CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literatures gathered from recent books, journals

and theses in relation to the study. This will give a summary and discussion

about the principles, procedures and processes related to the topic.

Conceptual Literature

This contains the literary section from different sources which gives additional

and necessary information related to the study.

I. Pineapple Peel

Pineapple peel is the outer covering of the pineapple fruit. Pineapple is

one of the most produced and consumed fruit. The pineapple (Ananas comosus)

is one of the most important fruits in the world and is the leading edible member

of the family Bromeliaceae. This fruit juice is the third most preferred worldwide

after orange and apple juices (Cabrera et al., 2000). As per Philippine Statistics

Authority (PSA), during the period April-June 2018, pineapple production was

recorded at 697.45 thousand metric tons. It was 3.3 percent higher than the 2017

level of 675.20 thousand metric tons. Half of the total national production of

pineapple was from Northern Mindanao at the level of 353.05 thousand metric

tons. The other top producing regions were SOCCSKSARGEN with 25.8 percent

share and CALABARZON with 9.7 percent. Commercially, it is mainly produced

as canned fruits and consumed worldwide (Tran, 2006).

 1. Properties of Pineapple Peels

1.1 Carbon Content of Pineapple Peels

Pineapple wastes generally comprise of organic substances and

hence the disposal problem could be attenuated by anaerobic digestion and

composting. Some of these wastes could have industrial applications for gas

generations (Mbuligwe and Kassenga, 2004). Bio-methanation of fruit wastes

is the best suited waste treatment as it both adds energy in the form of

methane and also results in a highly stabilized effluent with almost neutral pH

and odorless property (Bardiya et al., 1996). They utilized pineapple waste for

the production of methane using semi-continuous anaerobic digestion which

could produce up to 1682 ml/day of biogas with methane content of 51% in

maximum. Rani and Nand (2004) reported that different conditions of

pineapple peels gave biogas yields ranging from 0.41-0.67 m3/kg volatile

solids with methane content of 41-65%. Solid pineapple waste has been used

to produce volatile fatty acids and methane (Babel et al., 2004). They

reported that at higher alkalinity, up to 53 g volatile fatty acids were produced

from one kg of pineapple waste. Acetic, propionic, butyric, i-butyric and valeric

acids were produced along with methane. Reports on utilizing pineapple

waste as the carbon substrate to produce hydrogen gas from municipal

sewage sludge is found (Wang et al., 2006). The waste contained 10 carbon

and nitrogen source for cell growth and hydrogen production. In other report,

pineapple fruit wastes have been suggested as a source of carbon for

bacterial production of cellulose by Acetobacter xylinum (Kurosumi et al.,

2009). Pineapple waste, as one of the substrates in mixed fruit wastes, has

been utilized for biogas generation (Lane, 1984; Prema et al., 1992). When

using 15% pineapple peel in the mixed fruit peel waste, bio-hydrogen gas was

generated at 0.73m3/kg of volatile solid destroyed (Vijayaraghavan et al.,

2007). The sugars contained in pineapple cannery effluent have been utilized

for the production of single cell protein using continuous cultivation (Nigam,

1999). The dilution rate had significant effect on biomass as well as protein

content.

1.2 Composition of Pineapple Peels

Table 1 shows the composition of the pineapple peel in terms of

physical and chemical.

Table 1. Physical and chemical composition of pineapple peels

Parameters Fresh Peels Dry Peels
Cellulose 11.2 12
Hemi cellulose 7.0 6.5
Lignin 11.52 11.0
Pectin 6.70 7.10
Protein 3.13 3.30
Ash 3.88 4.18
Moisture 71.1 27.43
pH 4.7 4.7

2. Adsorbing Efficiency of Pineapple Peels

Pineapple fruit residues have been used as an effective bio

adsorbent to remove toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, zinc

and nickel (Senthilkumaar et al.,2000). They have reported that the addition

of phosphate groups in the fruit residues increased the adsorbent capacities

at lower pH. Reports on the removal of heavy metals like chromium, copper,
lead, nickel and zinc from contaminated sewage sludge using citric acid

obtained from fermented pineapple wastes (Dacera and Babel, 2008). The

applicability of such contaminated sewage sludge after removal of heavy

metals as land fill has shown to have high potentials (Dacera et al., 2009).

Pineapple waste water has also been used as cheap substitute of nutrients

for Acinetobacter haemolyticus, which was used to reduce the contamination

of chromium VI (Zakaria et al., 2007).

3. Utilization of Pineapple Peels

3.1 Activated Carbon

Since activated carbon is prepared by the activation of

carbonaceous substances (Sherbondy and Mickler, 2002), related

studies that have determined some of the organics present in

pineapple waste biomass by means of fermentation (Ueno et al.,

2003), alkali treatment (Tang et al., 2014) and other related

chemical processes.

There have been numerous studies that determined the organic

contents of pineapple biomass. It contains many organic

compounds such as organic acids, phenolics and sugars

(Upadhyay, 2010). In addition, pineapple wastes are also used as

an energy and carbon source where it can be used for bio-

methanation (Babel et al., 2004) or can be treated to be used as

activated carbon (Mahamad et al., 2015).

 Prevalent organic acids in pineapple mass are lactic acid (Ueno

et al., 2003) and citric acid (Immandi et al., 2008). The two studies

made use of fermentation to obtain the organic acids. However, in

obtaining ferulic acid, one study made use of banana peel

extraction (Tilay et al. 2008) where the other made use of alkali

treatment (Tang et al., 2014) which showed that pineapple peels

were a good source for ferulic acid compared to some agricultural

biomass.

In two different studies of Maszina et al. (2000) and Bartolome

et al. (1995), they were able to prove that sucrose was the

abundant sugar in pineapple biomass whereas a deeper study

done by Siti Roha et al. (2013) shows that these data are

dependent on different factors such as maturity stage, pineapple

variety and soil condition. Needless to say, it becomes a given fact

that sugars, namely, fructose, glucose and sucrose, are prevalent

in pineapple biomass. Itelima et al. (2013) proved that pineapple

peels had a high ethanol yield compared to another biomass. In

addition, as activated carbon, Mahamad et al. (2015) proved that

pineapple leaves were most effective for dye removal.

3.2 Anti-dyeing Agent

Pineapple peel has been used as anti-dyeing agent on the

past studies. Dyes used in textile industries have been a threat

to environmental problem since these are visible in small

 quantities due to their brilliance when mixed and thrown with

large volumes of waste water from different steps in the dyeing

and finishing processes (Robinson et al., 2001; Babu et al.,

2008). Some works on utilizing pineapple waste to remove the

dyes have been reported. Pineapple stem is used as low-cost

adsorbent to remove basic dye (methylene blue) from aqueous

solution by adsorption (Hameed et al., 2009). In another report,

pineapple leaf powder has been used as an unconventional bio-

adsorbent of methylene blue from aqueous solution (Weng et

al., 2009).

II. Activated Carbon

Activated carbons are versatile adsorbents. Their adsorptive properties

are due to high surface area, a microporous structure, and a high degree of

surface reactivity. They are used, therefore, to purify, decolorize, deodorize,

dechlorinate, separate, and concentrate in order to permit recovery and to filter,

remove or modify the harmful constituents from gases and liquid solutions.

Consequently, the activated carbon adsorption is of interest to economic sectors

and concern areas as diverse as food, pharmaceutical, chemical, petroleum,

nuclear, automobile and vacuum industries as well as for the treatment of

drinking water, industrial and urban waste water and industrial flue gases.

1. Water Treatment using Activated Carbon

Activated carbon filtration (AC) is effective in reducing certain

organic chemicals and chlorine in water. It can also reduce the quantity of
lead in water although most lead-reducing systems use another filter

medium in addition to carbon. Water is passed through granular or block

carbon material to reduce toxic compounds as well as harmless taste- and

odor-producing chemicals.

People are increasingly concerned about contaminants in their

drinking water that cannot be removed by water softeners or physical

filtration. Solvents, pesticides, industrial wastes, and leaking underground

storage tanks are some sources of this contamination. Undesirable

compounds such as methylene chloride, trichloroethylene, benzene,

chlorobenzenes, carbon tetrachloride, and vinyl chloride pose health risks

in drinking water. Lead from water pipes and joints may show up in water

at the tap. The reaction of chlorine with organic matter during the

chlorination of drinking water can produce other compounds such as

trihalomethanes as by-products, which may increase the risk of certain

cancers. Radon, a radioactive decay product of natural uranium, can be

found in groundwater as well as in the air of buildings and has been

related to lung cancer. Those considering the addition of an activated

carbon filter to reduce toxic chemicals should first determine whether their

water contains problem compounds. Public water systems are routinely

monitored for contamination, and results of these tests must be made

available on request. These water supplies must conform to the

requirements established in each state under the federal Safe Drinking

Water Act.
 If the level of any contaminant exceeds the maximum, treatment

must be undertaken or new sources of potable (drinkable) water provided.

Private water systems must be tested at the owner's initiative to determine

whether treatment is needed. Decisions to do costly testing should be

made based on knowledge of contamination incidents that can affect the

private water supply (D. M. de Guzman, et al., 2018).

There are two basic types of water filters: particulate filters and

adsorptive/reactive filters. Particulate filters exclude particles by size, and

adsorptive/reactive filters contain a material (medium) that either adsorbs

or reacts with a contaminant in water. The principles of activated carbon

filtration are the same as those of any other adsorption material. The

contaminant is attracted to and held (adsorbed) on the surface of the

carbon particles. The characteristics of the carbon material (particle and

pore size, surface area, surface chemistry, density, and hardness)

influence the efficiency of adsorption.

2. Activated Carbon in Adsorption Process

Activated carbon was prepared from coirpith by a chemical activation

method and characterized. The adsorption of toxic heavy metals, Hg (II), Pb

(II), Cd (II), Ni (II), and Cu (II) was studied using synthetic solutions and was

reported elsewhere. In the present work the adsorption of toxic heavy

metals from industrial wastewaters onto coirpith carbon was studied. The

percent adsorption increased with increase in pH from 2 to 6 and remained

constant up to 10. As coirpith is discarded as waste from coir processing

industries, the resulting carbon is expected to be an economical product for

the removal of toxic heavy metals from industrial wastewaters.

3. Production of Activated Carbon

Activated carbon can be produced through physical activation and

chemical activation. Physical activation has two kinds of processes which

can also be combined in some cases. One is carbonization which uses the

process of pyrolysis in very high temperatures. The other one is oxidation

where the raw material or carbonized material is exposed to oxygen or

steam at high temperature. The chemical activation on the other hand is

done with impregnating the raw material to a certain acid or a strong base or

salt and then carbonizing it at lower temperatures. (Anales et. al, 2014)

3.1 Physical Activation

In the two-stage physical activation, the preparation of activated

carbon is produced through pyrolysis followed the activation process. The

solid residue is subjected to the process of carbonization and the

produced biochar is treated in a gas stream at a temperature of 800-

1200K. The gases used for activation step are carbon dioxide and steam.

A simple one step method for activation of carbon is the steam

pyrolysis. This method is the preparation of activated carbon is produced

by carbonization of solid residue with presence of steam (D. M. de

Guzman, et al., 2018).

3.2 Chemical Activation

 In chemical activation, activated carbon is done with impregnating

the raw material to a certain acid or a strong base or salt and then

carbonizing it at lower temperatures (D. M. de Guzman, et al., 2018).

4. Elemental Composition of Activated Carbon

Activated carbons have a microcrystalline structure which differs from

that of graphite with respect to interlayer spacing, which is 0.335 nm in the

case of graphite and ranges between 0.34 and 0.35 nm activated carbons.

The elemental composition of typical activated carbons has been found to

be 88% C, 0.5% H, 0.5% Nm 1.0% S and 6 to 7% O, with the balance

representing inorganic ash constituents. The oxygen content of an activated

carbon can vary, however, depending on the type of the source raw

materials and the conditions of the activation process (Bansal and Goyal,

2005)

5. Classifications of Activated Carbon

5.1 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) is irregular shaped particles

formed by milling and sieving. These products range from the sizes

0.2mm to 5 mm. They have the advantages of being harder and

longer lasting than powdered activated carbons, clean to handle,

purify large volumes of gas or liquids of a consistent quality, and can

be reactivated and reused many times. GAC are used in both liquid

and gas phase applications and in both fixed and moving systems. In

liquid phase uses, granular activated carbon is packed in columns

and towers through which liquids flows. GAC are used where there is

a single product to be refined or produced continuously in large

quantities. In gas phase applications GACs have the advantage of

having sufficient flow with an acceptable pressure drop through the

carbon bed. In addition, granular activated carbons are nearly always

regenerated and reused. The period between reactivation varies

significantly but is on average 18 months. Loss of material during

reactivation ranges from 5% to 15%.

5.2 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)

Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) is generally having a particle

size distribution ranging from 5 to 150 Å, although coarser and finer

grades are available. Advantages of powdered activated carbons are

their lower processing costs and their flexibility in operation. The

dosage of powdered activated carbon can be easily increased or

decreased as process conditions vary. Powdered activated carbons

are mainly used for liquid-phase adsorption. They are added to the

liquid to be treated, mixed with the liquid and, after adsorption, are

removed by sedimentation and filtration. Powdered activated carbons

are generally used in batch process as the amount added can be

easily altered and powder can be easily removed. The wet powder

cake is not regenerated because of the problems associated with

recycling the carbon, but incinerated or placed in landfills.

5.3 Extruded carbon

 Extruded carbon is cylindrical pellets with diameter ranging from

1mm to 5mm. The extrusion process, together with the raw material

used, ensures that the end product is hard and suitable for heavy

duty applications. The extruded pellet form gives a low system

pressure drop, which is an important consideration in the gas-phase

uses. Markets lie in solvent recovery, gas purification and automotive

emission control, where the high-volume activity, low pressure drop

and high stock resistance of extruded carbon enable them to last the

entire life of the vehicle (Haycarb, 2017).

6. Process Technology for Carbonization and Activation

The preparation involves two main steps: the carbonization of the

carbonaceous raw material at temperatures below 800°C and the

activation of the carbonized product. Thus, all carbonaceous materials can

be converted into activated carbon, although the properties of the final

product will be different, depending on the nature of the raw material used,

the nature of the activating agent, and the conditions of the carbonization

and activation processes. But only a good hard biomass used activated

charcoal such as coconut shell and palm shell.

During the carbonization process, most of the non-carbon

elements such as oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are eliminated as

volatile gaseous species by the pyrolytic decomposition of the starting

material. The residual elementary carbon atoms group themselves into

stacks of flat, aromatic sheets cross-linked in a random manner. Thee

aromatic sheets are irregularly arranged, which leaves free interstices.

These interstices give rise to pores which make activated carbon excellent

adsorbents.

During the carbonization, these pores are filled with the tarry matter

or the products of decomposition at least blocked partially by disorganized

carbon. This pore structure in carbonized char is further developed and

enhanced during the activation process. This converts the carbonized raw

material into a form that contains the greatest possible number of

randomly distributed pores of various sizes and shapes giving rise to an

extended and extremely high surface area of the product. The activation of

the char is usually carried out in an atmosphere of air, CO 2, or steam in

the temperature range of 400°C to 900°C. This results in the oxidation of

some of the regions within the char in preference to others so that as

combustion proceeds, a preferential etching takes place. This results in

the development of a large internal surface which in some cases may be

as high as 2500 m2/g (Bansal and Goyal, 2005).

6.1 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a thermochemical treatment, which can be

applied to any organic (carbon-based) product. In this treatment,

material is exposed to high temperature, and in the absence of

oxygen goes through chemical and physical separation into

different molecules.
 Pyrolysis is a form of treatment that chemically decomposes

organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis

typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures

above 430°C (800°F). In practice, it is not possible to achieve a

completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is

present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs

(Anales et al, 2014).

Pyrolysis provides safer, better, faster, less costly and more

environmental friendly than any known solutions, with high

economical added value output products. It can be available in

electric and gas heat versions. Advanced technical solution for the

rotary kiln sealing provides totally closed and totally safe

technology. Safe vacuum system is easy to start up – shut down.

Also, it has low operational/maintenance costs. Pyrolysis systems

may be applicable to a number or organic materials that “crack” or

undergo a chemical decomposition in the presence of heat.

Pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically

separating inorganic from the contaminated medium. Volatile

metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures

associated with the process but are similarly not destroyed (Anales

et. al, 2014).

6.1.1 Fast Pyrolysis

 Fast pyrolysis is characterized by high heating rates and

short vapour residence times. This generally requires feedstock

prepared as small particle sizes and a design that removes the

vapour quickly from the presence of hot solids. These are a number

of different reactor configurations that can be achieve this including

ablative systems, fluidized bed, stirred or moving beds and vacuum

pyrolysis system. A moderate (in pyrolysis terms) temperature of

around 500°C is usually used. Development of fast pyrolysis

developed rapidly following the oil crises of the 1970’s as a way of

producing liquid fuel from an indigenous renewable resource,

primarily wood, and the process is designed to give a high yield of

bio-oil.

6.1.2 Slow Pyrolysis

Slow pyrolysis can be divided into traditional charcoal

making and more modern processes. It is characterized by slower

heating rates, relatively long solid and vapour residence times and

usually a lower temperature than fast pyrolysis, typically 400°C.

The target product is often the char, but this will be always

accompanied by liquid and gas products although these are not

always recovered.

7. Properties of Activated Carbon

Table 2 shows the properties of commercially available activated

carbon in terms of moisture content, ash content, pH value, apparent

density, bulk density and hardness. The moisture content of the activated

carbon should be less than 3%, 2% for the ash content, 6.5 to 8 for the pH

value, 250-650 g/L for the apparent density, 228-592 g/L for the bulk

density, minimum of 95% for hardness and particle size is one inch (D. M.

de Guzman, et al., 2018).

Table 2. Properties of Commercially Available Activated Carbon

Moisture Ash pH Apparent Bulk Hardness Particle
Content Conten Valu Density Densit Size
t e y
< 3 % 2% 6.5 to 250-650 228-592 >95% 1 in
8 g/L g/L

7.1 Moisture Content

The moisture content of activated carbon is often required to

define and express its properties in relation to the net weight of the

carbon. Activated carbon is made by passing hot air and steam over

in a kiln. Sometimes, the resulting activated carbon is washed in a

bath of acid, rinsed and then dried again. There is bound to be some

amount of moisture left in the activated carbon upon final drying. A

practical limit for the level of moisture present in the activated carbon,

when packed at the factory is 3% (Abuzman et. al, 2013).

7.2 Ash Content

Ash is the mineral residue that is left on the surface of a carbon

sample after activation. The general content of the ash will effectively

lessen the activity level of the carbon sample. In addition, high ash
content will decrease the efficiency of regeneration of the exhausted

carbon. Depending on the mineral residues present on the carbon,

pre-treatment of the carbon may reduce the ash content. In some

cases, there will be no effect in the nature of adsorption process when

natural ash is present in the carbon sample (Deithirn and Mazzoni,

1986).

It reduces overall activity of activated carbon and reduces

efficiency of reactivation. Metals (Fe 203) can leach out of activated

carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid or water soluble ash content is

more significant than total ash content (Keneco, 2005).

7.3 pH Value

The pH value of activated carbon is measure of whether it is

acidic or basic. The pH of a neutral substance such as pure water has

a value of 7. A pH of less than 7 implies that the substance is acidic

and pH of greater than 7 implies that it is basic. Activated carbon,

when coming out of the kiln, tends to be a bit basic with pH of around

8. Too high pH indicates too much contaminant. Too low pH,

especially for acid washed activated carbon, means that the acid has

not been properly rinsed away. Most of the activated carbon is

specified for a pH of 6-8 (Keneco, 2005).

7.4 Bulk or Apparent Density

When talking about activated carbon, especially granular

activated carbon, regular density would not describe anything useful.

It would basically describe a solid without high degree of surface area

and, in turn, would describe a solid with essentially no apparent

adsorptive capacity. A much more sensible method for describing the

density of a carbon sample is the bulk density. The bulk density is the

mass of the no stratified dry activated carbon per unit volume of

activated carbon. A higher bulk density means a greater volume

activity. Therefore, the bulk density will be a considerably reduced

value from the standard density because of the intricate network of

pores, a sample of activated carbon process (Abuzman et. al, 2013).

7.5 Mesh Sieve (Particle Size)

In determining the design parameters for an activated carbon,

the particle size is very useful. A smaller mesh size of carbon will

increase the rate of adsorption and also the pressure drop across

the fluidized bed (Deithorn and Mazzoni, 1986).

7.6 Hardness

Hardness is the measure of the external integrity against

wearing along exterior and breakage of small points of activated

carbon. It is expressed as a percentage of loss on a particular sieve

after shaking granules under certain conditions.

7.7 Particle Size

 In determining the design parameters for activated carbon,

the particle size is very useful. This determines the size of the

particle (Deithorn and Mazzoni, 1986).

III. Principle of Adsorption Process

Activated carbon can be considered as a material of phenomenal surface

area made up of millions of pores rather like a “molecular sponge”. The process

by which such a surface concentrates fluid molecules by chemical and/or

physical forces is known as adsorption (whereas, absorption is a process

whereby fluid molecules are taken up by a liquid or solid and distributed

throughout that liquid or solid). In the physical adsorption process, molecules are

held by the carbon’s surface by weak forces as Van Der Waals forces resulting

from intermolecular attraction. The carbon and the adsorbate are thus

unchanged chemically.

In general terms, to achieve adsorption, it is necessary to present the

molecule to be adsorbed to a pore of comparable size. In this way, the attractive

forces coupled with opposite wall effect will be at a maximum and should be

greater than the energy of the molecule. In contrast, coconut shell carbons are

particularly efficient in adsorbing small molecular species. Krypton and Xenon,

for instance, are readily adsorbed by coconut shell carbon but readily desorbs

from large pored carbons such as wood.

Maximum adsorption capacity is determined by the degree of liquid packing

that can occur in the pores. In very high vapour pressures, multilayer adsorption

can lead to capillary condensation even in mesopores (25A). If adsorption

capacity is plotted against pressure (for gases) or concentration (for liquids) at

constant temperature, the curve so produced is known as an isotherm.

Adsorption increases with increased pressure and also with increasing molecular

weight within a series of a chemical family. Thus, methane (CH 4) is less easily

adsorbed than the propane (C3H8). This is a useful fact to remember when a

particular system has a number of components. After equilibrium, it is generally

found that, all else being equal; the higher molecular weight species of a multi-

component system are preferentially adsorbed. Such a phenomenon is known as

competitive or preferential adsorption – the initially adsorbed low molecular

weight species desorbing form the surface and being replaced by higher

molecular weight species.

Physical adsorption in the vapor phase is affected by certain external

parameters such as temperature. The adsorption process is more efficient at

lower temperatures since molecular species are less mobile under such

conditions. Such an effect is also noticed in a system where moisture and an

organic species are present. The moisture is readily accepted by the carbon

surface but in time, desorbs as the preferred organic molecules are selected by

the surface. This usually occurs due to differences in molecular size but can be

also attributable to the differences in molecular charge. Generally speaking,

carbon surfaces dislike any form of charge – since water is highly charged (ionic)

relative to the majority of organic molecules, the carbon would prefer the organic

to be adsorbed. Primary amines possess less charge on the nitrogen atom than

secondary amines that in turn have less than tertiary amines. High levels of
adsorption can be expected if the adsorbate is a reasonably large bulky molecule

with no charge, whereas a small molecule with high charge would not be

expected to be easily adsorbed.

Molecular shape also influences adsorption but this is usually of minor

consideration. In certain situations, regardless of how the operating conditions

can be varied, some species will only be physically adsorbed to a low level.

(Examples are ammonia, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, mercury vapour

and methyl iodide). In such instances, the method frequently employed to

enhance a carbon’s capability is to impregnate it with a particular compound that

is chemically reactive towards the species required to be adsorbed. Since carbon

possesses such a large surface (a carbon granule the size of a “quarter” has a

surface area in the order of ½ square mile), coating of this essentially spreads

out the impregnate over a vast area. This, therefore, greatly increases the

chance of reaction since the adsorbate has a tremendous choice of reaction

sites.

Physical adsorption, the components of the system are changed chemically

and the changed adsorbate, chemically held by the carbon’s surface and

desorption in the original form, is non-existent. This principle is applied in many

industries particularly in the catalysis field, where the ability of a catalyst can be

greatly increased by spreading it over a carbon surface (Cameron Carbon

Incorporated, 2012).

IV. Principle of Water Filtration

 Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals,

biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from water. The goal is to

produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is disinfected for human

consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be designed for a

variety of other purposes, including fulfilling the requirements of medical,

pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. The methods used include

physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological

processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical

processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic

radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including

suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, as well as

reducing the concentration of a range of dissolved and particulate matter.

The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or

by international standards. These standards usually include minimum and

maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the intended purpose of

water use.

V. Methods of Water Treatment

Water Treatment is a field of high significance as it has direct practical

implications for resolving the problem of industrial oily wastewater/groundwater

and other oil/water pollution. It is a common water treatment method. Oil water

separators can efficiently aid in the removal of gasoline, diesel fuel, crude,

vegetable and almost any type of oil that is heavier than water. The effluent from
oil / water separators is typically discharged to either a sanitary sewer system or

a storm sewer. Properly designed, installed, and operated, oily water separators

provide a treatment system for handling oily water that prevents the entry of

unacceptable levels of contamination to a storm sewer or sanitary sewer system.

1. Filtration

Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water. The

filters are made of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases, crushed

anthracite. Filtration collects the suspended impurities in water and enhances

the effectiveness of disinfection. The filters are routinely cleaned by

backwashing.

Filtration is the process of passing water through material to remove

particulate and other impurities, including floc, from the water being treated.

These impurities consist of suspended particles (fine silts and clays),

biological matter (bacteria, plankton, spores, cysts or other matter) and floc.

The material used in filters for public water supply is normally a bed of sand,

coal, or other granular substance. Filtration processes can generally be

classified as being either slow or rapid. Slow sand filters are the original form

of filtration. The first one was built in 1804 by John Gibb of Paisley, Scotland

to treat water for his bleachery, with the surplus treated water sold to the

public. Slow sand filters were first used in London in 1820 to treat water from

the River Thames. From about the 1930s water treatment by coagulation and

rapid gravity filtration or pressure filtration tended to replace slow sand

filtration in new plants and, in some cases, slow sand filters were replaced by
rapid gravity filters following introduction of a coagulation stage. The slow

sand filtration process has come back into favour in recent years due to its

superior ability, compared to rapid gravity filtration, to remove pathogenic

micro-organisms such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium.

The water treatment system is subdivided into parts and it includes

filtration using specific kind of filter. Filter is a device which a substance is

passed when it is being filtered and is designed to remove certain particles

contained in it (Collins English Dictionary).

1.1 Activated Carbon Filter

Activated carbon works via a process called adsorption, whereby

pollutant molecules in the fluid are to be treated are trapped inside the

pore structure of the carbon substrate. Carbon filtering is commonly used

for water purification, in air purifiers and industrial gas processing, for

example the removal of siloxanes and hydrogen sulphide from biogas. It is

also used in a number of other applications, including respirator masks,

the purification of sugarcane and in the recovery of precious metals,

especially gold.

Activated carbon filters are most effective at removing chlorine,

sediment, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), taste and odor from water.

They are however, not effective at removing minerals, salts, and dissolved

inorganic compounds.

Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon filters range

from 0.5 to 50 μm. Each particle/granule of carbon provides a large

surface area/ pore structure, allowing contaminants the maximum possible

exposure to the active sites within the filter media. One pound (454 g) of

activated carbon contains a surface area of approximately 100 acres (~40

hectares). (WaterProfessionals, 2017).

1.2 Pleated Filter

Pleated filters allow maximum filtration area for the space used.

Filter media is pleated for greater surface area and is synthetic cellulose-

free.

Pleated filter has a great capacity to capture and retain particles,

compared to thin, more rigid media types which have void space for

particle retention. Lower pressure drop is another significant advantage of

using pleated filter which allows for increased flow rates and the use of

smaller filter housings to reduce capital equipment costs. It provides depth

filtration for greater particle removal, along with more surface area.

These filters have a variety of end caps ranging from epoxy and

plastic to molded felt. Some of these filter elements are self-supporting

while others have metal cores comprised of springs or screens.

Depending upon the particular application, some of the screens are zinc

plated to protect them in corrosive materials or environment. These filters

increase the particle removal efficiency and reduce impurities and no

additives or binders which may cause foaming (STD Specialty Filters,

2017).

1.3 Ceramic Filter

 Ceramic filters have proven to be tremendously effective in

reducing the exposure of users to contaminated water, and the incidence

of diarrhea over an extended period of time and RDIC continues to invest

significant time and energy into developing its processes and would like to

share its knowledge and best practice approaches with organizations who

wish to have a similarly positive impact on communities in developing

countries. While the technology is simple, adherence and commitment to

best practice manufacture, training and education is essential to ensuring

the ceramic water filters provide the almost good quality of water.

This is a filter with fine pores wherein small particles of adulterants

and bacteria are trapped. It is generally superseded by membrane-type

filters. When in use, the ceramic filter removes microscopic particles from

the water. (Resource Development International, 2016).

1.4 Sediment Filter

Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid

flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the

bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. Sediments may appear in

water as color or cloudiness which may or may not settle on the bottom of

containers. This type of sediment is called suspended solids. Additionally,

some sediments develop from clear water only after it is exposed to air.

This type of sediment is called dissolved solids. Sediments can affect the

quality of the water in numbers of ways. Besides an unappealing look, the

 sediment in the water can cause plumbing, pumps, and even create clogs

throughout the water system to reduce the flow of the water.

Sedimentation is the deposition by settling of a suspended material.

In a water plant these particles may be rust flakes from the water pipes,

sand grains, and small pieces of organic matter, clay particles, or any

other small particles in the water supply.

A sediment filter acts as a sieve to remove these particles or

basically functions like a net that catches unwanted dirt particles as the

water flows the system. Sediment filters are often used in combination

with water treatment system method for removal of contaminants, turbidity

or particulate. They are also used as a pre-treatment for other process

such as activated carbon (AC) filtration and reverse osmosis (RO) to

primarily increase their effectiveness. It is generally a first stage process of

filtering the wastewater or groundwater efficiently (Lenntech, 2017).

2. Reverse Osmosis

In the reverse osmosis process cellophane-like membranes

separate purified water from contaminated water. RO is when a pressure

is applied to the concentrated side of the membrane forcing purified water

into the dilute side, the rejected impurities from the concentrated side

being washed away in the reject water. RO can also act as an ultra-filter

removing particles such as some micro-organisms that may be too large

to pass through the pores of the membrane. (Accepta, 2017)

 Reverse osmosis works by forcing water through a membrane. The

membrane's microscopic openings allow water to pass through but trap

larger particles and compounds. Sometimes the membrane possesses an

electrical charge. This aids in removing some chemicals from the water.

The advantages of RO systems can only be found in the

government and commercial sectors as they were designed to provide

desalination for naval ships and provide clean drinking water for the crew.

The printing industry also uses reverse osmosis to supply clean water to

its machines to help them perform at optimal levels.

One of the major disadvantages of RO systems for the home is that

they remove most of the minerals from the water leaving it with an acidic

pH. Also, during the purification process, up to 20 gal of water is flushed

down the drain for every gallon of filtered water produced.

Another disadvantage of reverse osmosis systems is they take too

long to filter water when they’re compared to a whole-house water filter

system. In fact, an RO system can take anywhere from 3 to 4 hours to

filter just one gallon of water, which means it would take all day to be able

to filter enough water for everyone in the home.

Reverse osmosis can also be very costly as some whole-home

units can cost thousands of dollars including installation. The high price

does speed up the water filtration process but at the same time the

amount of water wasted is significant. (Whole House Water Filter

Systems, 2012)
3. Coagulation

Coagulation water treatment is a technique that makes it easier to

remove waste from water. Chemicals called coagulants are added to

water to bind waste particles together, so they can be more readily

collected. In a traditional clarifier, the goal is to create masses of particles

large enough that they sink to the bottom of the tank. In an air flotation

tank, coagulants are used to create large particle clusters that air bubbles

can raise to the surface of the water, where the waste can be skimmed

away (Beckart Environmental, Inc.).

The purpose of coagulation water treatment process is to remove

the colloidal particles from water. The water may contain suspended

matter, small or large solid particles. Sedimentation and filtration

processes can remove most of the solid particles but the small particles

that are remains in colloidal suspension cannot be removed. If they clump

together and form larger particles, then it would be possible to remove

them easily. But a negative charge prevents them to coagulate; as like two

same magnetic poles repulse each other. They are very stable in colloidal

system. If we are able to neutralize these charges, then they would be

consolidated into coarse formations. For this purpose, we add a chemical

that produces positive charges. This chemical is known as coagulant. The

positive charges of the coagulant neutralize the negative charges on the

colloidal particles (Hard and Soft Water, 2017).

4. Adsorption
 Adsorption processes have played a central role in water treatment

for many years but their importance is on the rise with the continuous

discoveries of new micropollutants in the water cycle (pharmaceuticals for

example). In addition to the classical application in drinking water

treatment, other application fields are attracting increasing interest, such

as wastewater treatment, groundwater remediation, treatment of landfill

leachate, and so on.

Adsorption is the deposition of molecular species onto the surface.

The molecular species that gets adsorbed on the surface is known as

adsorbent and the surface on which adsorption occurs is known as

adsorbate. There are common examples of adsorbent such as clay, silica

gel, colloids and metals. Adsorption is also a surface phenomenon.

Desorption is the process of removal of adsorbent from the surface of

adsorbate.

One of the mechanisms of adsorption is the enthalpy of adsorption.

It is the amount of heat evolved when one mole of the adsorbate is

adsorbed on adsorbent. Adsorption is an exothermic process and enthalpy

change is always negative. When adsorbate molecules are adsorbed on

the surface, freedom of movement of molecules become restricted and

this results in decrease in entropy.

VI. Groundwater

Groundwater is water that flows or seeps downward and saturates soil or rock,

supplying springs and wells. Groundwater often begins as precipitation and soaks
into the ground where it is stored underground in rock crevices and in the pores of

geologic materials (these are aquifers), the same way as water fills a sponge. The

upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table.

Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is

generally slower than it would move in a stream because it must pass through

the intricate passageways between free spaces in the rock. First groundwater

moves downward due to the pull of gravity. But it can also move upwards

because it will flow from higher-pressure areas to lower pressure areas.

The rate of groundwater flow is controlled by two properties of the rock:

porosity and permeability. Porosity is the percentage of the volume of the rock

that is open space (pore space). This determines the amount of water that a rock

can contain. In sediments or sedimentary rocks, the porosity depends on grain

size, grain shapes, the degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation.

Permeability is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are

interconnected, and the size of the interconnections. Low porosity usually results

in low permeability, but high porosity does not necessarily imply high

permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with little or no

interconnections between pores. A good example of a rock with high porosity and

low permeability is a vesicular volcanic rock, where the bubbles that once

contained gas give the rock a high porosity, but since these holes are not

connected to one another the rock has low permeability

1. Properties of Groundwater

1.1 Turbidity
 Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large

numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked

eye, similar to smoke in air. Turbidity is caused by suspended

materials which absorb and scatter light. These colloidal and finely

dispersed turbidity-causing materials do not settle under quiescent

conditions and are difficult to remove by sedimentation. Turbidity is a

key parameter in water supply engineering, because turbidity will both

cause water to be aesthetically unpleasant and cause problems in

water treatment processes, such as filtration and disinfection. Turbidity

is also often used as indicative evidence of the possibility of bacteria

being present.

1.2 Color

Color is not a toxic characteristic, but is listed by the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) as a secondary (aesthetic) parameter

affecting the appearance and palatability of the water. When

chlorinated, color-causing organic matter may form chlorinated organic

compounds such as trihalomethanes. Chloroform is a common

trihalomethane, and is along with several others, considered to be a

potential carcinogen. Color is measured in units based on a platinum-

cobalt standard solution which forms a yellow tint and is limited to 15

units in public water supplies.

1.3 Oil and grease content

The oil and grease contents certain industrial wastes and the

sludge, is of an important consideration in the handling and treatment

of these materials for ultimate disposal. Knowledge of the quality of the

oil and grease present is helpful in proper design and operation of

groundwater treatment system. 

1.4 Total suspended solids

It is the solid materials in groundwater that consist of organic and

inorganic materials and organisms.

1.5 Total dissolved solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) are a measure of the combined

content of all inorganic and organic substances contained in a liquid in

molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal sol) suspended form.

The principal application of TDS is in the study of water

quality for streams, rivers and lakes, although TDS is not generally

considered a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated

with health effects) it is used as an indication of aesthetic

characteristics of drinking water and as an aggregate indicator of the

presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants.

1.6 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemical Oxygen Demand is an important water parameter

because it provides an index to assess the effect discharged

groundwater on the receiving environment.

 1.7 pH value

pH is an indicator of the acidity or basicity of water but is seldom a

problem by itself. The normal pH range for irrigation water is from 6.5

to 8.4; pH values outside this range are a good warning that the water

is abnormal in quality. Normally, pH is a routine measurement in

irrigation water quality assessment.

2. Parameters for Safe Groundwater

The following tables show the parameters for safe to consume

groundwater based on Department of Environment and Natural Resources

(DENR) and Philippine National Standards for Safe Water (PNSDW).

Table 3. UFC Average composite influents properties

Parameter Average
Oil and Grease (mg/l)- 200 – 10,000
Total Suspended Solids (mg/l) 50 – 5,000
pH (range) 6–8
COD (mg/l) 5,000 – 80,000
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 2,000 – 1,000
Source: Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) Design for Industrial and Oily Water Control (2004)

Table 3 illustrates the average amount of organic constituents of an

influents according to the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) Design for Industrial

and Oily Water Control.

Table 4. DENR Standard Discharge Limit for Safe Water

Parameter Unit Protected Inland Waters
Waters
Category
Color PCU 100 150
Temperature (max. rise) °C 3 3
pH (range) 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0
COD mg/l 60 100
Total Suspended Solids mg/l] 50 70
 Total Dissolved Solids mg/l 1,000 -
Oil/Grease mg/l 5.0 5.0
Source: DENR Administrative Order No. 35 Series of 1990

Table 4 shows the Department of Environment and Natural Resources

(DENR) standard limitations of properties for safe water.

Table 5. Philippine National Standards for Safe Water

PNSDW Standard
Parameter Unit
(Maximum Level)
Turbidity 5 NTU
Color 10 PCU
pH at 25°C 6.5 to 8.5 -
Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L
Total Suspended Solids 25 mg/L
Source: DOH AO 2017-0010

Table 5 shows the Philippine National Standards for Safe Water (PNSDW)

maximum level of data’s given in the table.

3. Sources of Groundwater

3.1 Springs

A spring is an area on the surface of the Earth where the water

table intersects the surface and water flows out of the ground. Springs

occur when an impermeable rock (called an aquiclude) intersects a

permeable rock that contains groundwater (an aquifer). The occurrence of

springs is closely related to the geology of an area. If an impervious layer

of rock, such as a clay deposit, underlies a layer of saturated soil or rock,

then a line of springs will tend to appear on a slope where the clay layer

outcrops. Igneous rocks are also impervious to water, yet they are often

extensively fractured, and springs commonly appear where these

fractures come to the surface. Fractures in limestone are often enlarged

by the dissolving action of groundwater, forming small underground

channels and caves.

3.2 Wells

A well is human-made hole that is dug or drilled deep enough to

intersect the water table. If the well is dug beneath the water table, water

will fill the open space to the level of the water table, and can be drawn out

by a bucket or by pumping. An artesian well is a deep drilled well through

which water is forced upward under pressure. The geologic conditions

necessary for an artesian well are an inclined aquifer sandwiched between

impervious rock layers above and below that trap water in it. Water enters

the exposed edge of the aquifer at a high elevation and percolates

downward through interconnected pore spaces. The water held in these

spaces is under pressure because of the weight of water in the portion of

the aquifer above it. If a well is drilled from the land surface through the

overlying impervious layer into the aquifer, this pressure will cause the

water to rise in the well. In areas where the slope of the aquifer is great

enough, pressure will drive the water above ground level in a spectacular,

permanent fountain.

3.2.1 Dug Wells

Historically, dug wells were excavated by hand shovel to below the

water table until incoming water exceeded the digger’s bailing rate.

The well was lined with stones, bricks, tile, or other material to prevent
collapse, and was covered with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete tile.

Because of the type of construction, bored wells can go deeper

beneath the water table than can hand-dug wells. Dug and bored

wells have a large diameter and expose a large area to the aquifer.

These wells are able to obtain water from less-permeable materials

such as very fine sand, silt, or clay. Disadvantages of this type of well

are that they are shallow and lack continuous casing and grouting,

making them subject to contamination from nearby surface sources,

and they go dry during periods of drought if the water table drops

below the well bottom.

3.2.2 Driven Wells

Driven wells are constructed by driving a small-diameter pipe into

shallow water-bearing sand or gravel. Usually a screened well point is

attached to the bottom of the casing before driving. These wells are

relatively simple and economical to construct, but they can tap only

shallow water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface

sources because they are not sealed with grouting material. Hand-

driven wells usually are only around 30 feet deep; machine-driven

wells can be 50 feet deep or more.

3.2.3 Drilled Wells

Drilled wells are constructed by either cable tool (percussion) or

rotary-drilling machines. Drilled wells that penetrate unconsolidated

material require installation of casing and a screen to prevent inflow of

 sediment and collapse. They can be drilled more than 1,000 feet

deep. The space around the casing must be sealed with grouting

material of either neat cement or bentonite clay to prevent

contamination by water draining from the surface downward around

the outside of the casing.

Research Literature

In the study of J. Gunday et al. (2017) entitled “Design and Development

of Wastewater System using Activated Carbon from Taro leaves and Rice Husk”,

they have concluded that set up with two (2) activated carbon filters, one (1) UF

filter and one (1) pleated filter at 35 psi attained the best treatment result. In their

study, the researchers recommended to test another raw material as activated

carbon to see other possibilities of the study. Also, the wastewater they used in

the experiment came from a petroterminal industry. In this on-going research, the

water to be used for testing will be collected from different source and nature

such as barangay wells and rivers.

In the study of J. M. Silvestre et al. (2017), they have concluded that there

are potentials of pineapple (Ananas comosus) waste biomass especially as

activated carbon by its proven physical and chemical properties. For physical

analysis, the calculated bulk density of the activated carbon from pineapple was

near to the range of the commercial activated carbon which ranges about 20

lb/ft3 or 0.32 g/cm3 (Ekpete and Horsfall, 2011) and as the concentration of the

digested activating agent increases the dry bulk density of the carbon also

increase. In addition, moisture content of the activated carbon from pineapple

agrowaste biomass (3M) shows that it is nearly in the range of commercial

activated carbon which is also below 5% (ASTM D2867). Thus, the concentration

of the activating agent directly affects the per cent moisture of the activated

carbon because, as the concentration increase the per cent moisture also

increases.

In the study entitled “Activation Treatment of a Wastewater: An

Experimental Approach to the Utilization of the Activated Carbon for Oil and

Water Separation” conducted by J. Abuzman et al. (2013), contamination from oil

and grease has been recognized as one of the most concerned pollution

sources. This study conducted an experimental test prior to the study of the

activated carbon to adsorb oil and grease from the wastewater. Factors to

achieve the objectives of the study include the raw material used, the properties

and adsorption mechanism of activated carbon, the factors affecting adsorption

and the physical and chemical properties of the wastewater. These factors were

evaluated later on based on the separation efficiency and separation rate.

In the study of D. M. de Guzman, R. C. Ilagan and M. B. Alulod (2018)

entitled “Design and Development of Coconut Shell Carbonizer through Pyrolysis

used as Activated Carbon for Water Filter Unit of Sitio Pook, Pinamucan East,

Batangas City”, they utilized the process of pyrolysis to produce activated

carbon. The result of the laboratory tests of the activated carbon were 2.97% for

the moisture content, ash content of 1.89%, pH value of 7.56 and bulk density of

576 g/L. On the other hand, the result of the laboratory tests of the filtered water

from the filter unit using produced activated carbon were 1.04 NTU for turbidity,
less than 10 PCU for color, 7.57 pH value, 363 mg/L for total dissolved solids and

less than 1 mg/L for the total suspended solids. Lastly, the adsorbing efficiency of

the produced activated carbon was 94.44%.

In the study of Anales et. al (2014), the developed an activated carbon

producing machine using physical activation from sugarcane bagasse. They

utilized the process of pyrolysis to produce activated carbon from sugarcane

bagasse. The machine’s main parts are hopper, heater, heating chamber, water

tank and agitator. The activated carbon output contains 2.83% of moisture,

2.73% of ash and 6.67 pH level. These results were almost the same compared

to the commercially available activated carbon.

Synthesis

The researchers will gather information about the concepts, theories and

principles that will be used as a basis and foundation of the study.

In the study of J. Gunday et al. (2017) entitled “Design and Development

of Wastewater System using Activated Carbon from Taro leaves and Rice Husk”,

they used activated carbon from different ratios of taro leaves and rice husk.

During the preliminary tests, different set ups resulted to different level of iodine

numbers which is one factor of adsorption efficiency. The wastewater system

they fabricated includes activated carbon filters and other additional filters. The

said study had the same main goal as this on-going research – to design and

develop a treatment system using activated carbon. Also, same properties of

water will be tested on this study. The only difference is that they focused on

treating wastewater while this on-going study will be on groundwater. Also, the
raw materials to be used will be pineapple peels and it will only be a sole

variable. In the study of Gunday et al., the combination of taro leaves and rice

husk was tested and their final result was due to the combined effectivity of two

variables.

In the study of J. M. Silvestre et al. (2017), they used the process of

carbonization and acid concentration to produce activated carbon from pineapple

waste. The researchers concluded that the pineapple biomass waste is indeed

capable of producing active carbon considering physical and chemical factors.

The study of Silvestre et al. has the same goal of producing activated carbon

from pineapple peels. The study also proved that pineapple has high carbon

content and is good to produce active carbon. However, this study primarily

focused on carbonization while in this on-going research, carbonization is just

one process needed to achieve the main objective of the study.

In the study entitled “Activation Treatment of a Wastewater: An

Experimental Approach to the Utilization of the Activated Carbon for Oil and

Water Separation” conducted by J. Abuzman et al. (2013), they also used

adsorption process to separate oil and grease content from the wastewater. In

this study, oil and grease content in groundwater is also aimed to be separated

using activated carbon from pineapple peels. Other properties such as pH level,

total dissolved solids, total suspended solids and chemical oxygen demand will

also be treated as per this research’s methodology. In the study of J. Abuzman et

al., they used coconut shell as the main variable and the only water property they

tested was oil and grease content.

 In the study of D. M. de Guzman et al. (2018), they used the process of

pyrolysis to produce an activated carbon from coconut shells. They also

designed and developed a machine that satisfies their research’s objective. Their

output, activated carbon, was used for water filter unit of Sitio Pook, Pinamucan

East, Batangas City. In this study, process of pyrolysis will also be used to

produce activated carbon from pineapple peels. The difference of the two studies

is that the first one will produce a carbonizer alone while the latter, this on-going

thesis, will produce groundwater treatment system as a whole.

In the study of Anales et al. (2014), pyrolysis was used to make the

sugarcane bagasse to produce char and used the physical activation to activate

the char and turn it into activated carbon. They designed the machine with a

temperature of 300°C and 400°C. The temperature setting of this study will be

used in the study as well as the process of pyrolysis and physical activation. The

components of the machine in this study were also adopted such as the heating

chamber, agitator, cooling fan and water injector. As for the agitator, it is spiraled

design. Activated carbon from pineapple peels will also be converted through the

process of carbonization and activation. However, this study will only focus on

converting biomass residual into activated carbon while the latter will focus on

the efficiency of activated carbon in water filtration.

The studies cited serves as the guiding principles in developing the

proposed project and to support the idea on how the design project would be

constructed. Also, similarities and differences of the mentioned studies from

“Design and Development of Groundwater Treatment System using Activated

Carbon from Pineapple Peels for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City”

was briefly discussed. The mentioned related research and experiments are not

used to duplicate designs being applied. These will serve as basis for awareness

and familiarity for the related topics that will also be used by the researchers. The

results and findings they have concluded will all be utilized for the development

of this on-going research study.