Mechanical Properties of Metals: Dr. Azhar Hussain
Mechanical Properties of Metals: Dr. Azhar Hussain
Mechanical Properties of Metals: Dr. Azhar Hussain
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF
METALS
Dr. Azhar Hussain
2
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
d Grey iron, concrete,
polymers)
4
d plastic
d elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
5
P L/2
S=
Lo Area
Ao
Lo Area
L
Ao
Ao
e=
Lo
L/2 L/2
P Engineering Strain
P
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F
Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao
Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area Stress has units:
before loading N/m2 or lbf /in2
7
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
8
Ao
F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).
9
sz > 0 sh< 0
10
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d /2
e = d
-dL
Lo eL =
Lo wo
wo
𝛿 = 𝐿-𝐿°
d /2
• Shear strain: L
q
x
g = x/y = tan q
y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
11
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
12
X
(kN)
Maximum
Load, Pmax
Elastic
Deformation Load,
Pf
Elongation, L (mm)
14
E (Ultimate)
Su
E
Proportional Limit
F
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
s
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee E F
simple
e tension
test
Linear-
elastic
CONTINUED
400
Stress (MPa)
300
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
17
The magnitude of
modulus of elasticity
is a measure of the
resistance to
separation of
adjacent atoms, that
is interatomic
bonding forces.
18
0.2 LDPE
20
Example
21
Problem
22
Poisson's ratio, n eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:
Ratio of
eL
lateral n=-
and e e
axial
strains
metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Poisson’s Ratio, n
ex ey
n =- =-
ez ez
For most metals,
0.25 < n < 0.35
in the elastic range
Furthermore:
E = 2G (1 +n )
25
Other Elastic
• Elastic Shear
Properties
t M
modulus, G: G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test
M
• Elastic Bulk P
modulus, K:
P
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G = K =
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
26
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
Plastic Deformation
Elastic Plastic Elastic Plastic
Elastic Plastic
Sy
Sy
Sy
Stress
Yield Strength, s y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy
Note: for 2 inch sample
e = 0.002 = l/l
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
29
1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
30
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
t
33
Ductility
measure of the degree of plastic deformation L -L
that has been sustained at fracture % EL = f o x 100
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: L
o
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Lo
Ao
Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Engineering Strain
35
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
37
38
39
Problems
A cylindrical metal specimen having an original diameter of
12.8 mm (0.505 in.) and gauge length of 50.80 mm (2.000 in.)
is pulled in tension until fracture occurs. The diameter at the
point of fracture is 8.13 mm (0.320 in.), and the fractured
gauge length is 74.17 mm(2.920 in.). Calculate the ductility in
terms of percent reduction in area and percent elongation.