22 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 23

A Question of Style
ptical properties involve a mineral's response to the presence of light. This

O characteristic can be analyzed under a petrographic microscope, which

differs from ordinary microscopes in that it has two devices that polarize
light. This feature makes it possible to determine some of the optical responses of
the mineral. However, the most precise way to identify a mineral by its optical
properties is to use an X-ray diffractometer. COLOR STREAK
More reliable than a mineral's color is its
streak (the color of the fine powder left
Color when the mineral is rubbed across a hard
white surface).
is one of the most striking properties of INHERENT
minerals. However, in determining the COLOR
identity of a mineral, color is not always useful. HEMATITE
Some minerals never change color; they are called Some minerals
Color: Black
idiochromatic. Others whose colors are variable are always have the
called allochromatic. A mineral's color changes can same color; one
be related, among other things, to the presence of example is
impurities or inclusions (solid bodies) inside of it. malachite.
MALACHITE SULFUR
Streak Color:
Reddish Brown

AGATE
A type of chalcedony, a
cryptocrystalline variety of
quartz, of nonuniform coloring

Agates crystallize in banded

Luminescence patterns because of the
environments in which they
Certain minerals emit light when form. They fill the cavities of
they are exposed to particular rocks by precipitating out of
sources of energy. A mineral is fluorescent aqueous solutions at low
temperatures. Their colors
if it lights up when exposed to ultraviolet
reflect the porosity of the stone,
EXOTIC COLOR rays or X-rays. It is phosphorescent if it its degree of inclusions, and the
keeps glowing after the energy source is crystallization process.
A mineral can have several removed. Some minerals will also respond
shades, depending on its to cathode rays, ordinary light, heat, or
impurities or inclusions. other electric currents.

QUARTZ

METALLIC
Minerals in this class are
completely opaque, a
characteristic typical of native
elements, such as copper, and
sulfides, such as galena.
Refraction
and Luster
Refraction is related to the speed
with which light moves through a SUBMETALLIC
Minerals in this class have
crystal. Depending on how light propagates a luster that is neither
ROCK CRYSTAL
Colorless; the purest
through them, minerals can be classified as metallic nor nonmetallic.
state of quartz monorefringent or birefringent. Luster
results from reflection and refraction of
light on the surface of a mineral. In general,
ROSE
The presence of manganese it depends on the index of refraction of a NONMETALLIC
Other secondary minerals, results in a pink color. mineral's surface, the absorption of incident Minerals in this class
known as exotic minerals,
are responsible for giving
quartz its color; when it CITRINE SMOKY AMETHYST
light, and other factors, such as concrete
characteristics of the observed surface (for
transmit light when cut
into very thin sheets. They
can have several types of
Streak
lacks exotic minerals, The presence of iron produces Dark, brown, or gray minerals The presence of iron in a instance, degree of smoothness and polish). luster: vitreous (quartz), is the color of a mineral's
quartz is colorless. a very pale yellow color. ferric state results in a Based on their luster, minerals can be pearlescent, silky (talc), fine powder, which can be
purple color. divided into three categories. resinous, or earthy. used to identify it.
24 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 25

How to Recognize Minerals Electricity

Generation
Piezoelectricity and
PIEZOELECTRICITY
The generation of electric currents
that can occur when mechanical
tension redistributes the negative
and positive charges in a crystal.
Positive
charge
mineral's physical properties are very important for recognizing it at first glance.

A
pyroelectricity are Tourmaline is an example.

One physical property is hardness. One mineral is harder than another when the phenomena exhibited by certain
crystals, such as quartz, which
PRESSURE

former can scratch the latter. A mineral's degree of hardness is based on a acquire a polarized charge Negative
scale, ranging from 1 to 10, that was created by German mineralogist Friedrich because exposure to temperature
change or mechanical tension
charge

Mohs. Another physical property of a mineral is its tenacity, or cohesion—that is, creates a difference in electrical
its degree of resistance to rupture, deformation, or crushing. Yet another is potential at their ends.
PYROELECTRICITY
magnetism, the ability of a mineral to be attracted by a magnet. The generation of electric currents
that can occur when a crystal is
subjected to changes in
Positive
temperature and, consequently,
charge
Exfoliation and Fracture TOURMALINE
is a mineral of the
changes in volume.

HEAT
When a mineral tends to break along the silicate group.
planes of weak bonds in its crystalline Negative
structure, it separates into flat sheets parallel to COLOR charge
its surface. This is called exfoliation. Minerals that Some tourmaline
do not exfoliate when they break are said to crystals can have
exhibit fracture, which typically occurs in irregular two or more colors.
patterns.

TYPES OF EXFOLIATION

FRACTURE
can be irregular,
conchoidal, smooth,
Cubic Octahedral Dodecahedral
splintery, or earthy.

IRREGULAR FRACTURE
An uneven, splintery
mineral surface DENSITY
Rhombohedral Prismatic and Pinacoidal reflects the structure and
Pinacoidal (Basal) chemical composition of a
mineral. Gold and platinum
are among the most dense
minerals.

7 to 7.5
IS THE HARDNESS OF THE
TOURMALINE ON THE MOHS SCALE.
MOHS SCALE
ranks 10 minerals, from the softest to the hardest. Each
mineral can be scratched by the one that ranks above it.

1.
TALC
is the softest
mineral. 2.
GYPSUM
can be scratched
by a fingernail. 3.
CALCITE
is as hard as a
bronze coin. 4.
FLUORITE
can be scratched
by a knife. 5.
APATITE
can be scratched
by a piece of glass. 6. ORTHOCLASE
can be scratched
by a drill bit. 7.
QUARTZ
can be scratched
by tempered steel. 8. TOPAZ
can be scratched
with a steel file. 9.
CORUNDUM
can be scratched
only by diamond. 10.
DIAMOND
is the hardest
mineral.
26 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 27

A Desert of Minerals Salt Deposits

Hydrothermal activity occurs when
underground water comes in contact
3
EXIT
The hot water is
expelled through
he Dallol region is part of the Afar depression in Ethiopia. It is known as “the

T
with volcanic heat. The heat causes the the hornito.

devil's kitchen” because it has the highest average temperature in the world, water to rise at high pressure through layers
of salt and sulfur. The water then dissolves
93° F (34° C). Dallol is basically a desert of minerals with an ivory-colored the salt and sulfur, which precipitate out as
OLD,
crust, sprinkled with green ponds and towers of sulfurous salt, in shades of orange, INACTIVE
the water cools at the surface. As a result,
ponds and hornitos are created. The richness
HORNITO
called hornitos (8 to 10 feet [2.5–3 m] high), many of which are active and spit out of their coloring may be explained by their
2
HEAT
Contact with hot rock
boiling water. sulfurous composition and by the presence
of certain bacteria.
maintains the water's
temperature.

8 to 10 feet
TYPES OF HORNITOS (2.5-3 m)
There are two types of hornitos: high
Red Hot water
active ones, which forcefully
Sea YEMEN rising from ASCENT
ETHIOPIA ERITREA expel boiling water, and inactive
the subsoil 1 The hot water starts
Latitude 9° N
ones, which simply contain salt. to rise underground.
SUDAN
DALLOL
Longitude 39° E CROSS SECTION
ACTIVE INACTIVE
Afar It expels boiling Composed of salt, the hornito
Depression water, and it is no longer expels water. It was
SOMALIA constantly growing. active in the past. YOUNG,
DALLOL VOLCANO ACTIVE
ETHIOPIA HORNITO
Location Afar Depression Boiling
Explosion Crater water
Type of volcano Sea Level When its exterior
Elevation –125 feet (–48 m) is dark, a hornito is
Last eruption 1926 Dallol is located at 125 feet several months old.
KENYA (48 m) below sea level.
Annual salt extraction 135,000 tons

3.3 billion tons

(3 billion metric tons)
TOTAL RESERVE OF ROCK SALT
IN THE AFAR DEPRESSION

YOUNG DEPOSIT
Newer deposits have a
white color, which
MINERALIZATION PROCESS becomes darker over time.
Water expelled from its magmatic TURBAN
This piece of clothing
spring erupts, surfacing as thermal
protects workers from the
water. When the water evaporates, POND
extreme temperatures of
salt deposits are formed. Boiling water emerges
the desert and the
from the hornitos and
intensity of the Sun while
forms small ponds on
OLD DEPOSIT they extract salt.

HEAT
the surface.
The dark coloring
indicates that this deposit
Manual Extraction
3 The heat causes the is several months old. Salt is extracted without machinery. Defying the arid climate,
water to evaporate. inhabitants of the Borena region in southern Ethiopia extract
Salt deposits form
on the surface.
the mineral by hand for a living. They wear turbans to protect
themselves from the harmful effects of the Sun. Camels then carry OTHER MINERALS
the day's load to the nearest village. In addition to sulfurs and
ASCENT sulfates, potassium
2 Water rises to the chloride, an excellent soil
surface through fertilizer, is also extracted
layers of salt and from the Dallol.
sulfur deposits.

1
HEAT 148,800 tons Borena
A Black, Muslim, Afar-
Volcanic heat
warms the water
(135,000 metric tons) speaking ethnic group,
whose members extract
underground.
per year salt in the Dallol. The
Borena represent 4
Amount of salt obtained manually percent of the Ethiopian
in the Afar (or Danakil) depression population.
28 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 29

The Essence of Crystals INTERNAL CRYSTALLINE NETWORK

A crystal's structure is repeated on the inside, even in the
arrangement of its smallest parts: chlorine and sodium ions. In this
case, the electrical forces (attraction among opposite ions and
ll minerals take on a crystalline structure as they form.

A
repulsion among similar ones) form cubes, which creates stability.
Most crystals originate when molten rock from inside However, different mineral compositions can take many other
possible forms.
the Earth cools and hardens. Crystallography is the
branch of science that studies the growth, shape, and LEGEND
geometric characteristics of crystals. The arrangement of
atoms in a crystal can be determined using X-ray Chlorine Anion
This nonmetal can
Sodium Cation
This metal can
diffraction. The relationship between chemical only acquire a only acquire a
composition of the crystal, arrangement of atoms, and maximum negative
charge of 1.
maximum positive
charge of 1.
bond strengths among atoms is studied in crystallographic
chemistry.
7 Crystalline The combination of two
ions results in a cubic
form. When there are

Systems more than two ions, other

structures are formed.

IONIC BOND
Typical of metallic elements that tend to lose electrons
BEFORE AFTER BASIC FORMS OF ATOMIC BONDING
in the presence of other atoms with a negative charge. BONDING BONDING
When a chlorine atom captures an electron from a This graphic represents an atom's internal
sodium atom (metallic), both become electrically crystalline network.
charged and mutually attract each other. The sodium
Na Na+ The chlorine atom gains an electron
atom shares an electron (negative charge) and (negative charge) and becomes a
becomes positively charged, whereas the chlorine negatively charged ion (anion).
completes its outer shell, becoming negative.
Cl Cl-

Sodium
Atom

The sodium atom loses

an electron and becomes CUBE TETRAHEDRON
positively charged. Salt (Halite) Silica
Chlorine
Sodium Atom 1 chlorine atom + 1 silicon atom +
Atom 1 sodium atom 4 oxygen atoms

The anion and the cation (positive

ion) are electrically attracted to
Example: Chlorine one another. They bond, forming a
Halite (salt) Atom new, stable compound.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CRYSTAL AND GLASS

Glass is an amorphous solid. Because it solidifies quickly, the
particles lose mobility before organizing themselves.
COVALENT BOND
This type of bond occurs between two nonmetallic
elements, such as nitrogen and oxygen. The atoms are
geometrically organized to share electrons from their outer
shells. This way, the whole structure becomes more stable.

Nitrogen The nitrogen atom

Atom needs three electrons
to stabilize its outer CUBIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC MODEL OF A ATOMIC MODEL OF GLASS
Hydrogen shell; the hydrogen is created through the CRYSTAL Solidification prevents the
Atom CRYSTALS OF COMMON SALT spatial equilibrium between
atom needs only one. The particles combine particles from organizing
When salt forms larger crystals, different ions, which attract
The union of all four their shape can be seen under a each other, and similar ions, slowly in regular, stable themselves. This makes the
Example:
Ammonia atoms creates a stable microscope. which repel each other. shapes. structure irregular.
state.así la logran.
30 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 31

Crystalline Symmetry HOW MINERALS

CRYSTALLIZE

MONOCLINIC
RHOMBIC
22%
There are seven
crystalline systems.
Rhombic
Three nonequivalent
crystallographic axes
here are more than 4,000 minerals on Earth. They appear in nature in two ways: without an 32%

T
CUBIC The 32 existing crystal classes are meet at 90º angles.
identifiable form or with a definite arrangement of atoms. The external expressions of these 12% grouped into these crystalline systems.
TRICLINIC Topaz
arrangements are called crystals, of which there are 32 classes. Crystals are characterized by 7% TETRAGONAL

their organized atomic structure, called a crystalline network, built from a fundamental unit (unit HEXAGONAL TRIGONAL
12% Trigonal
This system includes the most
cell). These networks can be categorized into the seven crystalline systems according to the crystal's 8% 9% characteristic rhombohedrons,
as well as hexagonal prisms
arrangement. They can also be organized into 14 three-dimensional networks, known as the Bravais and pyramids. Three equal
lattices. axes meet at 120º,
Triclinic with one axis
meeting at 90º
These crystals have very odd
to the center.

Typical Characteristics Cubic Tetragonal shapes. They are not

symmetrical from one end to Rhodochrosite
Pinacoids
These crystals are shaped like
Three crystallographic axes the other. None of their three
A crystal is a homogeneous solid cubes, but one of their facets is Prism and
meet at 90° angles. axes meet at 90º angles.
whose chemical elements exhibit an longer than the others. All three Basal
organized internal structure. A unit cell axes meet at 90º angles, but one Labradorite Pinacoid
Diamond
refers to the distribution of atoms or axis is longer than the other two.
Bipyramid
molecules whose repetition in three
dimensions makes up the
Hexagonal Monoclinic Scheelite
prisms have six sides, with 120º Prisms look like tetragonal
crystalline structure. The
angles. From one end, the cross crystals cut at an angle. Prism and
existence of elements with
section is hexagonal. Their axes do not meet at Domes
shared symmetry allows the 32
90º angles.
crystal classes to be categorized
into seven groups. These groups Vanadinite Prisms,
are based on pure geometric shapes, Domes, and
such as cubes, prisms, and pyramids. Two
Brazilianite
Trigonal or
Rhombohedral Pinacoids
THE MOST COMMON Shapes
SHAPES Simple
LEGEND Rhombus
Cube

Trigonal
Base-
Octahedron Trapezohedron
centered
CRYSTALLINE Triclinic Rhombus
SYSTEM Shapes
Rhombo- Ditrigonal Centered
dodecahedron Tetragonal Scalenohedron Rhombus
Hexagonal Prism and
Prism Ditetragonal
Prisms
Prism
Tetrahedron Combined Face-
with Pinacoids centered
Triclinic Triclinic
BRAVAIS Hexagonal Rhombus
LATTICES Network Network
Bipyramid
Prism Tetragonal
Bipyramid
Hexagonal
Prism Combined
with Hexagonal Simple Vertical Axis
Bipyramid Monoclinic
Hexagonal Network
Prism and
CRYSTAL
Bravais Lattices Prism
Combined with Bipyramid
SYMMETRY CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
Simple Cubic Basal Pinacoid Monoclinic
In 1850, Auguste Bravais A crystal's ideal plane of symmetry Frontal
Network Network OR COORDINATE AXES
demonstrated theoretically passes through its center and divides it Plane
that atoms can be organized into Centered on
into two equal, symmetrical parts. Its
only 14 types of three-dimensional its Bases Transverse Axis
three crystallographic axes pass through
networks. These network types Body-centered Simple its center. A crystal's longest vertical
are therefore named after him. Cubic Network
Only 14 network Tetragonal axis is called “c,” its transverse axis “b,”
and its shortest (from front to back) “a.”
Face-centered
combinations are possible. Centered
The angle between c and b is called
Horizontal
Plane
Anteroposterior Axis
alpha; the one between a and c, beta; Sagittal
Cubic Network THESE COMBINATIONS ARE CALLED BRAVAIS LATTICES.
Tetragonal and the one between a and b, gamma. Plane
32 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 33

Precious Crystals 3
POLISHING
The shaping of the facets of the finished gem
BRILLIANCE LIGHT
enters the diamond.

The internal faces of the The facets of the

recious stones are characterized by their beauty, color, transparency, and rarity. Examples are

P
100 pavilion reflect the light
diamond act as mirrors
55.1 among themselves.
diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. Compared to other gems, semiprecious stones are 34.3° BEZEL because they are cut at exact
angles and proportions.
13.53 CROWN
composed of minerals of lesser value. Today diamonds are the most prized gem for their “fire,” luster, 1.9 GIRDLE STAR
The light is reflected
back to the crown in
and extreme hardness. The origin of diamonds goes back millions of years, but people began to cut them 40.9°
TABLE
the opposite direction.
43.3 FIRE LIGHT
only in the 14th century. Most diamond deposits are located in South Africa, Namibia, and Australia. PAVILLION Flashes of color from a well- The rays divide
cut diamond. Each ray of light into their
is refracted into the colors of components.
IDEAL DIAMOND the rainbow.
STRUCTURE Each color reflects
CUTTING AND CARVING CARVING: With a
Diamond C separately in the

Mineral composed of crystallized carbon in a

2 The diamond will be cut by another diamond
to reach final perfection. This task is carried
chisel, hammer,
and circular saws,
the diamond is
crown.

cubic system. The beauty of its glow is due to a out by expert cutters. shaped.
very high refraction index and the great dispersion of
light in its interior, which creates an array of colors. It CUTTING: Using
is the hardest of all minerals, and it originates B a fine steel blade,
underground at great depths. the diamond is
hit with a sharp
blow to split it.

EXTRACTION
1 Diamonds are obtained from kimberlite
pipes left over from old volcanic
eruptions, which brought the diamonds
INSPECTION:
up from great depths. A Exfoliation is
KIMBERLEY determined in order
MINE to cut the diamond.
ERODED LAVA
RING OF WASTE
MATERIAL
miles
(km)
MOUTH

microns
0.3 mi
(0.5 km)
320
MEASURED VERTICALLY
(0.32 mm)
COOLED
LAVA
0.6 mi THE CHEMISTRY OF DIAMONDS
MAIN CONDUIT

(1.0 km) Strongly bonded carbon atoms crystallize in a cubic

structure. Impurities or structural flaws can cause
diamonds to show a hint of various colors, such as
0.9 mi

27.6
yellow, pink, green, and bluish white.
(1.5 km)

XENOLITHS
tons 8 CARATS
COMMON
CUTS
BRILLIANT EMERALD PRINCESS TRILLION

1.2 mi
(2.0 km) (25 metric tons) A diamond can
have many shapes,
of mineral must be removed to 6.5 CARATS
ROOT

as long as its
obtain a 1 carat diamond. facets are carefully
1.5 mi 0.03 CARAT PEAR HEART OVAL MARQUISE
(2.5 km) calculated to
1 carat = 0.007 ounce maximize its
PRESSURE (0.2 grams) brilliance.
ZONE 0.5 inch 0.3 inch 0.08 inch
(13 mm) (6.5 mm) (2 mm)
PRECIOUS STONES SEMIPRECIOUS STONES

Gems
Mineral, rock, or petrified material that,
after being cut and polished, is used in
making jewelry. The cut and number of pieces that DIAMOND EMERALD OPAL RUBY SAPPHIRE AMETHYST TOPAZ GARNET TURQUOISE
can be obtained is determined based on the The presence of any color is Chromium gives it its This amorphous silica Its red color comes Blue to colorless corundum. Quartz whose color is determined A gem of variable color, composed A mix of iron, aluminum, Aluminum phosphate and
particular mineral and its crystalline structure. due to chemical impurities. characteristic green color. substance has many colors. from chromium. They can also be yellow. by manganese and iron of silicon, aluminum, and fluorine magnesium, and vanadium greenish blue copper
34 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 35

Diamonds in History 13.53

100
THE TAYLOR-BURTON DIAMOND
This diamond, with a weight of 69.42
carats, was auctioned in 1969. The day
after buying it, Cartier sold it to the Elizabeth
THE LEGEND OF THE VALLEY OF DIAMONDS
Alexander the Great introduced the legend of the Valley of Diamonds
to Europe. According to this ancient account, later incorporated into
the book The Thousand and One Nights, there was an inaccessible
iamonds are a sign of status, and their monetary value is determined Taylor

D
actor Richard Burton for $1.1 million. His valley located in the mountains of northern India. The bed of
this valley was covered with diamonds. To obtain them, raw
by the law of supply and demand. First discovered by Hindus in 500 wife Elizabeth Taylor tripled
meat was thrown in the valley and then fetched by trained
43.3 its value when she sold it
BC, diamonds gained fame in the early 20th century when they were after divorcing him. birds, which would return it encrusted with diamonds.
advertised in the United States as the traditional gift from husbands to
their wives. Some diamonds became famous, however, not only for their FINAL CUT
economic value but also for the tales and myths surrounding them.
The Misfortune of Possessing Hope Cullinan, the Greatest Find
The Hope Diamond is legendary for the harm it brought to its owners Discovered in 1905 in South Africa, this diamond is the biggest ever
since being stolen from the temple of the goddess Sita in India. According found. It was sold to the government of Transvaal two years after its
to the legend, its curse took lives and devoured fortunes. In 1949 diamond discovery for $300,000 (£150,000). It was then given to Edward VII on the
The Great Koh-i-noor Diamond expert Harry Winston bought it and in 1958 donated it to the Smithsonian
Institution, in Washington, D.C., where it can be viewed by the public.
occasion of his 66th birthday. The king entrusted the cutting of the diamond
to Joseph Asscher of The Netherlands, who divided it into 105 pieces.
This diamond, which originated in India, now belongs to the British
royal family. The raja of Malwa owned it for two centuries, until
1304, when it was stolen by the Mongols. In 1739 the Persians took
possession of it. It witnessed bloody battles until finding its way back 9 LARGE AND
to India in 1813, after which point it reached the queen. 96 SMALL PIECES
Joseph Asscher studied
the huge stone for six
months to decide how to
cut it; he then divided it
into nine primary stones
and 96 smaller diamonds.

ORIGINAL CUT THE GREAT

It formerly weighed 186 STAR OF AFRICA
carats with 30 facets that This gem is the second
merged into six facets, largest cut diamond in the
which, in turn, became world, weighing 530
one. This explains its carats. Because it belongs
name: Mountain of Light. to the British Crown, it is

Legend
Over the years, belief in the curse of the Hope Diamond
on display in the Tower
of London.

was reinforced as its owners fell into ruin. Evalyn Walsh

McLean, the last private owner of the diamond, did not
sell it even after several tragedies befell her family.

1669 Louis XIV acquires the gem. He

died in agony of gangrene.

Coronation
1830 Henry Hope buys the diamond
and suffers under the curse; he
soon sells it. Evalyn
of the Queen Walsh
Mother McLean

History 1918 While the stone is in the hands

of members of the McLean
family, the patriarch and two of
The Queen
his daughters die.
In 1856 this diamond was offered to Mother's Crown
Queen Victoria as compensation for the
Sikh wars. She then had it recut. The ORIGINAL CUT The
Koh-i-noor was diminished to 109 carats. purest of blue from the FINAL CUT
presence of boronic
ONLY FOR WOMEN
Because this diamond was
believed to bring unhappiness to
impurities, the diamond's
color is also influenced
by the presence of
nitrogen, which adds a
530 carats
men, the superstitious Queen is the weight of the Cullinan I, the largest
pale yellow shade. stone obtained from the original Cullinan find.
Victoria added a clause to her
will stating that the diamond It is followed by Cullinan II, which weighs
317 carats and is set in the imperial crown.
should only be handed down to
the wives of future kings.
36 MINERALS GRAN ATLAS VISUAL DE LA CIENCIAROCKS
ROCASAND
Y MINERALES
MINERALS 37
37

The Most Three-

dimensional
MINERAL COMBINATIONS
DARK SILICATES
Iron is
added to its
composition.

Common Minerals Structure

Three fourths of the Earth's crust is composed
of silicates with complex structures. Silicas,
IRON AND MAGNESIUM
EXAMPLE: BIOTITE
The color and heaviness of this mineral are caused
by the presence of iron and magnesium ions.
Known as a ferromagnesian mineral, biotite's
FE

ilicates, which form 95 percent of the Earth's crust, are the most feldspars, feldspathoids, scapolites, and zeolites specific gravity varies between 3.2 and 3.6.

S abundant type of mineral. Units of their tetrahedral structure, formed by

the bonding of one silicon and four oxygen ions, combine to create
several types of configurations, from isolated simple tetrahedrons to simple and
AUGITE
all have this type of structure. Their main
characteristic is that their tetrahedrons share
all their oxygen ions, forming a three-
dimensional network with the same unitary
composition. Quartz is part of the silica group.
LIGHT SILICATES
MAGNESIUM
EXAMPLE: MINERAL TALC
This mineral contains variable amounts of
Calcium is added to
its composition.

CA
double chains to sheets and three-dimensional complex networks. They can be calcium, aluminum, sodium, and potassium.
THREE-
light or dark; the latter have iron and magnesium in their chemical structures. DIMENSIONAL
Its specific gravity is, on average, 2.7—much
lower than that of ferromagnesian minerals.
STRUCTURE LATERAL VIEW

Structures Quartz has a complex

three-dimensional
The basic unit of silicates consists of four oxygen ions
located at the vertices of a tetrahedron, surrounding a
Complex structure composed
only of silicon and
silicon ion. Tetrahedrons can form by sharing oxygen ions,
forming simple chains, laminar structures, or complex three-
Structure oxygen. VIEW FROM
ABOVE
This structure occurs when the tetrahedrons
dimensional structures. The structural configuration also
share three of their four oxygen ions with
determines the type of exfoliation or fracture the silicate will neighboring tetrahedrons, spreading out to form CHAINS
exhibit: mica, which is composed of layers, exfoliates into flat a wide sheet. Because the strongest bonds are
sheets, whereas quartz fractures. formed between silicon and oxygen, exfoliation Clays are complex
runs in the direction of the other bonds, parallel
minerals with a very
to the sheets. There are several examples of this
type of structure, but the most common ones fine grain and a
are micas and clays. The latter can retain water sheetlike structure.
Simple within its sheets, which makes its size vary with
hydration.

Structure
All silicates have the same basic
component: a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron.
This structure consists of four oxygen ions
that surround a much smaller silicon ion.
Because this tetrahedron does not share
oxygen ions with other tetrahedrons, it
keeps its simple structure.

UNCOMBINED OXYGEN
COMPACTED
SILICATES
SILICON
This group includes all
silicates composed of
RESULTING SHAPE
independent
tetrahedrons of silicon KAOLINITE The quartz crystal
and oxygen. Example: maintains a hexagonal shape
olivine. with its six sides converging
to a tip (pyramid).

SILICATE
MOLECULES

WATER
MOLECULES
OLIVINE

SILICATE
MOLECULES A CRYSTAL OF
GREAT VOLUME
For a quartz crystal to
acquire large
dimensions, it needs a
great deal of silicon
and oxygen, much
time, and ample space.
38 MINERALS ROCKS AND MINERALS 39

The Nonsilicates In Alloys and Compounds

ulfurs, oxides, sulfates, pure elements, carbonates, hydroxides, As was the case with silicates, it is very difficult to find

S and phosphates are less abundant than silicates in the Earth's

crust. They make up eight percent of minerals, but they are very
important economically. They are also important components of rock.
rocks composed of pure nonsilicate elements—elements
with atoms of only one type. The constituent elements of nature,
metal and nonmetal, tend to join together and form compounds
and alloys. From a chemical perspective, even ice, solidified water,
is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Some compounds
Since ancient times, some have been appreciated for their usefulness or are used as ores, meaning that they are mined for their
constituent elements. For example, pure aluminum is obtained
simply for their beauty. Others are still being researched for possible from bauxite. Other compound minerals, however, are used for
industrial uses. their specific properties, which can be very different from those
of each of their constituent elements. This is the case with
magnetite, which is an iron oxide.

Very Few in a Pure State Native Elements

It is rare for native chemical elements to be found in the
In addition to carbon—which forms minerals such
Earth's crust in a pure state. In general, they must be
as diamond and graphite when crystallized—
extracted from other minerals by means of industrial chemical
copper, gold, sulfur, silver, and platinum are other
processes. However, they can occasionally be found in rocks in a
minerals that are found as native elements.
pure state. Diamonds, for instance, are pure carbon.

MALACHITE
ASSOCIATION
The greenish color
indicates the Carbonates
formation of
copper sulfate. Simpler than silicates, minerals in this
group are composed of a complex
anion associated with a positive ion.
FLUORITE
Calcium carbonate (calcite, the main

Halides component of limestone) and calcium

magnesium carbonate (dolomite) are
the most common carbonates.
FORMATION OF DENDRITES GYPSUM ROSETTE are binary compounds. One halite is
CHALCOPYRITE Microscopic forms table salt (or sodium chloride). Halites
Iron, copper,
and sulfur are
that appear when
copper solidifies and Sulfates have many uses: fluorite is used in the
industrial production of steel, and
sylvite (potassium chloride) is used as
present. crystallizes
Gypsum, widely used in fertilizer.
construction, is a calcium sulfate
that forms in the sea and contains
water in its structure. Without
water, calcium sulfate forms ENCRUSTED “FOOL'S GOLD”
COPPER another mineral, anhydrite, which is IN ROCK was an early name
also used in construction. Barytine for pyrite because
APATITE Here crystals are of its glitter.
is a sulfate from which the metal
1.2 inches encrusted in slate, a
barium is extracted.
(3 CM) metamorphic rock.

Copper nuggets
can reach a high
degree of purity.
Phosphates Sulfides
Both apatite, used as fertilizer, and
the semiprecious stone turquoise are are found in metal ores and are
LIMONITE phosphates. These materials have a associated with sulfur. Examples
complex structure based on an ion of sulfides are pyrite (iron), 0.04 inch

Hydroxides composed of one phosphorus and four

oxygen atoms. These ions, in turn, are
associated with compound ions of
chalcopyrite (iron and copper),
argentite (silver), cinnabar
(mercury), galena (lead), and
(1 mm)

Known in chemical terms as a base, other elements. sphalerite (zinc). PYRITE

MAGNETITE these types of minerals appear through

Oxides the association of oxide with water.

Limonite, an iron ore used as pigment
because of its reddish color, and bauxite
STRUCTURE
OF PYRITE
Metal associations with oxygen atoms. (or aluminum hydroxide) are among the The cubic shape of
Ilmenite, hematite, and chromite are ores most abundant hydroxides. Bauxite is crystals comes from
from which titanium, iron, and chrome the ore from which aluminum, a metal the balanced location
are extracted. Rubies and sapphires are that is becoming more and more widely of iron and sulfur
extracted from corundum. used, is extracted. atoms.