HISTORY

FORM ONE
NOTES

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 SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY

Meaning and Importance of History

Background of the topic

History is an academic subject taught as part of a primary and secondary education. This chapter
tackles the significance of history as a discipline in both primary and secondary levels. It gives
the basics of history and lays a solidfoundation of this subject. It traces the different definitions
of history, the importance of studying history as a subject as well as the different ways by which
information that constitutes history is obtained.

The Meaning of History

Explain the meaning of History

Definitions of history

Various definitions have been put forward to define history as a discipline some of them are:

 History is a record of events pertaining to human activities, his social, economic and
political development from the past the present and the future.

 History refers to the study of past events, present situation and prediction of the future or
it is the study of changes in the process of material production.

 History is defined as knowledge that entails chronologically presented narrations about

human activities pertaining to social, economic, technological and political aspects from the past
to the future.

In general history can also refer to an academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and
analyse the sequences of past events and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect
that determine them. It‟s the record of human activities which enable man to survival and attain
essential needs from the environment.

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The basic needs of humankind include food shelter and clothing. Due to social, political, cultural,
economic and technological transformations humankind's activities have to change from time to
time.

Actions taken against nature aim to change natural objects into conditions that can satisfy human
needs; these activities against nature are what we call material production. Material production
includes can be observed in sharpening of sticks to make a spear, digging trenches to trap wild
animals and many more.

The Importance of Studying History

Explain the importance of studying History

Studying history is important because it allows us to:

Understand how African societies were formed, how they developed and the factors that
influenced this development. It also allows us to develop an understanding of the events,
conditions and factors that shaped the past and those which have shaped the present conditions of
the world in order to predict the future.

Historical knowledge makes the present comprehensive which is why journalists and writers of
sensational stories spend some time explaining the history of a particular incident; it is only
when one knows the past of a person or an incident that the present can became meaningful.

Develop an understanding and appreciation of the cultural, political, economic and technological
advancements made by African societies before and after colonial rulership.

Developthebasic skills of critical thinking, reasoning, judgment, empathy and effective

participation in human developmental activities. Studying history also helps us to understand and
appreciate the efforts made and strategies used by African people to regain their independence
and resist neo-colonialism

Develop, understand and appreciation the need for African unity, cooperation and
interdependence, conflict resolution and effective participation in social, economic and political
development of Africa. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between

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African‟s development problems and foreign intrusion, colonial domination, cultural subjugation
and economic exploitation at various stages in history.

Acquire knowledge for its own sake as you enjoy a novel with fiction, a film with an interesting
plot. It is not clear why people are interested in these ventures and in the same way people do
enjoy to know the history of particular topics.

Develop our patriotism, history students know their heroes and heroines and traitors. This make
history a sensitive subject in places where political leaders are not sure of their legitimacy.

Enlightens people about the advantages of certain economic practices for example, the way the
development in the world today is measured by the industrial revolution that took place in
Europe in 1750

Understand the level of development at different stages of human development. Without history
it is very difficult to determine or to tell what humans were doing in the past. Therefore, it is
through history that one can extensively understand the level of development that humans have
reached at in a given period in time.

Helps us learn about technological transformations, for example primitive livelihood to advanced
livelihood (using of stones and wood tools to iron tools)

Understand how humans adapted to their environment and how the struggled to earn a living
from the environment. This therefore looks at the long struggle of man by exercises of his reason
to understand the environment and to act up on it.

Understand the relationship that existed between humans, and between humans and the
environment.

Acquire skills in historical issues and becoming professionals in history, some people such as
archaeologists and historians study history for career purposes.

Sources of History
Sources of History

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Identify sources of History
Sources of history refers to the avenues that can be used to get historical information. It requires
an inter-disciplinary approach in order to get the actual historical information. Replying on a
single source of history evidence will not satisfy your curiosity as one source links you to the
other. It is therefore crystal clear that no single source of history can stand on its own.

Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical

knowledge:

1. Oral traditions

2. Historical sites

3. Written records

4. Archives

5. Museums

6. Archaeology

7. Linguistic studies

8. Anthropology

9. Ethnographic sources
The Functions, Advantages and Limitations of the following Sources of
History; Oral Traditions, Historical Sites, Written Records, Archives
Assess the functions, advantages and limitations of the following sources of history; oral
traditions, historical sites, written records, archives

Oral traditions

This refers to the history handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. It is
usually done by talking and listening usually to elders who are believed to be more
knowledgeable about past events. It is also the study of our past as revealed by what has been
handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. Its manner of transmission

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differs from written sources thus making it a historical source of a special nature. Oral traditions
are widely used in areas where people did not practice the art of writing.

Types of oral traditions

 Cultural practices e.g. art, music, religion riddles an jokes

 Proverbs, superstitions, poems and stories

 Narrations of past events (primary and secondary sources)

Advantages of oral traditions
Can easily be understood by everyone, oral traditions does not segregate; it can be understood by
everyone. It is therefore convenient for both the educated and the uneducated as it only requires
one to listen as long as it is in a language that everyone can understand.

It is accessible as in every area narrators are present,; here the historian is in better position to
assess the value and his reliability source because he is working with the living people. At any
time and place the historians or the person who is searching material can easily access the
information as the information are available

It is cheap or costs less.Generally, elderly people are are willing to provide information free of
charge, this makes the source cheap. One does not need to pay his/her grandfather/mother in
order for them to tell one a story. In many societies people used to sit beside a fire and the elders
will tell them about whathappened in the past and this was passed over from one generation to
the other.

Helps in the reconstruction of history, it does require several sources in order to tell a story, oral
traditions bridge the gap as it is provides evidence to written sources or primary source. Many
historical sources including the most ancient ones were based on oral traditions.

It is two way traffic form of communication. This means that when someone does not understand
questioning is possible, this therefore makes it a live and interactive source and interesting
source of historical information.

Avails us with unwritten or un documented history. Through oral tradition it is easy to reveal
information which is not documented or recorded. In African history the major source of

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information is passed through oral traditions simply because much of what was taking place was
not written down.

Bridges the gap left by other sources of history. As artifacts cannot talk it is oral tradition that
does the talking there by filling in the gaps that might have been left by other sources.

First handinformation. Many people who tell stories through different oral tradition are the
primary source or the people who were present at the scene of the matter. This therefore means
that the historian will be in a position of getting firsthand information from the respondent.

Disadvantages of oral tradition

Can easily be lost if someone who knows the data dies.In many societies it is the elderly who
have the information which is passed over from generation to generation, in case the elder dies it
means the information he/she had has disappeared with that person.

Language barrier.As oral tradition involves the passing down of history by use of the word of
mouth, the problem of a language barrier is a big hindrance. For example, a person who might
have valuable information might be using a language the historian does not understand this
therefore will limit the process of communication.

Cannot stand on its own. Poems, stories, jokes etc. do not tell history directly they simply
contain valuable information of how people produced and reproduced themselves leaving out the
important aspects of the historical touch. It therefore gives the historian a hard time to
supplement and analyse the given informationcritically.

Their reliability is rather problematic. It is impossible to judge how much is true history and
how much only folklore fiction, legends and myth. This can be evidenced in the stories that are
told to young children for example stories of the hare, the lion and many others. Therefore, it is
difficult to distinguish what is the fact and what is imaginary.

Conscientiousness of that person. Is he/she transmitting them the way he heard them or he
corrected them for some purpose or other. It is very difficult to understand if someone is telling
you the event as he was told or is he adding in other information.

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Variation in language. In some instances different languages might have similar words but with
differing meanings. This will therefore result confusion on the side of the historian or researcher
as some of the information might be lost.

Most of narrations are centered on people of status in society. Kings, chiefs, queens are often
talked about in such stories, there is often little consideration about the masses.

Its preservation in many societies mainly depends on the power of the memories of successive
generations of human beings. All oral traditions are influenced by the culture of the society that
produce them, this means that the traditions that exist in a given society chiefly depend on the
political organisation of a given society.

Other disadvantages include:

 Can also pass over immoral cultural acts.

 Translation might be difficult because some languages have become extinct.

 It requires too much patience, attention and the power of the memory.

 Usually is limited to a given locality and to recent information.

 Easily awakens hatred amongst different societies.

 Full of biases.

 It can be time consuming if the narrators are in accessible.

Historical sites

These do contain remains which show humanity's physical development, activities and the tools
they made and used. The major function of historical sites is to make historical facts more
practical.

There are two types of historical sites namely;

 Areas with physical remains of man and his artifacts.

 Ancient towns with both ruins of old buildings and old buildings which still exist.

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Examples of historical sites with physical remains of man and his artifacts include the
following:

 Olduvai Gorge, Isimila, Engaruka and Kondoa Irangi in Tanzania.

 Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntusi and Magogi in Uganda.

 Olorgesailie Gilgil and Lake Turkana in Kenya.

 Koobi for a in Ethiopia.

 Ingombe-Ilede in Zambia.

 Ishango in the D.R.C.

On the other hand examples of ancient towns in Africa with ruins of old buildings and existing
old buildings include:

 Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne and Audaghost in West Africa.

 Bagamoyo, Zanzibar and Kilwa in Tanzania.

 Lamu and Mombasa in Kenya.

THrough the study of historical sites we can reveal the works of art by previous generations for
example rock paintings etc. As time elapses more historical sites are being discovered due to
extensive research being carried out. The remains that are discovered in the historical sites are
worked on by archaeologists.

The major function of historical sites is to represent actual materials of man‟s existence and
preserving the material remains of man for the coming generation, plus acting as symbol of
social heritage and referral point to the society that are concerned.

Advantages of historical sites

As a symbol of social cultural heritage of different societies. Here the society concerned will be
symbolized in the site.

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Historical sites do break the boredom that is evidenced in the theoretical nature of history as a
discipline. In this sense history is given a practical touch as people can see or observe what they
were studying practically for example past human tools, rock paintings and human remains.

Helps in the building or the reconstruction of history, as they bridge the gaps that might have
been left by other sources.

The sites also act as a source of revenue for both the government and private individuals. This is
achieved when they act as centre of tourism, and when the tourists visit.

The sites act as avenues for research for archaeologists and other scientists. People who carry
out research in regards to man‟s past will use historical sites as their libraries and laboratories,
for example Dr. Leakey and his wife.

Generally, discoveries from historical sites can be used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels
of technology, economic development and political organisation reached past societies in
different times and environments.

Disadvantages of historical sites

It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in the historical sites, for example, rock
paintings can bring about different interpretations between historians.

Historical sites cannot stand on their own to tell history. This means that historical sites do not
fully cater for all historical information required even for societies without documented history.

History found in the sites cannot be interpreted by everyone andrequires a qualified personnel to
interpret the information.

Historical sites are located in remote areas which are not accessible. This makes it time
consuming and expensive working on them. Places where the historical sites are located are
often also poorly developed.

The historical sites maydisappear, as they are often destroyed by natural hazards and changes in
the earth like weathering and denudation.

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Many of the sites are selected on the basis of probability, for example it is assumed that early
man lived in caves where there was water nearby and plenty of animals to hunt, fish or catch.
This therefore brings in the issue of try and fail that in turn becomes costly in terms of time and
resources.

Examples of historical sites in East Africa include:

 Nsongezi- western Uganda

 Magosi- eastern Uganda

 Biggobyamugenyi (Biggo)- central Uganda

 Lolui, Mubende in Uganda

 Rusinga Island- southern Uganda

 Olorgesailie- Kenya

 Lake Rudolf- Kenya

 Njoro in Kenya

 Bagamoyo- Tanzania coast

 Kilwa- Tanzania coast

 Isimila- central Tanzania

 Kondoa- central Tanzania

 Lake Eyasi southern Tanzania

 Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania etc.

Written records

This refers to the history which has been written down or documented. This is the most common
and modern source of history as it cuts across different boundaries. It is the principle source of
materials for historians in east Africa as they have been valuable for the past 200 years or
less.The written records are grouped into two the primary sources and secondary sources as for

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the historians it is better to first deal with the secondary source and then handle the primary
sources.

Written records include: Books, letters, magazines, newspapers, minutes of meetings, official
and private documents, official publications by the governments and parliaments of the colonial
powers, peace treaties and other agreements concluded by the great powers between one another
and African chiefs, legislative acts, edicts, dispatches of the colonial administration, documents
from African companies and individual merchants, letters etc.

It also include books written by contemporaries, produced by aliens, narrative of explores,

reminiscences of soldiers, missionaries or colonial officials, the impressionistic sung of the
journalists and the imaginative reconstruction of the novelists. The written records can easily be
accessed in the libraries, schools, colleges, archives and in some offices.

Functions of written records

Reconstruction of history, history can be reconstructed through a multidisciplinary approach. The
written records play an important role of constructing history as they do bridge the gaps that
might be left by other sources.

To collect and preserve written historical information, as this is the modern and most common
source of historical information it plays the function of preserving written records so that those
who come in the future will also be able to use this source of historical information.

Advantages of written records

Covers a wide section of ideas and different views. Different aspects concerning different views
can easily be accessed in one written material for example a text book can contain historical
information concerning different aspects and areas. Therefore, this simplifies the work of the
historian as he will concentrate on that one source and discover a variety of given information.
Therefore, it‟s true to say that written records cover a wide coverage as different aspects can be
commented up on.

It is easily accessible, as almost all areas have books, written materials are like a stone thrown
into a pull causing ripples that flow out right across its surface.This therefore means that in at
least any place there is at least a written source of something. In addition to that written records

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are easy to keep and to retrieve, the accessibility therefore simplifies the work of the historian as
she/he has the material at their disposal.

Usually well explained and well elaborated. Many written records for such as textbooks are well
researched, explained and elaborated by the authors. This therefore gives the person using the
source actual and vivid material. Usually contains well-researched and concrete data which gives
confidence to the researcher or historian

Bridges the gap left by other sources . The written records as a source of historical information
play an important role of bridging or filling in the gaps that have been left by other sources. As it
is well known that no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history the written
records do fill up the gap that other sources might have left. For example it gives evidences to
oral traditions.

Cannot easilydisappear.As in the case of oral traditions, if the narrator dies the historical
information is most likely to follow him on the deathbed, for written records this is not the case
as material that is written down is very difficult to fade away as it is documented and usually in
many copies.

It is very helpful when carrying outresearch. For researchpurposes the most helpful source can
be found in written records as it has guidelines, which help theresearcher in his/her research. As
the information in most cases is well researched and elaborative this gives the researcher ample
time in his research.

Easy to get valuable and rare information. It is mainly from written sources that valuable and
rare information can be obtained. Many written records are very important as they provide
evidence were needed.

Easy to make references. If written material is well organised; many of the written sources act as
reference material for the different needs and written records as a source of reference.

Disadvantages of written records

It is expensive. Written records require a lot of time and resources to prepare, this makes them
expensive to produce as compared to oral tradition. Also purchasing the written material is very
costly.

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Can easily be distorted or misunderstood. As written records are in most cases written in English
which recipients might easily misunderstand. Also there might be distortion in the sense that
writers might be biased when writing or they might have different approaches on to the same
issue.

Applicable to educated people only. Written records are limited to a few people in a society. As
the people who do not know how to read and write will not benefit from this source of history as
he/she will not understand what has been written. This therefore makes it limited to a given
section of people.

Based mainly on the writer's opinion. Many writers are biased in the sense that they write in their
favour of example Eurocentric and Afro centric ideas.

Historians cannot be expected to come to the same conclusion, thistherefore means that written
records are continuously rewritten and revised Unless the historian is able to sort out relevant
information many written records contain some information that might be irrelevant to the
historian there by wasting a lot of time in a given source. Generally, it is very difficult to
understand history unless you understand the historian himself first.

Archives

This refers to collections of private and public documents. This means the place where such
documents are kept or found. Archives are collections of public and private documents.

They includes books, and the written records of early missionaries, explores, traders and
colonialists kept in books or files. Examples of archives include: Arusha in Tanzania, Entebe
national archives in Uganda. They also contained current records of government, parties and
other organisations. The major function of archives is to collect and preserve historical
information

Advantages of archives
It is the best method of collecting and preserving historical information. Most written documents
which do contain historical information are preserved in the archives for future use.

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It archives a variety of information. It is very easy to get historical information of different
people and issues at a given time without wasting time and resources.

Getting firsthand information is possible, as the documents in archives are the extract materials
that were written by the people concerned. For example political parties documents, memories
etc.

It is very easy to get and identify the exact date of historical events, such as the travels of Vasco
Da Gama, African resistance, the scramble for and partition of Africa plus many other important
occurrences.

Understanding the ideas and the literacy level of the past is very easy. This can be done by
analysing the documents in archives and relating them with what we have at the present time and
also borrowing ideas from them. For example a current government can use a document of a
former government to recognise itself.

Disadvantages of archives
Preserving documents is very expensive. This therefore makes the source more expensive as
compared to other sources. Keeping the documents in archives requires much attention and care.

This method is also discriminative, as it is only the literate (educated) that can utilise the
information as it is usually written in a language that someone who is not educated might not
understand.

Societies whose information was not documented will not be represented. Societies with no
recorded past will not be represented.

Retrieving information from the archives is not easy, as it requires a lot of time and perseverance.
This therefore makes it hectic on the side of the impatient historian.

Archives are not evenly distributed when compared to other methods like oral tradition. For
example, in Tanzania one has to travel to either Dar es Salaam or Arusha in order to find an
archive.

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Generally, in the case of societies without history that is written down the archives is less
meaningless as there is not any trace of their history in that place. This therefore means that such
a community will have it history missing in action.

Museums

Museums are special places created for preserving historical information. These are places where
information about people and past events are stored.

Specialists in a museum who help explain objects to the people are called Museum Curators.
They date and arrange the remains and artifacts which demonstrate in the easiest way possible
the technological, cultural, economical and social development of the people.

Museums are created to preserve historical information and also act as tourist centers. Museums
contain a collection of all sorts of items which show cultural, social, political, technological and
economical developments from the past to the present.

There national, regional, district and local museums of East Africa. Examples of museum in
Tanzania are Kalenga in Iringa, Bujora in Mwanza and Halwego and Handebezyo in Ukerwe. In
Kenya the Hyrax Hill museum site in Nakuru district, Kawanda in Uganda and many others.

Advantages of museums
They preserve the historical information and material, Itis in the museum that many of historical
remains are preserved for future use and referral.

They contain a variety of historical items. It is only in the museum that one can be find a variety
of historical remains ranging from artifacts to written records and oral tradition. Therefore a
museum is relatively important to historical study.

Museums provide objects that give history a practical touch, as they working as teaching aids.
Students of history have the opportunity to put into practice what they study as they see the
objects in museums.

It is possible to learn about the development of technology of early man from museums.The
curators play an important role in explaining artifacts to the people and how they were used.

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Museums arouse creativity and craftsmanship on the side of the learner. This comes about as the
learner sees more and more remains and became more eager to discover more.

Note other advantages may include:

 Attracts tourists.

 Generating income for the people working in the museums and the government.

 Source of foreign exchange.

 Provision of employment for example the museum curators.

 Easy to identify the social, political and economic developments of a given society from
the museum.

 Many of the museum act as the major source of information for those carrying out
research for educational purposes.

Disadvantages of museums
They are very expensive to maintain and build. Starting up and maintaining A museum requires a
lot of funds. Obtaining and maintaining artifacts is also relatively expensive.

Require skilled manpower to operate. Museum curators should have historical bearings and
know about the artifacts in the museum.

Distortion of historical information, in the museum is possible when the curator is biased. The
curator will therefore distort the historical information, as he is subjective in the way he
interprets the historical facts.

Attitude of the people affects the museum so much that some museums have been forced to be
closed. People are not visiting museums due to unknown reasons, a case in point the Hyrax site
museum in Kenya says that it receives only 10-20 customers on a busy weekend which is very
small number compared to the inputs in the museum.

Poor preservation of artifacts, for example the pieces of cloth, chains if not well handled can
distort the information and the relevance of the historical facts. Due to poor preservation many

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museums have lost their historical artifacts to the fires other unforeseen circumstances costing
them dearly.

Archaeology

This refers to the science that deals with the study of past materials historical remain of man. Or
it is a study of artifacts that have been dug from the earth. Artifacts are the remains of the
material culture made by the people of the past. People who study archaeology are
called archaeologists.

Archaeologists like Dr. Leaky have concentrated on the period of early man; others like Dr.
Posnansnky have worked on sites relating to the Chwezi Empire, Chittick and Kirk man have
excavated coastal sites of the 12th -16th centuries. How they carry out their excavations is a long
story.

Excavation is a long and laborious process as each piece of the material found has to be
examined carefully and recorded so that the archaeologists can give a complete reconstruction. A
historian studies the artifacts with the hope of reconstructing patterns of settlement, level of
technology and skills acquired by the inhabitants of the site after excavating them.
Archaeologists removes layer after layer carefully recording all what they find and in try to
explain the relationship between the different objects.

The major function of archaeology is that it reveals important information about man through the
different stages of his transformation. Not only that but also plays the function of arousing
curiosity of searching past historical information on the side of historian.

Advantages of archaeology
It provides evidence or authenticity on to historical facts, as the remains are examined
thoroughly by the concerned there by supplementing the other sources which might be lacking
evidence.

Knowledge of artifacts is exposed after excavation. For example pottery, building, rooting plus
telling us a great deal about the life and culture of the people long ago through uncovering the
buried objects.

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Archaeology simplifies the past as it helps us to know the past relationships between different
people such as in trading activities immigration, emigration, birth and death plus political
relations.

It is probably the only source that can help us in knowing when and how people lived in a
certain place and at what time. This is attained through the use of carbon dating which is a
scientific method of finding out the age of dating objects and artifacts .

Archaeology helps us to reveal the technology, pastoral agriculture and commercial activities of
the past societies. This is achieved through cross examining the remains excavated by the
archaeologists.

Archaeology is relatively important in supplementing facts that are given by other sources of
history. As no source can stand on its own to tell history, therefore it can be reconstructed by the
use of archaeology.

Disadvantages of archaeology
Archaeology demands much patience.Many artifacts are fragile and delicate which calls a lot of
care in the handling of for example fossils.

It involves many processes to obtain data out of remains,. For example in excavations require
radioactive elements and many other procedures which make the process very expensive.

Archaeology consumes a lot of time.The archaeologists or researchers take a lot of time during
the preparation for excavation, testing the artifacts and in the interpretation of the data.

The remains that are excavated cannot tell the full details of a given historical phenomenon. It is
therefore clear that one cannot fully depend on archaeology as the complete source of history.

Generally, the first discovery of an archaeological find or of an archaeological site is commonly

found by an ordinary person who does not have the techniques of excavating the remains.

During the excavation process remains of less historical importance for example a richly
furnished royal tomb, works of art of great beauty are not seen as important. Excavation is not a
treasure hunt, what they are seeking for is knowledge, information and data which will enable
them fill up the picture of the past more accurately.

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Linguistic studies

This means the study of language. It refers to study and analysis of languages, their sounds,
structure and formation. There is a relationship between the different and various language
groups. It is believed that people who speak the same language have been in close contact in the
past. Linguistics can suggest approximately when and how the language spoke in East Africa
came into existence.

Languages are never static but constantly changing and adapting some survive while others die.
For proper classification and grouping the people of East Africa the work done by the linguistics
is a principal way. Many linguists insists that the original language of mankind consisted of a
few short words, possibly not over 200, since many now use only about 300.

Advantages of linguistic study

Linguistic studies are a lubricant of oral tradition, as it is through oral tradition that given
information is acquired from the different sources. This therefore shows the interconnectedness
between different sources of history.

Through the linguistics it is possible to tell the possible origin of our languages and how the
languages have been distorted. As languages that we do use need to be understood in order to
understand who we are and where we are going.

Bridging the gaps left by other sources. Linguistic studies assist in bridging the gaps that are left
by other sources. Basing on the fact that the reconstruction of history requires an
interdisciplinary approach therefore linguistic studies are relatively important like other sources.

Assists in the development of language. It assists in the discovery of different links between the
people of a given communities. Through the use of languages it‟s possible to say that at one time
the people in the world lived together due to the similarity of some words in the different
languages.

Language barrier is the major factor that is limiting linguistics. It is clear that not everyone
understands all the different languages. It is therefore possible that useful historical information
might not be understood due to the language problem.

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It might result to the omission of some important information, thereby creating a gap in historical
information. In the process of translating given historical information from one language to
another

It is expensive in terms of time and money, because is not easy to learn a given language this
therefore means that one has to take a given period of time and resources in terms of finance to
learn a given language.

It can easily be diluted by external influences. Different languages have been influenced by
external forces which causes those languages to change drastically from their original forms and
this therefore disturbs the historian in his effort to reconstruct history. For example many Swahili
words have been mixed with other languages.

Anthropology

This is concerned with the study of existing social institutions and their relationships. The
scientific study of the origin, behavior, physical, social and cultural development of humans. The
study is concerned with present day societies but much of it can be used in interpreting the past
especially where we have a good reason to believe on that societies in certain areas have not
altered so much in recent times.

It is no coincidence that anthropology has its roots in the Renaissance; it is a discipline that is
firmly grounded in the modern era, no longer drawing on metaphysics but instead looking to the
here and now of human existence. Combining philosophical ambitions with physiological and
psychological questions, thus from its beginning, anthropology looked at issues which are today
considered medical, psychological and philosophical as well as anthropological in the modern
sense.

An anthropologist is a person who studies the above aspects of society; he has to live among
those people and learn their culture thereby enabling him to understand the aspects of life of a
certain society and to determine the truth about that society.

Advantages of anthropology

21
Helps the historian to find traces of the past in the present social structures of the
society. Therefore using the current reliable information helps us to understand how the past was.

Helps the historian to reconstruct the past elements of all cultures. The historian studies the
information and research techniques used by the anthropologist to arrive at a certain conclusion.

Generally, anthropology enables a comparison of social institutions of various societies which

helps the historian in tracing the original homeland of social features.

Disadvantages of anthropology
A comparison of the social institutions of various societies over a wide area might indicate the
influence of one culture upon another and the time when these cultures developed and spread
which may create misunderstanding and hatred between the different societies

The works of anthropology are very limited to time and environment. Inthe present people may
be living in a condition far different from what their ancestors lived; in the long run the
anthropologist will not get the necessary information required in his study.

The knowledge of the anthropologist in this case is very important as one can easily exaggerate
or underestimate or interpret basing on his knowledge a thing that will affect the whole process
of trying to reconstruct history. This therefore means that objectivity of history does not mean
objectivity of facts but interpretation.

This method is too tiresome. The anthropologist has to live among the people and learn their
culture which enables him to understand all the different aspects of life of a given society and to
determine whether it is authentic and worth studying.

Ethnographic sources

This is another source of history which is not commonly used and usually neglected by many
scholars however, it is relatively important as other sources. Ethnographic evidence does involve
two aspects the material and immaterial.

22
The material things in nature are the artifacts while the immaterial include culture, custom and
beliefs or cultural evidence which is written down. Under this the historian is mostly interested in
cultural documents because of the unique characteristics as they are timeless

NOTE:As already elaborated no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history
but rather it requires interdisciplinary approach for successful history reconstruction. This
means that no source is better than the other on the side of the historian carrying out his/her
research in any field of study but rather each supplement the other.

Dating in history

Refers to the assigning of dates or time on given historical events or facts, to record history
properly a good knowledge of dating or calendar is needed. Historians divide time into seconds,
minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, age, periods, centuries, millennia and
generation.

A decade is a period of ten years. A century is a period of hundred years. Millennium is a period
of thousand years. A generation is the average of time between one groups of period in a family
to another group of family. Period is determined by one continuous event, which is in year.

Age refers to a period based on man‟s activities and the types of tools that are being used. In
history there are different ages namely:

 Stone age

 Iron age

 Industrial age

 Nuclear age

 Copper age

 Bronze age

Ways of determining dates

There are two sets of ways to determine dates.

23
  Local methods

 Scientific methods

Local methods are simple methods whereby dates are fixed through;

 recalling facts relating events

 tracing family chronologies

 tracing the origin of languages

Scientific methods involve experiment in laboratories whereby material remains are studied
through such processes as;

 Radio Active Dating (Radio metric)

 Radio Carbon Dating (Radio Carbon 14)

Dividing time is in starting of 0, which is the year when Jesus Christ was born .A.D. (Anno
Domino) is the years after the birth of Jesus Christ and they are known as years of the Lord. B.C.
are years before the birth of Jesus Christ. (Before Chris)

1 day 24 hours

1 week 7 days

1 year 12 month

1 month 4 weeks

1 year 365 days

1 decade 10 years

1 century 100 years or 10 decades

24
1
millennium 1000 years or 10 centuries

A group of people born in the same period, or it refers to the average differences in age between a child
A generation and his/her parents.

Muslims start their calendar at Hijra A.H (Al Hijra or after Hijra) this is when Prophet
Muhammad S.A.W fled from Mecca to Medina in order to spread Islam in the year 622 A.D.He
was born in the year 570 A.D. and died in the year 632 A.D.

Historians use chronological order of events, periods and ages such as family tree, time lines,
time charts and time graphs to tell time.

TABLE SHOWING TIME PERIODS AND THEIR DURATION

Methods of dating in history

Carbon 14
This is the scientific method of determining dates in history and it is the most common and
modern method of determining dates in history. The archaeologists commonly use this method
after discovering remains.

Radiocarbon dating
During the life time all living animals and vegetable matter absorbs a minute amount radioactive
carbon (carbon 14) from the atmosphere. After death the level of carbon 14 in the object
gradually declines at a steady, measurable rate. Thus by measuring the amount of carbon 14 in
ancient fragments of the former living matter such as born or charcoal, scientists are able to
calculate the approximate age of the object. The results are never very accurate but they are an
invaluable aid to the archaeologists concerning more with the chronology than with the very
precise dates.

Language dating
Historical events can be dated by the use of language. Here some word used in a given language
can help to understand when a given event occurred. For example in Kiswahili there are some
words that are used that they do tell when a given events took place for example the use of the
word „Karafuu‟ marks the beginning of the use of cloves in East Africa.

25
Remembering changes and event dating
Events can help in dating history for example famine, harvesting period, tsunami, hurricanes etc.
By using these changes one is able to tell what event took place and also reflect the time at which
that event took place.

Order of eventdating
This shows the arrangement of events in series for example family and clan chronology (family
tree), chronological order of events (time line, time graph and time chart)

TIME LINE

1 2 3 4 5 6

300 BC 200 BC 100BC 100 AD 1000 AD 1800

TIME CHART

COLUMN I COLUMN II

PERIOD (YEARS) EVENTS

1000AD The discovery of iron

1498 Vasco Da Gama arrived at the cape

1500 Emergence of Ntemi system of organization

1698 Fall of fort Jesus

1700 End of Portuguese rule in East Africa

1741 Mombasa establishes itself as an independence sheikhdom

1840 Sultan Said shifts his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar

1800 The industrial revolution in Europe

1900 Signing of the Buganda agreement

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1961 Independence of Tanganyika

1964 The Zanzibar revolution

1992 Multiparty politics in Tanzania

1999 Death of Mwl. Julius Nyerere

27
 EVOLUTION OF MAN
The Meaning of Evolution of Man
Explain the meaning of evolution of man
Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike
ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people
originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.

One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved
over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex
brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more
recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate
cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.

The Theory of Evolution of Man and the Religious Theory of Creation of

Man
Explain the theory of evolution of man and the religious theory of creation of man

The Theory of Evolution of Man

The story of human evolution began in Africa about six million years ago and it describes the
very long process that our ancestors went through to ultimately become modern humans. This
process has been uncovered by studying fossils and understanding the underlying theory of
evolution, and while new fossils are uncovered every decade revealing new chapters, scientists
agree about the basic story.

Evolution means the changes that occur in a population over time. In this definition, a
“population” means a group of the samespeciesthat share a specific location and habitat.
Evolutionary changes always occur on the genetic level. In other words, evolution is a process
that results in changes that are passed on or inherited from generation to generation. It does not,
for example, describe how people can change their muscle mass by lifting weights.

28
When successful, these genetic changes or adaptations, which happen when genes mutate and/or
combine in different ways during reproduction, help organisms survive, reproduce, and raise
offspring. Some individuals inherit characteristics that make them more successful at surviving
and having babies. These advantageous characteristics tend to appear more frequently in the
population (because those individuals with less advantageous characteristics are more likely to
die without reproducing), and over time these changes become common throughout that
population, ultimately leading to new species.

Early Stone Age

The Types of Tools Used during the Old Stone Age
Describe the types of tools used during the old stone age
This lasted from 1.5 millions years up to 750,000 years ago. At this time man was involved in
hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on collection of fruits, roots, vegetables
and meat. The tools made at this time involved chopping tools, pebbles, and hand axes.

The tools made were not very sharp but important for defending themselves against wild animals
and digging up plant roots

Some remains of these tools were found in East Africa in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Ologa and
Nsongezi Rock shelter in Uganda

The Physical Changes of Man during the Old Stone Age

Describe the physical changes of man during the old stone age
During the Old Stone Age, man had the ability to walk with two limbs though he could not stand
upright. Additionally, he also had a hairy body, brain capacity of 650-775cc and a skull similar
to that of the modern man but much larger. Generally, man was practical and skillful.

How Man Obtained Food during the Old Stone Age

Explain how man obtained food during the old stone age
At this time man was involved in hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on
collection of fruits, roots, vegetables and meat

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Middle Stone Age
This is recorded from around 750,000 years to 50,000 years ago

During that time tools made were sharper compared to the Early or Old Stone Age.

The Types of Tools used during the Middle Stone Age and their Functions
Describe the types of tools used during the middle stone age and their functions
During the middle stone age, man used smaller and sharper tools than those used during the Old
Stone Age. Such tools included spears and knives used for different activities like defense and
security as well as in food preparation. During this age, fire was discovered and as a result man
started to eat roasted food.

The Physical Changes of Man during the Middle Stone Age

Describe the physical changes of man during the middle stone age
Man experienced physical changes during all the ages. During the middle stone age, man had an
upright posture and brain capacity between 775cc and 1225cc. During this age, man was
characterized by thick jaws, increased intelligence and skills, as compared to the Old Stone Age.

How Man Obtained Food during the Middle Stone Age

Explain how man obtained food during the middle stone age
In order to fulfill their basic needs humans used stone tools like stone hammers, stone cores,
sharp stone flakes that offered useful cutting edges, etc.

The Advantages of the Invention and Uses of Fire

Explain the advantages of the invention and uses of fire
During the Mesolithic revolution, the most important discovery made was the discovery of fire.
This discovery had a lot of advantages to man. Man used fire to roast food, clear vegetation, keep
himself warm,Chasing wild animals (to defend himself).

New Stone Age

The Type of Tools Used during the Late Stone Age and their Uses
30
Describe the type of tools used during the late stone age and their uses
It started from around 50,000 BC up to the first Millennium, while at this stage man used much
sharper tools than in Early or Middle Stone Ages.

At this time man started farming and animal keeping. Due to that it was the time when man
started to have settlements.

Another development at this time was painting and drawings for example in Caves, evidence of
this can be seen in Amboni caves (Tanga), Kondoa (Dodoma) and Irangi (Singida)

The Physical Changes of Man during the Late Stone Age

Describe the physical changes of man during the late stone age
During the late Stone Age, human beings were a direct ancestor of modern man. They had the
ability to think as their brain capacity ranged between 1300cc and 1500cc. Also, they had an
ability to make and use more advanced tools compared to those made and used by their
ancestors. It was in this era that man was more intelligent than their ancestors had slightly thick
jaws.

Major Changes in Man's Way of Life during the Late Stone Age
Appraise major changes in man's way of life during the late stone age
At this time surplus food was available, this facilitated the increase of the human population and
the emergence of village settlements.

Iron Age
This was the time when man started to make and use iron tools. Iron age in Africa started more
on the first millennium in a few societies e.g. in East Africa, while other societies like western
Sudan States (Ghana, Mali, Soghai), Axum, Egypt, Nubi, and Meroe for North Africa

How Iron was Discovered

Explain how iron was discovered
Iron was discovered through particular stones which become hot and cool and finally change to a
hard matter known as iron. In East Africa, the iron age is believed to have begun around

31
1000AD. Famous early iron sites were discovered in Engaruka within the rift valley in Northern
Tanzania. Other sites include Uvinza, Karagwe, Ugweno, Iteso and western shores of lake
Victoria.

The Advantages of using Iron Tools

Appraise the advantages of using iron tools
Iron age helped societies to progress and develop more (that is it had more positive effects than
negative effects) some of these effects were:

It created the division of labor in African societies e.g. some started working in local industries.
Others became traders and crop producers.

It also increased the production of food crops in Africa. (This was due to the making of more
useful farm equipments).

It helped with the formation of permanent settlements to those societies that adopted iron
technology (crop producers).

Africa started to develop Economically through activities such as industry, agriculture, mining
and trading.

It also led to the expansion of states in Africa (stronger societies started to conquer other states)
e.g. the Buganda and Ghana.

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 TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT
This chapter will focus on the different economic levels of development achieved by man from
the period of pre-history specifically enlightening on the three-litchis of the continent of Africa
up to 19th century. Also to examine the factors that influenced the existed economic activities as
well as the impact of such activities on the respective society

The economic activities in pre-colonial Africa

The environment as an entity does influence economic activities and there is a strong relationship
between the environment and economic activities. Several economic activities developed
amongst the different people of Africa ranging from:

 Agriculture which involved the growing of crops and rearing of animals.

 Handcrafts industries which depended on skilss or hand to make and produce goods.

 Mining concerning with the process of extracting underground minerals for man‟s use.

 Trading involving the buying and exchanging of goods and services.

 Fishing, lumbering, Hunting and gathering all these differed from area to area. Basing on
the environment and the skills that the people living in a given community were gifted with.

Agriculture
It is believed that in Africa, agriculture started about 6000 years ago. The use of discovered tools
and weapons led to the development of crop cultivation and domestication of animals. True plant
domestication probably began when the weakest plant were rejected and only seeds from the
strongest plants were set aside for re-sowing mainly yielding grasses (cereals) and the same
applied to animal domestication.

The Relationship between Agriculture, the Environment and Technological

Development

33
Show the relationship between agriculture, the environment and technological development

Contributions of technological development to development of

agriculture;

After a through look into different agricultural practices that existed in Africa, it is equally
paramount to know the contributions of technology to the development of agriculture in Africa.

The increased use of iron tools amongst the different societies of Africa, led to the increase
of land for cultivation, which resulted into increased agricultural productivity. The food storage
skills insured an insurance against loss of future crops through natural disasters such as drought
or flood thus food supply throughout the year. Some communities whose soils easily exhausted
developed the use of manure which renewed the land and thus increased production. The
development and use of irrigation opened up the once un-cultivatable to be productive for
agriculture once again.

Not only did the technological improvement contribute to the development of agriculture but
also the environment had the great bearing on the development of agriculture in Africa.

The reliable rainfall supplemented with the fertile soils in given areas resulted in the
development of permanent crop agriculture or cultivation accompanied with increased
agricultural production

Pest free and disease free areas were suitable for both crop and animal husbandry, as they
would attract settlement. Also in place is the availability of iron technology in given societies
making it possible for the making of iron tools which advanced on the methods of production
and thus increased productivity.

It ensured man with reliable food supplies, The impacts of agricultural development are
immeasurable as it ensured man with reliable food supplies, permanent settlement, labour
specialization and surplus production and thus increase in population.

Farming was not suitable in every environment, the disadvantage of settled farming may also
have been apparent through farming could support a larger population; it left the people more
exposed to the dangers of famine caused by natural disasters such as drought and floods.

34
The Types of Agricultural Practices in Africa
Explain the types of agricultural practices in Africa

Different types of agriculture developed in the different African

societies these included:

 Permanent crop cultivation

 Mixed farming

 Pastoralism

 Shifting cultivation
Successful agriculture depended on the ecology or natural fertility of the soil, adequate rainfall,
technical skills of the famers and the ability to find most suitable and successful crops. However,
this was not a simple task as it required patience and the ability to learn more from experience. It
was the trial and error system.

Permanent crop cultivation

This involved the growing of perennial crops as potatoes, bananas, yam, beans and maize on a
permanent basis. This was majorly employed in areas where there was extra land. Not every
society could practice this form of agriculture but the environment dictated the terms.

Areas that received heavy and reliable rainfall were free from pests and diseases, having fertile
soil did serve best for permanent crop cultivation. With the development of iron technology
societies which practiced this moved from communalism to feudalism. In East Africa it was
majorly practiced in the interlacustrine regions such as Buganda, Kagera Kenyan highlands,
Ankole around Mount Kilimanjaro, parts of Kigoma and rungwe. In West Africa in the Fante,
Yoruba, Ashanti, Ife and Akwam.

With the development of permanent crop cultivation people begn to live in larger, more
permanent settlement, the permanence of settlement quickened the development of instrument
production, there were increase in population as a result of improved diet, food supply became

35
more regular and abundant, brought important social as well as technical changes many
developed into centralised states for example Fante, Benin, Oyo and Meroe.

Lastly was the development of handcrafts industries such as iron smelting and social
differentiation.

Mixed farming

This is an agricultural system which involves growing of crops and rearing of animals on the
same piece of land. It evolved in areas which supported both pastoralism and crop cultivation.
Crops grown in this agricultural practice included cereals such as millet, sorghum, cassava and
maize animals kept included cattle, goats, sheep, cows and donkey.

The mixed farmers existed because the areas they lived had unreliable rainfall and their soils
could easily be exhausted so one thing had to supplement the other. Mixed farmers in East Africa
included the Gogo, Sangu, Sukuma, Kurya and Fipa in Tanzania, Luyia in Southwest Kenya, the
Basoga and Gisu of Eastern Uganda. The relation of production was mainly communal with low
production, division of labour based on age and sex

The mixed farmers in East Africa demonstrated achievement in their practices as they developed
centralised political organisations for example the Busoga in Uganda under Omuloki, specialised
in different activities. Specialisation in these societies resulted into development of trade, at first
it was among the mixed farmers and later it resulted in the formation of long distance trade.

Shifting cultivation

This involves spending a given period of time working on land and moving from one area that is
exhausted to a new fresh piece of land. It was mainly practiced by the people who lived in
grassland plateaus for example Miombo wood land savanna in central Tanzania were the rainfall
was little and unreliable and the soil could be easily exhausted

These soils could support the growth of cassava, sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, pumpkins
plus many more other crops.the rearing of livestock was made difficult due to the fact that these
areas were infected with tsetse flies and other livestock diseases. The soils that easily became
exhausted necessitated people to move from one place to another in search of the fertile piece of
36
land. However people in some communities were living a settled life even if they were practicing
this type of agriculture.

Pastoralism

This involves the keeping of livestock. The herding of domestic animals (cattle, sheep or goats),
which were real and potential source of food particularly; milk, meat, animal skins and the herds
were also exchanged with the different neighboring societies.

Areas with semi arid and arid conditions like scanty rainfall, (rainfall that is just enough to
support the growth of pasture), poor soils which could only support pastoralism as the major
economic activity within the area. In East Africa the dry areas include the lift valley areas of
Tanzania and Kenya comprising of societies like the Maasai, Nyaturu, Barbaig and the
karamanjong in Uganda.

Where the people were largely pastoralists their settlement tended to be less permanent as they
moved in search of varying season pastures and water.

These people had no centralised political system they used the age set system in their production
and they also kept large herds because of their use value and prestige.

How Agriculture Changed Man's Life

Explain how agriculture changed man's life
The development of agriculture changed man's life in various ways, for instance;

 with the development of permanent crop cultivation people began to live in permanent
settlement,

 there was increase of population,

 development of instruments of productions,

 development of centralized states,

 development of trade, and

 the division of labour.

37
Handicrafts,Industries and Mining in Pre-Colonial Africa
Handcrafts can be defined as the art of using your skills and hand to designs and fashion things,
or it's an activity done with on's hands requiring artistic skills. Such goods may include tools,
baskets, and cloth to mention but a few. In pre-colonial Africa different hand crafts industries
emerged as man specialized on to other activities apart from agriculture. These included iron
making industries, basketry, spinning and weaving cloth making, carving, canoe making and
many more.

The Meaning of Handcrafts, Industries, and Mining

Explain the meaning of handcrafts, industries, and mining

Mining industries:

Are industries which involve the process of extracting underground minerals such as copper,
gold, tin and salt mining industries.

An industry is a place where transformation of raw materials into finished goods is carried out.
The natural resources that existed in a given society determined the nature of industries to be
found in a given area.

The Types of Industries and Their Advantages in Pre-Africa

Differentiate the types of industries and their advantages in pre-Africa

Types of industries

 Iron industries

 Salt making

 Copper industry

 Handcrafts industries

Iron industries.

38
The discovery of iron resulted in drastic socio-political and economic changes. The people who
were dealing in iron were called blacksmiths a person whose job is to make and repair things
made with iron, learns how to identify rocks containing iron ore.

In the way of trying to maintain monopoly over the knowledge of iron making it was kept as a
secret and in many societies it was even ritualised (made a religious thing). Different society had
different beliefs as many believed that the women were not allowed to furnace as it was
presumed that the iron would be spoilt.

Methods of obtaining and processing iron:

Blacksmiths identified the rocks that were bore iron ore collecting them and smelting the iron
found in the trenches or clay furnaces. They had to use charcoal fuel and maintained the high
temperatures in the furnaces by fanning the live charcoal with bellows. The smelted iron was
then shaped into different forms and tools like spear heads, knives, axes, panga and wire. The
places where the iron industries were found included the Venda people of Northern Transvaal,
the Mashona people of Zimbabwe, the Iteso of Eastern Uganda, along Kilambo falls, Futa
Djalon, Meroe and many others.

Salt making industries

Salt is not only a food ingredient but was also used to preserve food. The increased use of salt
resulted into the development of trade and agriculture as salt led to more food production, the use
of salt was found in almost all communities as it was important in different communities.

Methods of obtaining and processing salt:

There are four methods of obtaining and processing salt in different communities, these included:

Traditional method

Under the tradition method salt was obtained from the reeds growing in marshy areas, gathered,
dried and burnt to ashes. The ashes were then collected, filtered and the liquid was boiled to

39
evaporate, the residue was used as salt. The Manganja people settled along Lake Nyasa
commonly used this method.

Mining of salt bearing rocks

Rocks contained salt was dug out and the crystals were used. In here the rocks that contain salt
are identified and are dug out, it is probably the most commonly used method of obtaining and
processing salt. Place were it is used include Kasese, Bilma, Taghaza, Katwe and many others.

Boiling and evaporation

Under this method as the spring waters boil underneath the earth's surface, they do evaporate and
spill over the land surface where they cool to form salt crystals which crystals are used as salt.
This was commonly practiced in Uvinza, Shinyanga and also among the Venda people.

Developed among the coastal regions

Along the coastal regions salty waters were trapped into pans and left to evaporate the heat of the
sun. The crystals that did remain behind after the evaporation of salty waters were then used as
salt.

Gold industries

Gold is one of the most precious minerals and it was not found in every area as other minerals
which makes it precious and valuable. The communities that mined gold showed drastic social,
political and economic developments.

Methods of obtaining and processing gold

Panning method

This method was commonly carried out along the river beds where alluvial gold was extracted. It
was somehow tiresome as people had to try several times in order to obtain the mineral. This
method was common among the Sabi people living along river Zambezi

40
Shaft method

This method was commonly used in the areas with gold veins. Here the gold was dug out by
using wooden, stone and iron hammers, then collected in wooden baskets and taken to furnaces
were it was turned into different ornaments such as bangles, earrings plus many more.

Copper industries

The copper industry is believed to be the oldest industry that existed in almost all pre colonial
African societies. Different societies did participate to the industries due to the fact that the
copper existed in their communities.

Methods used in obtaining and processing copper

Identification of a copper belt

The copper was dug out and then taken to the furnaces where it was smelted. The smelted copper
was turned into different tools which were relatively important to the society for example wire
traps, knives axes etc. the areas that carried out this included places where the copper belt were
found for example the Katanga copper belt and Kasese.

Handcrafts industries

Cloth making industries (weaving and spinning):

These industries were concerned with making clothes and developed in areas where cloth
making materials were available. Spinning and wearing, making of bark –cloth developed in
areas with cotton and appropriate tree barks.

Famous spinning and weaving societies in Africa include Yoruba people of West Africa,
Sumbawanga in Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique as well as the people found in Lake Rukwa
valley in Tanzania as for bark cloth areas North of Lake Victoria, interlacustrine societies for
example in Buganda they used the Mvule tree to make (Olubugo) bark cloth which was very
expensive and it was only the rich and the nobles who could afford it

41
Basketry and carpentry

Closely associated with agrarian societies whose style of life was more complex and
sophisticated and in places that were privileged with palm and special reeds holding vessels
specialised in the making of baskets and mats plus special leather work was needed for making
leather clothes, sandals, bags, and beddings from animal skins and hides. It‟s associated with
pastoralists such as Tuareg, Beja, Ajar, and Somali who made tents.

Canoe making

The art of making canoes developed in areas bordering lakes, rivers and oceans. Different
societies who carried this had their major economic activity as fishing which in many cases
supplemented agriculture.

This therefore means that nature of resources available in a given society determined the nature
of handcrafts industry present in that society.

Trade in pre colonial Africa

Trade refers to the exchange of goods or services with money or other goods or is the buying and
selling of goods

The development of agriculture brought important economic changes as people were now able to
produce surplus food which is more than needed to feed their own immediate family thus the
surplus could be traded between neighboring settlement in exchange for raw materials luxuries
and other items not produced within the community

It is clear that societies are not fully self sufficient. Therefore, interactions say between
pastoralists with cultivators and agriculturalists with craftsmen in order to exchange goods are
required. The major means of distributions from one hand to another were through gifts, tributes
and taxation.

The exchanges carried out were not aimed at getting profit but it was after the use value of
commodities and also strengthening relations. For example a person who exchanged his cattle
with millet was not in search of profit.

42
Before the emergence of groups of people who specialised in trade the exchange system was
barter this involved the exchange of goods for goods.

As societies developed trade development was also inevitable basing on the fact that some
societies were not having specific resources which could only be obtained through the exchange.
Increase in surplus production supplemented with the development of industries, the presence of
safe routes and the regional specialisation not forgetting the love for adventure cemented the
development and expansion of trading activities in pre colonial Africa.

The expansion of trading activities resulted into two major types of trade emerging in pre
colonial Africa.

1. The local trade (internal exchange relations). This developed within given community.

2. Regional trade (long distance trade). Where there emerged groups of people who
specialized and could buy goods from producers in order to sell them later at a profit.

The Uses of Different Types of Minerals in Pre-Colonial Africa

Explain the uses of different types of minerals in pre-colonial Africa
All in all the handcrafts and mining industries had far reaching effects to the communities and
societies of pre colonial Africa. Increased food production was evident as tool of production was
improved up on through the technological development, trade was also increased as the volume
of food traded and the demand increased this in turn acted as a source of income to many
societies which later rose socially, politically and economically more settled populations and
communities new political system and organizations, the blacksmith became recognized,
influential and famous people in the society, the iron tools could dig and cut faster and deeper
than the stone tools and many others.

Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa

The Basis of Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa
Explain the basis of trade in pre-colonial Africa

Local trade

43
This was conducted from the village among the homogenous community, it did not require
specific places to act as a markets, there was no need of middle men as goods passed freely from
the hands of producers to consumers.

Many pre colonial African societies at first developed this trade as it availed them with the
commodities they needed with much ease. People living within a given community exchanged
commodities amongst themselves in order to fill the missing link; for example, cultivators could
exchange their food with the livestock from the pastoralists, other commodities exchanged
included iron tools, ornaments, animal skins and agricultural produce.

Generally speaking, the exchange which started with the intention to cement the existing social
bonds amongst the different societies resulted in the growth of several industries, simulation of
production for goods required in the exchange. It also led to the increase in incomes of the
people who actively participated in the trade, the emergence and development of relationships
among people of different localities for example the Sukuma trading with the Maasai and also
the availability of all goods in the community brought about by increased production and the
expansion in the exchanges.

The Types of Trade, Types of Commodities and the Societies Involved

Identify the types of trade, types of commodities and the societies involved

Regional trade

Trade between East and Central Africa started from the 1st millennium AD as they traded in
raffia cloth, ivory and hides, copper from Katanga exchanged with salt from Uvinza.

This was concerned with the exchange of goods with people from different regions. This called
for specialisation and dealt with the commodities which were relatively scarce and geographical
un evenly distributed among the people of different ethnic groups. Regional trade involved
different regions in the trading process. In East and Central Africa it came to be known as long
distance trade while in West Africa it was called trans Saharan trade.

Long Distance Trade

44
It is called long distance trade simply because it was carried out long distance as people/traders
had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the major aim
was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted to
use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later.

Professional traders (trade being their major occupation) came from Yao, Chewa and Bissa of
Central Africa. Imbangala and vimbundu from Angola, Dyula merchants and the Marabouts of
West Africa. In East Africa the Nyamwezi, Yao and Kamba were famous long distance traders,
through trading and supplying ivory, slaves and copper to the exterior of East Africa Indian
ocean coast. This organisation required fixed places to act as markets and the use of middlemen
as the entrepreneurs.

In East Africa it was mainly carried out during the dry season and during the rainy season they
settled down for agricultural activities.

By the10th century AD the Yao and Chewa were exporting ivory and iron to the coast. The
Shona of Zimbabwe exported ivory and gold to the coast which were then exported to the Far
East and then return they imported glass wear, cowrie's shells, beads, cotton cloth and porcelain
from the far and Middle East. They used organised caravans for security reasons and distance
standard currency such as bars of iron or copper and slabs of salt.

The long distance trade was a blessing for many societies in East and Central Africa as it gave
rise to the notorious and professional long distance traders like Tip Tippu, Mzilikazi, and Mlosi
etc

In addition to that prominent rulers such as Muteesa of Bugnanda, Mirambo of Unyamwezi,

Kimweri of Usambara and Mkwawa of the Uhehe were able to conquer and rule weaker and
neighboring societies. All this was facilitated by the acquisition of fire arms and ammunition
which were important commodities from the East coast.

Expansion and consolidation of various kingdoms for example Buganda, Bunyoro, Yao and
Nyamwezi led many of the participants to became very rich and famous from the huge profits
that were enjoyed from the trade.

45
The trade acted as a stepping stone for the spread of Islam in the interior of East Africa. Many of
the traders preaching Islam at the same time carrying their trading activities. Slave trade paved
its way to the interior as the interior was exposed to traders.

The Trans Saharan Trade

Trans Saharan trade is also sometimes referred to as caravan trade. It was carried out across the
Sahara desert. The trade involved different zones ranging from forest i.e. involving the forest
states such as Benin, Oyo, Kanem Bornu and many more, the savannah belt which involved the
Western Sudanic states such as Ghana, Mali and Songhai, the Sahara desert and the North
Africa, the Mediterranean world and Europe.

Factors for the rise of the Trans Saharan Trade (causes)

The introduction and use of the camels, which were introduced in Africa during 100A.D.
CamelS replaced horses and donkeys as they were more resistant to desert conditions and could
also move faster to the desert. This therefore facilitated the development of the trade as a more
efficient means of transport had been introduced

Political development that during the 7th and 16th century. This includesthe Western
Sudanic states whose rulers promoted the expansion of the trade. They ensured this by giving a
leading hand, security, freedom of movement and also encouraging people to prepare the goods
that were necessary in the trade a thing that did not existed before.

The conquest of North Africa by the Arabs, between 641 and 708 the Arabs conquered North
Africa, astraders naturally they introduced their trading system and on top of that they increased
the use of camels in North Africa and in the Sahara desert.

Development of production, in various regions of the Sudanic zone the production increased it
meant that the supplies of commodity to be used in the trade were available. As no single
community is self-sufficient this meant that the different communities had to depend on each
other for various raw materials and goods.

Organization of the trade:

46
commodities used; different regions had different commodities that they concentrated on, from
Europe and Muslim North Africa included manufactured goods, textile, copper, silver, woolen
garments, brass, tin and horses

From the Sahara were salt mined at Bilma, Taghaza, Taoden, Idjil and Awlil, copper mined at
Takkeda, tobacco and dates inclusive.

The savannah region had millet, sorghum, wheat, gum and ostrich feathers and livestock as well
as gold that were mined from Wangara.

The forest zone was well known for gold mines at Akan and Lobi, kola nuts, ivory and the
slaves.

The first medium of exchange was the barter system where goods were exchanged for goods but
as the people became professional traders the medium of exchange also changed the traders
started using cowries and at a later stage they started using the French franc and then the Spanish
and Australian dollars.

As caravans were organised they had to follow specific trade routes that gave them a sense of
direction on their way through the trade. The major trade route that was used included;

 From Ghat and Tripoli to Ehyot.

 From Ghana to Morocco via Audaghast.

 From Timbuktu to Tunis via Taghaza.

 From Borno to Tripoli.

 From Kano to Tunis and Tripoli via Agades.

 From Timbuktu to Tunis via Wangala, Ghademes and Ghat.

The Impact of the Following Types of Trade: Local Trade, Regional Trade
Appraise the impact of the following types of trade: local trade, regional trade

Impacts of the Trans Saharan Trade

47
Contributed to the formation of West African states and kingdoms, the profits that were raised
from trade helped in the development of different states, these were got through the taking over
charge or control over the trade routes and every one using that route had to pay tax or tributes.

For example Ghana Empire conquered Audaghast in 990 A.D. in view of controlling the salt
mines in that area, Mali and Songhai extended their control as far as Taghaza and Takedda for
economic reasons. It is therefore true to say that trade facilitated the rise and consolidation of the
different states.

The spread of Islam was greatly accelerated by the Trans Saharan Trade in West and North
Africa. The traders were serving two masters at a go as they were traders and also acted as
teachers of Islam (evangelists) a thing that improved on the literacy rates in the region.

Growth of towns and cities, due to the trade many areas which were once villages turned into
towns in what is known as urbanisation. Small villages turned into large towns and cities such as
Kumbi Saleh, Gao, Kano, Jenne, Timbuktu plus many others.

Improvement of political administrations, the caravan trade also improved political

administration of the different kingdoms through the use and employment of well educated
Muslim traders who had been attracted by the trade. Many of the states were also applying the
Islamic ways of administration in their different areas or jurisdiction

Exploitation of natural resources, as the influx of the Whites increased, this marked the
beginning of the exploitation of natural resources that were endowed in Africa. It is also believed
that this was the time of unequal exchange between Africa and Europe began.

Provision of constant and regular source of income, The attractive profits from trade provided
constant and regular source of income for the different states. This was mainly raised from the
custom duties that imposed on the imports and over goods of great political importance such as
horse and the different metals that were imported into the state.

Trade also provided the sources for undertaking wars of conquest and expansion through the
supply of effective means of war fare, such as horses and metals that could be used in the making
and designing arms as spears, arrows head and axes.

48
The Trans Saharan Trade

This was the trading relation between the people of Western Sudan (Sudanic/Savannah region)
and the people of North Africa passing across the Sahara desert. Camels were used as the means
of transport during this trade. Societies that participated in the Trans Saharan Trade included;

 The Berbers of North Africa and brought them to West Africa via the Sahara desert.

 The Arabs and the European stationed in the Mediterranean costs of North Africa. These
supplied goods to the Berbers and Tuaregs who in turn sold them to the people of West Africa.
The said Arabs and purchased the items brought from West Africa.

 The West African tribes of both the Sudanic region and the forest regions to include the
Mandika, Fulani, Hausa, Edo etc. these supplied items to the Berbers and Tuaregs who crossed
the Sahara and purchased the items brought from North Africa.

Commodities involved

From North Africa the commodities were:

 Cotton and silk clothes

 Swords

 Guns and gunpowder

 Horses, etc.

from West Africa the commodities were:

 slaves

 ivory

 ostrich feathers

 kola nuts

 Gold

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 Salt

 Food stuff

Trans Saharan trade was firstly carried out through barter system and there after some media of
exchange like cowries shells, silver, coins, etc. replaced the barter system.

Trade routes

The Trans Saharan Trade was carried out via the routes namely:

 The western routes

 The Central route

 The Eastern route

The Western route emerged from Fez in Morocco via Siljilmasa, Taghaza, Taoden, Walata, and
Audaghost up to Timbuktu. This route was famous because of salt mines at Taghaza and gold
mines Wangara.

The central route emerged at Tunis in Tunisia via Tuat, Taotek, Tadmekket, Timbuktu, Gao, and
Kano up to Katsina.

The Eastern route to the other hand emerged from Triplin in Libya, Alexandria and Cairo in
Egypt to Bilma via Murzuk, Ghat and Agades. This route was significant because of salt mines
in Bilma.

Factors for growth of Trans Saharan Trade

Several factors contributed to the growth and development of Trans Saharan trade. These
include:-

 Political stability in both North Africa and West Africa, hence a conducive ground forthe
trade activities to flourish.

 The desire by European traders of such items as ivory, gold and slaves which were tobe
obtained only from Western Sudan.

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 The desire of European commodities by the people of Western Sudan.

 Production of surplus commodities such as kola nuts, salt, fish and other food stuffsin
Western Sudan. These had to be exported to other regions including NorthAmerica.

 The introduction and use of camels as animals of transportation, these were able tocarry
huge quantities than horses and human porters. They were also tolerable indesert conditions.

Factors for the fall of Trans Saharan Trade

By the second half of the 19th century, the trans Saharan trade was almost collapse of this trade
was a result of the following factors:

 Introduction of trans Atlantic trade which altered the trade route of Trans Saharan Trade.

 The emergence of other sources of salt and gold needed by European traders due
toopening up of mines in the Americas.

 Scarcity of water in the desert discouraged the voyages via the desert.

 Eruption of wars (jihad) in the Maghreb region particularly Morocco. This disrupted the
trade.

 Colonisation of West African states by European powers in the last quarter of

19thcentury deteriorated the trading relations with North Africa

Effects of the Trans Saharan Trade

The Trans Saharan Trade had to a lot of effects as follows:-

 It led to development and growth of towns and cities in both North Africa and
theWestern Sudan, example being Walata, Kano, and Timbuktu etc.

 It led to emergence of rich merchants classes in Western Sudan as these merchants

accumulated a lot of wealth from the trade.

 It led to the spread of Islam, Arabic culture and language in Western Sudan.

51
 It led to intermarriages between the people of Western Sudan, the Arabs and AfroArabs
from North Africa.

 It led to the growth and consolidation of Sudanic states namely Ghana, Mali, Songhaiand
Kanem Bornu.vi. It stimulated the state of warfare between Western Sudanic states and forest
states dueto the desire for slaves.

Mining and hand craft industries

Mining

This is the extraction of minerals from the underground parent rocks. By the period before and
around the 19th century, minerals that were being mined in Africa include the following:-

 Copper

 Gold

 Iron

 Bronze

 Silver

 Salt.

Most of the minerals were to be taken to handcraft industries where they were then processed
into different items. Some other minerals such as salt were to be consumed directly while some
other minerals were to be used as media of exchange in trading activities.

Prominent areas in Africa where mining activities were being practiced include the following:-

 Katanga in Zaire where there were copper mines.

 Tshikapa in Zaire, Machili, Lusu, Klambo falls and Ingombe ilede.

 Gokomere, Mabven, Malapiti and Chivi in the Limpompo valley of Zimbabwe iron
wasmined.

52
 Mashona and Matebele lands in Zimbabwe as well as Ashanti in Ghana where gold
wasbeing mined.

 Uvinza in Western Tanzania and Taghaza in Mauritania where there were extraction
ofsalts.

Hand crafts industries

These were factories that manufactured different items through the use of machines operated
manually (by hand). Such industries include those that dealt with metal works namely:

 Iron processing industries

 Copper processing industries

 Salt making industries

The said metal working industries were mainly located near their respective mining areas.
Prominent societies that were experts in metal works include:

 The people of Chipembe, and Kalomo in Zambia, the people of Mwavarambo,Phopo and
Nkope Bay in Malawi as well as the Yoruba and the Edo of Nigeriawho were experts in iron
smelting industries.

 The Shona and Ndebele of Zimbabwe, the Akan and the Asante of Ghana whowere
famous in gold coast smithing industries.

 The Manganja of Malawi and the people of Taghaza were experts in salt making
industries.

Other industries apart from metal work industries dealt with cotton and raffia cloth making
among the Fulbe, the Felleme and Trakrur of Senegal and among the societies Guinea and
Zimbabwe.

Other industries were those dealing with Basketry, Pottery and wood carving. Wood carving
industries were common among the Makonde of Tanzania and the Yoruba of Nigeria.

53
Items made from the said handcraft industries were to be sold in exchange with other products
like agricultural products, animal products etc.

THE MAP OF TRANS SAHARAN TRADE ROUTES

BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITIES TO DO

1. Define the following terms Technology Agriculture Trade Environment Development

2. List the four agricultural processes that were carried out among the different societies in
East Africa.

3. Mention any four advantages and effects of agriculture to the different African societies.

4. Mention the different handcrafts that existed in pre colonial African societies.

5. Outline the different types of trade that where present in the pre colonial African
societies.

6. What factors contributed to the development of trans Saharan trade?

7. Mention the different regions that participated in the Trans Saharan trade.

8. Mention four notorious and professional long distance traders.

9. List the different methods in the obtaining and processing of salt in the pre colonial
African societies.

10. What factors gave rise to the Trans Saharan trade?

11. List four principles of trade routes that were used in trans Saharan slave trade.

12. What were the impacts or effects of trans Saharan trade?

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55
 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
SYSTEMS

Kinship Of Clan Organization

The Meaning of the Kinship or Clans
explain the meaning of the kinship or clan
Prior to European colonisation in the late 19th century, Africa had a very long history of state
building as well as a rich variety of social formations that were decentralised or stateless.

The Social, Political and Economic Organization of Kinship or Clans

explain the social, political and economic organization of kinship or clan

Clan Organisation

Leaders in the clan organisation were chosen by a heritage system that was either matrilineal or
patrilineal. Matrilineal systems are based on the mother‟s side and patrilineal systems are based
on father‟s side e.g. of matrilineal societies are Makonde and Zanaki, while the Sukuma and Pare
are good examples of patrilineal societies.

The clan leader had a lot of functions such as:

Note: The clan leaders in Africa had local names e.g. Sukuma – Mtemi, Nyakyusa- Malafyale.

Chiefdom or Chieftain Organization

Therefore, the chiefdom organisation system was adopted by many societies that were under clan
organisation. This included the Sukuma, Chagga, Nyakyusa, etc.

The functions of a chief in these societies were similar to that of the clan leader the difference is
the chief had a larger area.

Age set system was a type of organisation which involved age and sex in distribution of
activities.

56
Looking at the Maasai; they were organised as follows:

1. Soldiers

2. Increasing the herds of cattle by raiding from other societies

3. Moving with their cattle in need of water and gras

1. Religious leaders

2. Distributed resources e.g. Cattle

State organisation were systems of administration adopted by few African societies while having
administrative organs, army and judiciary. Each organ was responsible for different activities.
State Africa can be grouped as follows:

Interlacustrine Region

 Buganda

 Bunyoro Kital

Others include

 Hehe

 Nyamwezi

Western Sudanic State

 Ghana

 Sangai

 Dahomey

 Fulani

 Oyo

Central Africa
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 Nubiii

 Ethiopia

Age-set System
The Meaning of Age-Set System
Explain the meaning of age-set system
Age set is a social system or organization which involves age and sex in the distribution of
activities and duties. Therefore age, sex and gender are highly considered in division of labor and
specialization. Examples of tribes that practiced age set are the Maasai in Tanzania, Karamajong
in Uganda and Nandi in Kenya.

The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Societies which Practiced

the Age-Set System
Explain the social, political and economic organization of societies which practiced the age-set
system
The social, political and economical organization of societies that practiced age set organization
was based on age and sex in the division and specialization of labor. The main economic activity
in age set system societies was livestock keeping which resulted in a semi-nomadic life. The
tribes which practiced the age set system were Maasai in Tanzania, Karamajong in Uganda and
Nandi in Kenya.

Age set covered a specific group of years for example.

a. Children group aged 0-8 years were regarded as non producers group.They were not
directly involve in production.

b. Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animal, trading young
animals and milking cattle they were assisted by women.

c. Moran group (people between youth and adults aged between 35 years) and above these
were solders of the society and the society and the main responsibilities of the Moran were as
follows; i. To protect the whole society as trained solders. ii. To protect live stock against

58
dangerous animals and raiders. iii. To increase the number of animals through raiding their
neighbours; iv. To travel with their herds in search for water and pastures;
d. Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40 years and above it consisted of elders who
were divided in groups namely;Junior elders; Elders and senior elders.Responsibilities of elders
included:

 To control live stock and the properties on behalf of their communities.

 To enable norms and ethics to govern the society.

 They were top overseeds of all the spiritual and political matters of the community.

 They were responsible for counseling other members of the society.

 To settle disputes among the society members.

 They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were
highly appreciated.

Ntemiship
The Meaning of the Ntemiship System
Explain the meaning of the ntemiship system
Ntemiship is a socio-political organization or system characterized by being made up of
separated groups. The word Ntemiship is derived from the word Kutema which means split
apart. The ruler in a Ntemiship system was called Mtemi. The Nyamwezi tribe practiced the
Ntemiship system.

The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Ntemiship

Explain the social, political and economic organization of ntemiship
Ntemi comes from the word ”kutema” which means opening up of new land. It also means
finding a locality Ntemi was the name given to a leader who organized the action of opening up
new land and controlled the people.Ntemiship was being practiced in Unyamwezi by 1300 AD.It
then spread in the neighbouring such as the sukuma,sangu,hehe,kimbu,gogo and bena of

59
Tanzania.There were about 300 Ntemiship in Tanzania in the 18th C. Among the sukuma, the
ruler in Ntemiship organization was called Ntemi. He became Ntemi because he founder he was
founder of the locality.He was chosen by a counsel of elders choosing a person to become Ntemi
depended on his wisdom courage and experience.

Responsibilities of the Ntemi:

1. He was the top authority in the political and matters provided over all guidance in the
community.

2. He enforced proper uses of resources such as land,water,forest resources etc.

3. He was the overseer of the community food reserve.

4. He settled disputes in the community.

5. He had the religious power.He led the people in his community in performing religious
and offering sacrificies to the sprits.

6. To collect tributes from his subjects.

7. He provided over all guidance in the society.

State Organisation
The Meaning of State Organisation
Explain the meaning of state organization

State formation in Africa

Environmental factor

Location of a place e.g. in trading while some of the African States were near to the trading
towns as they obtained tax and commodities.

Iron technology in Africa also helped in the development and rise of Africa states e.g. By Iron
they made weapons like spears, Arrows, guns etc. weapons were useful on conquering small
states eg. Buganda conquered Bunyaro-Kutoro, Nyankole.

60
Some states had good leadership and they were able to organise their states e.g. Shaka Zulu,
Mirambo of Nyamwezi, Mkwawa of Hehe. Tunkumanin of Ghana, Sunsiata of Mali etc.

Men belonging to African societies were involved in long and short distance trade which led to:

 Outbreak of wars and migration

 Formal governments

Prime minister, council of elders, Provision chief, general commander and others like Abakungu,
Abalangira.

Some states rose up due to the influence of the Islamic religion e.g. through the use of Jihad
while states were turned into Islamic states. For instance in West Africa we see the Sokoto
caliphate (under Uthman Dan fodio) who managed to conquer several states in the forest zone.

Some of African tribes had strong armies and had improved weapons for conquering other states.
It is said that before the White man‟s intrusion, Ghana had about 20,000 experienced soldiers
and Mali had 10,000 soldiers.

Fall of some states in Africa

 Increase in size of states led to poor organisation and state management e.g. Ghana and
other states.

 Wars and conquest while some of the states were conquered by strong states e.g. In
Mfecane war about 100 states were conquered by Zulu.

 Slave trade in Africa also affected a lot of weak states while strong states managed to
conquer small states e.g. Fulani in West Africa declined due to this.

 The system of obtaining leaders through heritage did not lead to the development of
states but the fall of states that were following this system.

 The conflicts between Muslims and non-Muslims in some societies while non-
Muslimsocieties being conjured by the Muslim societies.

 Weak leaders in some societies failed to organise their states leding to their decline.

61
STATES ORGANISATION

TYPES OF STATES IN AFRICA

1. Decentralised states (Non centralised)

2. Centralised states.
These emerged as a result of one powerful family to control other classes in domination of
wealth and political power.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DECENTRALISED STATES

1. Most decentralised societies were small in terms of population and area.

2. Decentralised states had no political connection with a large kingdom.

3. Each village was politically separated and was not politically connected to neighbouring
villages.

4. Most decentralised societies did not have a system of chiefs.

5. Council of elders were religious leaders . Organisational structure of kinship ties lineage
groups.

CENTRALISED KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES

Some African societies were large empires governed by kings, who had near absolute power. For
Example:

1. North Africa – Egypt, Nubia, Axum in North East

2. Ghana, Mali, Soghai and Kaneroi Burnu in Western

3. Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Tero in East Africa

CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRALISED POLITICAL

SYSTEMS

62
1. Presence of a king or queen.

2. The clan had to pay tribute to the monarchy

3. Availability of enough food to feed the settled population

4. The centralised authority was responsible for solving social disputes.

Example: Ancient Egypt

Origins:According to archaeological evidence, the Egyptian state arose between 1500 and 500
BC. The evidence also show that by this time there were already villages of self sufficient
producers who grew wheat, barley and kept animals. These producers formed permanent
settlements as they increased in population.

The Factors that gave Rise to Centralised States and Non-Centralised States
Appraise the factors that gave rise to centralized states and non-centralized states

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE EGYPTIAN STATE

1. The development of agriculture and pastoralism

2. Specialization of labour

3. The rise of Nemes who united the upper and the lower Egypt

4. Development of local industries

5. Taxation

6. Strong Army

7. Development of productive forces

Therefore any one with the following rose to power:

1. Anyone who could control disasters by rituals and charms

2. Anyone who had experience and stored knowledge of floods

3. Anyone who had knowledge of predicting floods

CLASSES IN THE EGYPTIAN STATE

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1. The ruling class- Consisted of the Pharaoh who was at the top followed by the nobility,
priests, court officials and other officials- Followed by administrators of the people called the
Vizier.

2. The working class

3. The peasants and slaves

ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia started as a small kingdom known as Axum, was founded near the red sea coast by a
dynasty of Sabean from the other side of the Red Sea. The Ethiopia arose around 1000 BC

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF THE ETHIOPIAN STATE

1. Strong leadership

2. Agriculture

3. Unity among the people

4. Growth of local industries

5. Strong army

6. Taxation

7. Christianity

CLASSES IN ETHIOPIA

1. Feudal Lords

2. Peasants (tenants and serfs)

3. Slaves.
Feudalism was consolidated by the introduction of Christianity during the 4th AD and King
Ezana was the first to be converted. King Zangwe built 30 churches. A descendant of King
Solomon and Queen Sheba.

Expansion done by 3 emperors (leaders):

64
1. Zangwe Dynasty – 12th C – 13th C

2. King Theodire – 19th C – 1855 – 1868

3. Menelik II – 19th C – 1889 – 1913 Menelik II made Addis Ababa his Capital

THE KINGDOM OF NUBIA

Nubia lay in the area that cut across the borders of modern Sudan, Egypt, and Ethiopia. The
Nubian State arose around 200 BC. It was called Kush and its capital was Napata. In 3rd C the
capital shifted to Meroe.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE/GROWTH OF THE NUBIAN

STATE

1. Agricultural activities

2. Trade

3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. Gold and Ivory

4. Development of local industries

DECLINE OF NUBIA

1. Feudal lords were against the peasants

2. Attacks by Muslims

3. Disunity

WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

The early State in western Sudan was established in the region between the Sahara desert and the
forest region of the South. The most important states are Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem
Bornu

GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN

SUDANIC STATES
65
1. Geographical location

2. Iron technology

3. The growth of population

4. Development of local industries

5. Taxation

6. Trans - Saharan trade

7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold

8. Good centralised government

9. Capable leaders

10. Strong army

GHANA EMPIRE

During its rise Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other by Pagans.
The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title
emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Koumbi Saleh.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANIAN EMPIRE

1. Agricultural activities

2. Availability of valuable goods e. g gold

3. Trans – Saharan trade in gold and salt

4. Good leadership and efficient system of government.

5. Common language.

FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE

1. Almoravids constant attacks

2. Disunity among people

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3. Jihad wars

4. Lack of stable system of royal successions

5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali

MALI EMPIRE

Early in the 3rd C Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king of Ghana
and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kagaba. Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell under
Sundiata‟s rulership. Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niani and
the title of the ruler was Mansa.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI

1. The fall of Ghanaian empire

2. Control of gold fields of Bure

3. Strong army

4. Agricultural activities

5. Trans – Saharan trade

6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mauna Kan Kan Musa

7. Islamic faith which promoted libraries and Islamic universities.

DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV

2. Empire became too large to control

3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they
foughtagainst each other.

4. Attacks by Tuaregs

5. Civil wars

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6. The rise of Songhai empire

SONGHAI EMPIRE

In the late 15th Century the Songhai empire originally the Gao, conquered neighbouring states
under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became its
capital at around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were
Sunni Alli, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud.

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE

1. Agriculture activities

2. Strong army

3. Trans – Sahara trade

4. Good administration

5. Taxation

6. Islamic faith

DECLINE OF THE SONGHAI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud

2. The Moroccan invasion

3. The empire was too large to control

4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs

5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic

FOREST STATES

THE BENIN EMPIRE

Benin empire was a very small state made up of the Edo speaking people. The highest authority
at the time were chiefs known as Ogiso which meant the „Kings of the Sky‟ and the

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administrative centre was Ubinu. Between 1388 – 1431 there was a series of civil wars which
divided the Edo. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan left for exile and
established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he sent his son,
Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne.

EXPANSION INTO CITY-STATE EMPIRE

By 15th C the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of whom was Ewuare

2. Good centralized system of Government

3. Trade

4. Unity

5. Development of Handicraft Industry

DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

 Introduction of slave trade

 Trans- Atlantic trade

 Firearms introduced through European trade caused tribal wars that led to the finaldecline
of the Benin Empire.

THE EMPIRE OF OYO

Oyo empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 – 1431. The people of Oyo were
Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was called Alaafin. The Bashoran was
the leader of the army.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. It had organised political system headed by a number of great Alafins

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2. Strong organised army

3. Agricultural activities

4. Development of local industries

5. Slave trade

6. Dahomey tributary

DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon

2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey

3. Civil wars and disunity

DAHOMEY EMPIRE

Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. it was founded by the Fon people. It had
good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey.

THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE IN THE 18th C

1. Growth of centralised and powerful monarchy

2. Boyul succession system was effective

3. Strong army

4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Aguja

5. Control of slave trade

DECLINE OF DAHOMEY

Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French.

ASANTE EMPIRE

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Asante or Ashanti empire was found as a result of emergence of several cities in the region of
Kumasi. The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa
who was Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante
union was a Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF ASANTE

1. Agricultural activities

2. Development of local industries

3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu

4. Well organised political system

5. Trade
DECLINE - The state declined after the arrival of Europeans.

The Organisation of Centralised and Non-Centralised States

Explain the organization of centralized and non-centralized states

CENTRALISED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA

Example: Onya empire, it was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of
Munikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza which the Portuguese
later baptised Sutrador.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF KONGO EMPIRE

1. Technological development e.g. Iron technology

2. Trade

3. Taxation

4. Development of local industries

5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power

DECLINE OF THE CONGO EMPIRE

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 The arrival of the Portuguese

 Slave trade

 Weak leadership after Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa who acquired up an Embassy

inPortugal. His son Mzingo Mbemba was baptized as Dan Alfonce. He was a puppet of
thePortuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.

MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM

This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola. Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura
of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of Mwenemutapa which means „Master of
conquered lands‟. He was a political, military and religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his
son Matope inherited, after Matope‟s death in 1480 Changamire took over in 1490.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF MWENEMUTAPA

1. Agriculture activities

2. Good leadership of Mutola

3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold

4. They controlled trade routes

5. Trading centres

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MWENEMUTAPA

1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade

2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi

3. Rebellion from local people

After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other chief who
wanted power so that chief rebelled and caused civil war.

THE LUBA STATE

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This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye people migrated from
Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and from Luba kingdom,
Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave rise to the Luba lineage of
Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE

1. Centralised system of administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and
external trade

2. The development of trade

3. Agricultural activities

4. The presence of iron technology

THE LUNDA STATE

The centre of the empire lay in the valley of Nkala river. The Luba kings took the title of
Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called Mwantagaand. Ilunga
Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their son became the first
paramount ruler of the Lunda State.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF LUNDA STATE

1. Iron technology

2. Development of local industries

3. Agriculture activities

4. Good leadership

5. Trade.
The empire declined after the arrival of Europeans

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