Lecture Notes 8 – Other Transcendental Functions 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

I. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition
An exponential function is a function of the form
x
f (x) = a
where a is a positive real number and a  1. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.

NOTE: The positions of the constant and the variable in an exponential function are important! The
base is a constant, and the exponent is a variable (if the base is a variable, then you have a
polynomial function)!!

The Graphs of Exponential Functions

Case I: a > 1
1. Increasing function and one-to-one function
2. Graph lies above the x-axis and pass through the point (0, 1)
3. As x  +, the graph rises rapidly
4. As x  -, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote

Examples:
Graph the following:
a. f (x )= 2 x c. f (x )= 2 x + 2
b. f (x )=−2 x d. f (x ) = 2 x+1 + 2

Case II: 0 < a < 1

1. Decreasing function and one-to-one function
2. Graph lies above the x-axis and pass through the point (0, 1)
3. As x  -, it rises rapidly
4. As x  +, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote

Examples:
Graph the following:
a. f (x )= 2−x
x−3
b. g( x) =− ( 2 )
c. y = e|x|

A Special Base "e":

"e" is an irrational number like  or sqrt(5). That is, the decimal expansion for e is non-repeating.
The value of e is 2.718281828459045.... In advance mathematics, it is defined as
z
1
e = lim 1 +
z→ ∞
( ) z
x
Thus, the exponential function with base “e” can be written as f ( x) = e .

Algebra with e:
Algebraic manipulations with e are very important in university-level math.

Examples:
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

1. Express e-1 without exponents.

2. Express e-1/2 without exponents.
3. e2w = (ew)2
4. Factor 2ex + xex - x3ex.
x x
e ( x+1 ) − e
5. Simplify: ( x+1 )2
6. Multiply: (e2 - 1)(e2 + 1)
e2 x +3
7. Write the following as the sum of two terms: ex

Exponential Equations
 Equations that involve terms of the form ax, a > 0 and a  1
 such equations can sometimes be solved by appropriately applying the laws of exponents and
the following facts
if au = av, then u = v

Examples:
Solve the following:
2
x+1 ( ex )
1. 3 = 81 2. e −x
=
e3
3. 2 x⋅8−x = 4 x 4. 32x + 3 x − 2 = 0
5. 32x + 3 x+1 − 4 = 0 6. 22x − 2 x − 12 = 0
3
7. 4 x − 3⋅2 x = 0 8. 3x = 9
x

2 1 10 1−5x 1
9. 8 x −2 x =
2 .
5 =5

II. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Definition
A logarithmic function with base a, where a  1, is a positive real number, is a function of the form
f ( x ) = log a x
The domain of f ( x ) = log a x consists of the positive real numbers x > 0.

The logarithmic and exponential functions are inverse to each other since
f ( x ) = log a x if af (x) = x

Thus, a logarithm is merely a name for the solution of an exponential equation!

Facts about the logarithm of a number

1. Negative numbers have no (real) logarithms.
2. Numbers between 0 and 1 have negative logarithms.
3. Numbers greater than 1 have positive logarithms.
4. The logarithm of 1 is zero.

Examples:
1. Evaluate the following:
a. loge1 c. log3(1/3)
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

b. log28 d. log55

2. Change each exponential expression to an equivalent expression involving logarithm.

a. 1.23 = M
b. ex = 9
c. a4 = 24

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

The graph of a logarithmic function f(x)= log ax is the reflection about the line y = x of the graph of
the exponential function g(x) = ax
y y y = ax
y = ax y=x y=x

x x

y = logax
y = logax

1. The x-intercept of the graph is 1 since loga1 = 0. There is no y-intercept.

2. The y-axis is the vertical asymptote.
3. If a > 1, f(x) is increasing; while if 0 < a < 1, f(x) is decreasing.

Special Bases
If the log base is 10, then the log is called the common logarithm and we write “log” for log 10. If the
log base is the number “e”, then the logarithm is called the natural logarithm and we write “ln” for
loge. The “ln” key on a scientific calculator gives values for the natural logarithm. For example,
ln(32) = 3.466 to three decimal places, as determined using a calculator.

Properties of Logarithms
Here, a > 0 and a  1.
1. loga1 = 0
2. logaa = 1
3. loga(ax) = x
loga x
4. a = x , if x > 0
5. logax + loga y = loga(xy) if x, y > 0
6. logax - logay = loga(x/y) if x, y > 0
7. loga(xr) = r logax if x > 0

Examples:
1. Write each of the following as a single log:
a. log a 7 + 4 log a 3

b. 2/3 log a 8 − log a ( 3 4⋅8 )

c. log a x + log a 9 + log a ( x 2 +1 ) − log a 5

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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

2. Write as a sum or difference of logarithms of each of the following and express all powers as
factors.
a x2 b x 3 x2 +1 √ c.
log x x 2
+1 (√ )
. log a 3 . log a a
( x−1 ) 4
( x+1 )

3. Express y as a function of x.
a. ln y = ln x + ln c
b. ln y = 2 ln x – ln(x + 1) + ln c
c. ln(y – 3) = -4x + ln c
d. ln(y + 4) = 5x + ln c
e. e4y + 2 = 2x
f. ey – c = x + 3

4. Simplify the following:

3
log9 √ 2 + log9 √2 11
2 log 11 3 + log 11 2
a. e.
−1
b. log a [ a ( a+1 ) ] f. [ log3 9−1 ]
{ log2/3 ( 2/3 ) } 3 2
log a √ax + loga √ x
a
c. g.
x log 7 5+log 7 4
d. log 2 ( 2⋅8 ) h. 7

Logarithmic Equation
RULE:
If M = N, then logaM = logaN
If logaM = logaN, then M = N

Examples:
Solve each equation.
1. 2log5 x = log5 9
2. log3 (4x – 7) = 2
3. log5 x + log5 (2x – 3) = 1

Change of Base
log b M
log a M =
log b a

where b = common base; usually base 10 or e

Examples:
1. Evaluate:
a. log 5 89

b.
log√ 2 √5
2. Solve for x:
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

x
a. 2 =5
x−2 3 x+2
b. 5 =3

Miscellaneous Problems:
I. Solve for x.
2 x 2x x+1
1. 4x = 2 2. 3 + 3 −4=0
3
3. 3x = 9
x 4. 4 x − 3⋅4 x = 0
−x 2x x
5. 9 = 1/3 6. 3⋅4 + 5⋅4 − 2 = 0
7. 4 1+x + 4 1−x = 10 8. 1/2 log 3 x = 2
10 1/2
9. 2 log 3 ( x+4 ) − log 3 9 = 2
.
log1/3 ( 1−2 x ) = −1
11 log x 4 = 2 12
. . log √ x = √ log x
13 14 5 x +5− x
log 5 ( x−2 ) + log 5 ( x +2 ) = 1 =3
. . 5 x −3 ( 5− x )

III. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The Hyperbolic Functions

I.
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of ex and e-x.

x −x x −x
e −e e +e
sinh x = cosh x =
2 2

sinh x e x−e−x 1 e x +e−x

tanh x = = x −x tanh x = =
cosh x e +e tanh x e x −e− x

1 2 1 2
csch x = = x −x sech x = = x −x
sinh x e − e cosh x e + e

Properties
It is easy to prove that

cosh(-x) = cosh(x)

sinh(-x) = - sinh(x)

tanh(-x) = - tanh(x)

For cosh(x) > 0:

cosh(x) + sinh(x) = ex
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

cosh(x) - sinh(x) = e-x > 0

cosh2(x) - sinh2(x) = 1

1 cosh ( x) = + √1+sinh2 ( x) 1

1 - tanh2(x) = 1/cosh2(x)

1
cosh ( x) =
√1−tanh2 ( x )
tanh ( x )
sinh ( x) =
√ 1−tanh2( x )
Sum formulas

From previous properties, we deduce

cosh(a + b) + sinh(a + b) = ea+b = ea.eb = (ch(a) + sh(a))(ch(b) + sh(b))

cosh(a + b) - sinh(a + b) = e-(a+b) = e-a.e-b = (ch(a) - sh(a))(ch(b) - sh(b))

Adding and subtracting, we find

cosh(a + b) = cosh(a)cosh(b) + sinh(a)sinh(b)
sinh(a + b) = sinh(a)cosh(b) + cosh(a)sinh(b)

Analogously:
cosh(a - b) = cosh(a)cosh(b) - sinh(a)sinh(b)
sinh(a - b) = sinh(a)cosh(b) - cosh(a)sinh(b)

Dividing, we have

sinh (a ) cosh(b) + cosh(a) sinh( b)

tanh (a + b) =
cosh(a ) cosh(b) + sinh( a) sinh(b)
tanh(a ) + tanh(b)
=
1 + tanh(a ) tanh(b)

Analogously:
tanh(a) − tanh(b )
tanh (a + b) =
1 − tanh( a) tanh (b)

When a = b we have
cosh(2a) = cosh2(a) + sinh2(a)
sinh(2a) = 2 sinh(a) cosh(a)
2 tanh( a)
tanh (2 a ) =
1 + tanh 2 (a )
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

IV. INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The Argsinh Function

The function argsinh(x) is the inverse function of the function sinh(x).

y = argsinh(x)

<=> x = sinh(y)

<=> x = (ey - e-y)/2

<=> x = (e2y - 1)/(2ey)

<=> e2y - 2x ey - 1 = 0

<=> ey is the positive root of previous quadratic equation

<=> e y = x + √ x 2 +1

<=>
y = ln ( x + √ x 2+1 )
From this we have

y = argsinh(x) = ln ( x + √ x 2+1 )
The Argcosh Function
On previous graph, it is easy to see that the inverse relation of cosh(x) is not a function. Therefore we
restrict the domain of cosh(x) to positive x-values.

Now the inverse function exists and we call that function argcosh(x).

y = argcosh(x)

<=> x = cosh(y) with y > 0

<=> x = (ey + e-y)/2 with y > 0

<=> x = (e2y + 1)/(2.ey) with y > 0

<=> e2y - 2x ey + 1 = 0 with y > 0

<=> e y = x + √ x 2 −1

<=>
y = ln ( x + √ x 2−1 )
From this we have

y = argcosh(x) = ln ( x + √ x 2−1 )
The Argtanh Function
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

The function argtanh(x) is the inverse function of the function tanh(x).

y = argtanh(x)

e y −e− y
x=
<=> e y +e− y

e 2 y−1
x = 2y
<=> e +1

1+ x
e2 y =
<=> 1−x

1 1+x
y = ln
<=> 2 1−x

From this we have

1 1+x
y = argtanh( x) = ln
2 1−x