legend
75 Ftg 3
50 RR 10 Excavation
Excavation
25 Exc 5 Removal
Rock
RockRemoval
Area I 100 Wall 5
75 Ftg 2
Footings
Footings
50 RR 8 Wall
Wall
25 Ex 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
% Activity Days
Area IV Ex 8
Area III 100 Wall 8
75 Ftg 4
50 RR 13
25 Exc 3
Area II 100 Wall 5
75 Ftg 3
50 RR 10
25 Exc 5
Area I 100 Wall 5
75 Ftg 2

50 RR 8
25 Ex 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Fig. 3-18. Linear Schedule and Bar Chart for Foundation ETS, SCMB
65
66
Week
Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
IV
III
II
I 0
Feeder Duct
Sprinkler Piping
Feeder Conduit
Branch Duct
Branch Piping
Framing
Rough-in Elec.

Drywall
Fig. 3-19. Sequence Plan for the Second Floor Service Work, SCMB
CONSTRUCTION SITE MANAGEMENT AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT

Fig. 3-20. Partitioning of the Second Floor, SCMB
67
Areas II–V
• Branch duct,
• Branch sprinkler piping,
• Framing,
• Rough-in electric, and
• Drywall.
There are several advantages of the sequence plan shown in Fig. 3-19. There is a
one-week time lag between each trade subcontractor at all times, and no more than
two subcontractors are working in any one area at any time.
Operational Planning Using Multiple Tools—The previous section described
four scheduling tools. First, a CPM can be used to establish the schedule windows in
which an activity can be performed without delaying completion. Then, the tools
described can be applied to complete the planning process as follows:
• SIPS production control establishes resources and workstations and (cycle) time
needed.
• Linear schedules ensure continuity of key resources.
• Velocity schedules (production rate charts) determine time lags.
• Sequence schedules finalize the work plan.
Lastly, a bar chart can be developed to communicate the results to field personnel.
Fig. 3-21 shows the general process of developing operational plans.
Proactive Strategies to Ensure Construction Input into Design

The opportunity to provide construction input into design may be limited on pro-
jects that are competitively bid in the design-bid-build tradition. Substitutions can be
requested of the designer. However, two other alternatives offer contractors oppor-
tunities to have input into the design: value engineering and alternative bidding.
Greater opportunities for construction input into the design are also possible
with other delivery methods that engage the contractor early in the design phase.
Two such delivery methods that allow construction input into design are design-build
and using a construction manager.
Linear Velocity Sequence

CPM Schedule SIPS Bar Chart
Schedule Chart Plans
Fig. 3-21. Process of Developing Operational Plans

Substitutions
The contract sometimes allows substitutions if they are approved by the designer. These
are usually thought of as equipment and material substitutions, but opportunities to
substitute other aspects that can improve the schedule should not be overlooked.
Value Engineering
Where the contract allows the contractor to submit a value engineering (VE)
proposal, the contractor may prepare an alternative design or proposal for the
owner’s consideration after the contract is signed. If accepted, the owner and
contractor share in the cost savings.
The problem for the contractor with VE is twofold. First, there may be insuffi-
cient time for the contractor to investigate and/or design an alternative that leads to
significant cost savings. Also, the owner may take an inordinate amount of time to
review the proposal. Complex proposals that provide significant project benefits can
be time-consuming to develop and review.
The second problem for the contractor with VE is the contractor’s reluctance to
pursue a complex VE proposal. If the VE proposal is rejected, the investigative and
design expenses come off the contractor’s bottom line (profit), and the contractor
must absorb the cost.
Alternative Bidding
Another option is to include alternatives to the base bid. Bid proposals must always
contain a base bid cost for exactly what the contract documents require; otherwise,
the contractor’s bid is not responsive to the solicitation and the bid may be rejected.
However, the contractor should be able to say to the owner, “If you add, delete, or
change x, then I will increase or decrease my bid by y amount.” If an alternative is
accepted, any design changes are now the obligation of the owner. The contractor
has invested little of his or her own financial resources to propose the change, and
any time delays are the responsibility of the owner.
Design-Build
Placing design and construction responsibility with a design-build contractor pro-
vides an ideal opportunity for construction input into the design. Teaming arrange-
ments may vary from a single design-build firm, to a partnership between a designer
and a contractor, to a joint venture. However, in all cases the construction team is
engaged with the design team early in the design development process.
Using a Construction Manager

The construction manager approach to project delivery also makes construction
expertise available during the design process. The construction manager’s primary

responsibility during design development is to provide construction input. This

construction input is particularly important to the construction manager at risk, who
will assume the role of a prime contractor and construct the project.
Finalize Execution Plan

It is important that the operational plans be compatible with the final execution plan
(schedule). Because the operational plans are more detailed, the revised preliminary
execution plan should be updated to reflect more realistic activity durations and
sequences. The updated plan becomes the final execution plan. This plan should
show that the project can be completed within the time allowed by the contract.
Fig. 3-22 is a final execution plan. This plan shows additional shortening of the
schedule compared with the revised preliminary schedule.
Further reduction to the overall schedule is still possible. Thus, the opera-
tional plan phase can result in the shortening of the durations of the foundation
ETS and the interior service installations (e.g., mechanical, electrical, and
piping).
Communicate and Enforce the Plans

How plans are communicated to others is of some importance. The means should
be thorough but simple and clear. No doubt should be left as to what is to be done
and when. A simple bar chart like the one shown in Fig. 3-23 is generally
sufficient.
Develop a Submittal and Shop Drawing Schedule

After the intent of a contract award has been communicated by the owner, a
submittal and shop drawing schedule should be prepared. Many projects have
been delayed because the submittals or shop drawings were approved late. The
main emphasis herein is on shop drawings because they generally take longer to
draw up than ordinary submittals. Some items requiring shop drawings are
needed early, such as foundation reinforcement. Other items may take inordi-
nate review time, such as structural steel or precast components. Still other items
require long lead times; windows are a good example. The important thing is to
identify those items where the schedule is tight and begin the process early.
Subcontractors should be involved in this process. Dates the shop drawings are
due to the contractor should be incorporated into the schedule.
Certain submittals should not be overlooked. Mockups of masonry walls and
other submittals may go through several iterations before approval.

Week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Mobilization
Utilities
FOUNDATION ETS
SUPERSTRUCTURE ETS
Slab Topping
Ground Slabs
Masonry
Mechanical Ductwork
Framing
Piping
Plumbing
Electrical
Fire Protection
Finishes
Fig. 3-22. Final Execution Plan, SCMB

71
Project: SCMB Date: Jul 6, 2005

ETS Sequence: FOUNDATION
OPERATIONAL PLAN Wall
ETS Activities: Excavation-Rock Removal-Footings-Concrete
Description of Work:
Excavation—all earth to elev. 908.5
Rock Removal—removal of dense, hard limestone in trench to elev. 906.5; Approx. 350 ft.
Trench is 2 ft 8 in. wide; rock is anticipated throughout entire perimeter

Footings—conventional footing concrete walls—conventional 9-in.-thick walls, to be placed in
summer months
Methods and Resources:
Excavation—will be done via zones with one excavation crew supported by a front-end loader.
Dump trucks will haul the spoil to the McHenry site (4 miles); no spoil is to be stockpiled on
site. An earthen ramp is to be built to gain access to the basement area, but it is to be removed
once excavation is complete. The excavated basement area will be used for rebar and
formwork storage. Movement of materials is to be done via crane. Approx. excavation =
3,000 CY.
Rock Removal—the rock in the footing area is hard limestone (% recovery = 90%). The work
will proceed at two workstations at opposite corners of the site. The removal of rock will be
done with conventional jackhammers. This work is to begin one day after the corner of the
footprint is exposed. Rock removal will be done with two teams of two laborers each.
Footings—this work will utilize conventional methods to construct built-in-place footing
forms. There will be one team consisting of three carpenters.
Wall Formwork—this work will rely on conventional methods. One crew of six carpenters
using 12’ x 18’ gang forms will accomplish this work.
All Work will be done in accordance with the schedule shown below.
Figure 14. Sample Operational Plan Communication Form.
Schedule: . Duration: 36 working days
% Activity Days
Area IV Ex 8
Area III 100 Wall 8
75 Ftg 4
50 RR 13
25 Exc 3
Area II 100 Wall 5
75 Ftg 3
50 RR 10
25 Exc 5
Area I 100 Wall 5
75 Ftg 2
50 RR 8
25 Ex 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Fig. 3-23. Communicating Operational Plans
A submittal log should be developed to track the status of various submittals and
shop drawings.
Plan for Change Management

Be wary of any owner who says, “There will be no changes on this job.” There are
always changes. It may signal an intent on the owner’s part not to pay for changes by
saying “fix the problem through the shop drawing process” or “that problem is one of
means and methods.” The contractor may be forced to engage in design work.
Nevertheless, if the owner hints that there will be no changes, it may be enough of a
red flag to suggest that the contractor should not submit a bid.

Most writings on change management speak to the importance of developing a

change order log. A request for information (RFI) log is an equally important part
of change management. These logs are used in contemporary writings primarily so
that the contractor can prepare a claim. However, the logs serve an important
function in the absence of a claim. They allow the contractor to inform the owner
and designer which RFIs or change orders are negatively affecting the project
schedule.
Contractors should be proactive relative to changes. The worst-case scenario is
the need for a change to be identified by the crew in the field doing the work because
this leads to much idle time and inefficiency. Therefore, contractors should strive to
identify the need for changes well before the work is to begin. There should be a
good process in place for incorporating changes into the work assignment before it is
given to the supervisor. When a change proposal is submitted, the contractor should
always reserve the right to claim impact costs because of labor inefficiencies and thus
recover associated time delays.
3.10 Case Study—Millennium Science Complex
This case study illustrates that more attention to planning can lower labor costs and
increase profits. The project is the Millennium Science Complex built on the Penn
State campus in State College, Pennsylvania. The facility is a 275,000-ft2 classroom
and laboratory facility built in the 2008–2011 time frame at a cost of $215 million.
A cm-agency delivery system was used.
Project Description
The building has a structural steel superstructure and is clad with a precast curtain
wall and metal panels. The precast facade panels have a thin brick veneer, which
gives the appearance of a brick building. The foundation is built on micropiles. The
building is a four-story, L-shaped structure. An artist’s rendering of the completed
project is shown in Fig. 3-24.
Activity Description
The activity being reported on in this case study is the installation of the exterior
precast panels. The work was done by a specialty contractor that was owned by the
precast vendor. The panels were approximately 22 ft × 10 ft, although actual sizes
varied. This meant that the panels were not interchangeable.
The panel installation crew was divided into two teams. The first team erected
and aligned the panels and then secured the panels to the structure. This team
consisted of 6–12 workers, although most of the time, there were 11–12 workers. The
second team, which was much smaller, patched the lifting lug areas, installed

Fig. 3-24. Artist’s Rendering of the Millennium Science Complex
insulation to the back of the panels, and caulked the joints. The scope of work of the
second team was much smaller than that of the first team.
The fabrication yard for the vendor was about 150 miles from the project
site. The superintendent ordered panels by 1:00 p.m. to be delivered the next
morning at 6:00 a.m. Thus, the superintendent was gambling that certain panels
would be erected the previous afternoon and that conditions would allow for
the designated panels to be erected the next day. There was only one panel delivered
per truck, and there were no panels stored on site. If the delivery of the panels was
delayed the next morning, the erection team would be idle. If the team erected all
the panels that were ordered that day in less than the time expected, and the
superintendent was slow in sending the workers home, there was more idle time. In a
few instances, the first team would help the second, even though the work needs of
the second team’s work were small. It did not seem that coordination between the
contractor and vendor was as good as it could have been, and there were multiple
opportunities for crew idle time and inefficient work. The first team may have been
engaged in “busy work” some of the time.
During the latter part of the observation period, the work was not sequenced
well. This problem was caused in part by steel bearing plates not being available
or subpar vendor coordination. The welding of the bearing plates was done
by another contractor. A subassembly should have been used, and the bearing
plates should have been welded by the fabricator at the fabrication shop instead of in
the field. To continue work, the crane had to be moved. Thus, there were more
crane movements than planned, and this led to more crew idle time. Additionally,
the crane movements did not seem to be planned for after work hours.
There was a lack of site planning to promote labor efficiency. Panel delivery
trucks had to back into position. This problem can be observed in Fig. 3-25. Drive-
through deliveries were not practiced consistently, leading to idle time. Fig. 3-26
shows further evidence of poor site planning. Because of the requirements of
numerous materials and trash, the delivery and service trucks and crane did not
have unrestricted access to the work face as the work progressed.

Fig. 3-25. Panel Delivery Practices on the Millennium Science Complex
Fig. 3-26. Panel Erection Showing Congested Work Area, Millennium Science Complex
Fundamental Principles
Principles 2.1, 2.6, and 3.8 were applied on this project. The following principles
were not applied: Principles 2.4, 2.8, 3.1, 3.2, and 3.5. The following principles from

Table 3-1 were not observed or do not apply: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9,
2.10, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, and 3.7.
Much of Chapter 7 is applicable to this case study. Case Study 3 in Chapter 7
should also be reviewed.
Contractor Performance
Fig. 3-27 shows the crew productivity for the precast panel erection. As can be seen,
the performance for the first 13 workdays was rather consistent, and thereafter it was
not so consistent. Lower numbers in Fig. 3-27 are better.
From the outset, the erection of panels was not done in a systematic fashion.
There could have been two reasons. There could have been poor coordination with
the vendor or the steel bearing plates may have been installed sporadically.
Nevertheless, minimal crane movements were required the first 13 days. Beginning
on workday 4, erection began on a cantilevered portion of the building. The weight
of the panels led to deflections that required realignment of most of the previously
installed panels. Productivity degraded through no fault of the contractor. Thereaf-
ter, panel erection became erratic, and numerous crane movements were required.
The crew only worked six of the next 13 days. It appears that vendor coordination
was somewhat of a problem.
One foreseeable risk is that subpar vendor coordination can lead to excessive
crew idle time and inefficient use of labor. Site layout planning and effective
operational plans that anticipated the vendor coordination risk would have mini-
mized some economic losses resulting from this risk. It seems that the contractor
would have benefited from a better plan.
It seems that the crew would have performed better if there had been better
coordination (a planning issue) with the vendor. It also seems that there might have
0.2
0.18
0.16
Daily Productivity (Wh/ft 2 )
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Workday
Fig. 3-27. Labor Productivity of Panel Erection Crew, Millennium Science

Complex

been better performance had the panel erection crew waited longer (increasing the
time lag) to start panel erection, allowing the bearing plate installation to proceed
earlier and the vendor to produce a greater backlog of panels. The labor inefficiency is
estimated to be 32%, and at $35/h (burdened), the contractor suffered a loss of
$14,450. This equates to a loss of $722 per workday on a relatively simple activity.
References
Alexander & Shankle, Inc., v. Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County.
(2007). Court of appeals of Tennessee, Nashville, TN.
Harmelink, D. J., and Rowings, J. E. (1998). “Linear scheduling model: Development of
controlling activity path.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 124(4), 263–268.
Hinze, J. W. (2008). Construction planning and scheduling, 3rd Ed., Pearson Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Thomas, H. R., and Ellis, R. D., Jr. (2007). “Contractor prebid planning principles.” J. Constr.
Eng. Manage., 133(4), 542–552.
Thomas, H. R., and Ellis, R. D., Jr. (2009). “Fundamental principles of weather mitigation.”
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr., 14(1), 29–35.
Thomas, H. R., Lescher, A., and Bowman, G. (2000). Fundamentals of contract risk management
for electrical contractors, National Electrical Contractors Association, Bethesda, MD, 67.

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Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

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Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Fundamental Principles of Planning

Planning is a cornerstone of effective construction project management and

3.1 Risk-Based Planning

Things Go Wrong Surprises Contractual People or Team

Fig. 3-1. Broad Categories of Project Risk

3.2 Steps in Risk-Based Planning

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

3.3 Case Study—State College Municipal Building

Fig. 3-2. State College Municipal Building (SCMB) during Construction

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Spoil Material Storage

Fig. 3-3. Actual Site Layout for SCMB

3.4 Paramount Determination

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

3.5 General Approach to Planning

Effective planning requires (1) assessment of risks, (2) settling on preliminary

linked. The assessment of risks includes the following:

• Things that can go wrong;

• Strategies and preliminary considerations;

○ Site layouts, and

○ Weather mitigation plans,

• Erosion and sediment control (E&S) plans,

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Of course, other risk assessments, preliminary strategies and considerations, and

3.6 The Project Planning Process

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

13. Proactive Strategies To Assure Construction Input Into

Fig. 3-4. The Planning Process

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

A contractor should know the risks in a project before making a decision to

• Delays at the beginning of the project,

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

3.7 Preliminary Planning Considerations

Develop a Preliminary (Leisure Time) Execution Plan

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

by unconventional methods and relies on concurrent scheduling practices. The plan

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Fig. 3-6. Cost-Oriented versus Time-Oriented Schedule

Fig. 3-7. The Outreach Building

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

reach of oversized equipment may offer important schedule advantages, depend-

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Decide on Key Macro Strategies

specialty contractors or subcontractors. The work may involve special equipment or

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

on the right half.

Fig. 3-8. Partitioning of SCMB (Excavation Only)

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement

Determine Major Means, Methods, and Equipment Needs

Revise Preliminary Execution Plan

Construction Site Management and Labor Productivity Improvement