Solid State Transformer (SST)

Daniel Garrido, Federico Rodríguez

1. Introduction
From its origins in the late nineteenth century to the present, electricity has been
generated by large power plants and transported by high voltage transmission lines to
distribution substations. The voltage levels are gradually reduced in order to power the
installations of residential and industrial users.
Worldwide there is a growing trend towards the incorporation of renewable energy
sources, as can be seen in Fig. 1, corresponding to the statistics of the installed capacity of
renewable energy worldwide during the last five years [1]. In Argentina, according to data
from the Ministry of Energy and Mining (MINEM), the advance of renewable energies
represented in 2016 a 1.8% share of demand, with an installed capacity of 800 MW. However,
there are national and provincial policies tending to promote a greater participation of
renewable energies in the energy matrix. As an example, Law 27.191 aims to contribute
renewable energy sources to reach 8% of national electricity consumption by 2018 and 20%
by 2025.

Fig. 1: worldwide growth of the installed capacity of renewable

energies.

The greater penetration of renewable energy sources, driven mainly by the installation of
solar parks and wind generators, originates a new paradigm characterized by a high
variability in the injection of power and by the distributed generation of electricity. This
makes it increasingly difficult to ensure reliable and stable operation of electrical systems
depending only on the conventional distribution architecture with limited control capacity
[2]. The appearance of problems associated with voltage control, frequency stability and
spurious trips of the protection systems affect the power quality of the system [3].
 To deal with these problems, it is necessary to modernize the electrical system in order
to adapt to the requirements of the new electricity generation and consumption scheme.
Intelligent power grids, known as Smart Grids, propose using advanced technologies and a
bidirectional electricity and communications infrastructure to monitor and manage the flow
of energy in the grid in real time. The main objective is to coordinate the needs and capacities
of each element of the system so that it operates efficiently [2], [4].
The basic unit of a Smart Grid is called microgrid, and consists of a small-scale integrated
energy system formed by interconnected loads and distributed energy sources. The main
advantages of the implementation of a microgrid are the following [5]:
• Ease of incorporating small electric generators.
• Reduction of the losses in the transmission and electrical distribution system, because
of the proximity between the loads and the distributed generation.
• Possibility of feeding loads from energy storage equipment installed in the microgrid,
even in cases of peak demand or temporary interruption of the main power supply.

Microgrids can operate connected to a medium voltage (MV) distribution grid or in

isolated operation mode. In this mode of operation, the electricity is provided completely by
the sources of distributed generation available in the microgrid. All the loads and the
distributed energy sources of the microgrid are interconnected by means of a common bus
that can be either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). The connection of storages,
renewable energy sources and loads to the main bus requires the use of electronic power
converters to adapt the different types of current (DC or AC), voltage levels and control the
energy flows.

Fig. 2: AC microgrid configuration.

A microgrid with an AC bus as shown in Fig. 2, needs multiple stages of DC/DC and
DC/AC conversion to be able to connect the sources and loads to the bus, affecting the
efficiency of the system. In the case of a micro-network with DC bus, as shown in Fig. 3, the
number of conversion stages required is reduced, increasing the efficiency of the system [On
integration of SST with zonal DC microgrid].
 Fig. 3: DC microgrid configuration.

For both configurations, the connection between the distribution grid and the feeder bus
of the microgrid is carried out by means of a low frequency transformer (LFT), in charge of
providing galvanic isolation and reducing the voltage levels of the distribution grid to the
voltage levels used within the microgrid.
Although the LFT is a robust equipment, with high efficiency and reduced cost, it has no
control capacity. In the last two decades, a new device called Solid State Transformer (SST)
has aroused the interest of numerous researchers. In addition to being able to provide the
main functions of an LFT, the SST is capable of providing ancillary services such as
instantaneous voltage regulation, disturbance rejection, bidirectional power flow, capacity of
integration of renewable sources to the electrical system, correction of the power factor,
among others [6].
It is considered that the SST will be the device that replaces the conventional LFT in future
electricity distribution grids. Its use can also be extended to other scenarios such as electric
traction applications, implementation of fast chargers for electric vehicles and also as a
fundamental component in aircraft and ships with complex electrical systems that have
distributed generation sources.
The additional control capacity of the SST over the LFT and its ability to integrate
renewable sources make it an essential equipment in the implementation of microgrids [6].
Fig. 4 shows the implementation of a microgrid based on the SST, which provides DC and
AC ports to interconnect the elements of the microgrid, while the connection to the
distribution grid made through a MVAC port.
Despite the potential functions of the SST, its practical implementation with current
technology presents certain technical challenges, mainly associated with the electrical efforts
to which the power semiconductors are subjected when operating at high voltage levels,
resulting in a complex and high cost equipment. The purpose of this paper is to present a
review that allows the reader to have an introduction to the basic operation of an SST, the
ancillary services that can offer to a microgrid and the main design challenges that arise when
the SST must be linked to a MV distribution grid.
 Fig. 4: SST based microgid.

2. The Solid State Transformer

Different configurations of SSTs have been proposed and classified in [2], [4] (synthesis
of the sst). These configurations depend on the number of conversion stages, the availability
of a DC bus and the location of the stage that provides galvanic isolation to the SST.
Of the possible configurations, formed by three stages as shown in Fig. 5, is the
configuration that provides the greatest amount of functionalities and control flexibility. The
presence of DC buses (called DC links) makes it possible to uncouple the MV end from the
LV end, which is possible to achieve independent control of the reactive power compensated
at both ends, while providing a direct connection for DC loads and generators. For these
reasons, the configuration of three stages is the most suitable for a microgrid.

Fig. 5: 3-stages SST configuration.

2.a. AC/DC stage

The first conversion stage links the SST to the distribution grid, allowing the MVAC
voltage of the distribution grid to be converted into MVDC. This conversion stage provides
functionalities such as filtering of harmonic voltage and current components, compensation
of reactive power in the MV grid and correction of power factor. In turn, by controlling the
active current, it is possible to maintain the voltage of the MVDC link at a constant value,
even while AC voltage level of the MV grid suffers disturbances.

2.b. DC/DC stage

The possibility of having two DC ports with different voltage levels allows to connect
loads and generators of direct current with different electrical characteristics. In the MVDC
port, it is possible to connect loads such as fast chargers of electric vehicles, and sources of
distributed generation of large volume (photovoltaic farms, wind generators and energy
storage systems). The LVDC port facilitates the connection of direct current loads that require
lower voltage levels, or small photovoltaic panels and battery banks.
The second stage of the SST is located between these two DC ports. Internally, it is
constituted by a DC/AC converter, a medium frequency transformer (MFT) and an AC/DC
converter. The MFT is necessary to provide the SST with galvanic isolation while creating a
transformation ratio of voltages and currents between both ends of the transformer. When
operating at a high frequency, it is possible to considerably reduce the size of this transformer
with respect to a LFT, providing an additional advantage to the SST in applications where
the volume/weight represents a restriction [7].

2.c. DC/AC stage

The last stage of the SST usually contains a single-phase or three-phase inverter that is
connected to the LVDC link and generates an alternating current output. The SST is capable
of providing a sinusoidal voltage waveform of amplitude and nominal frequency regardless
of the current supplied to the load [8].
At the same time, controlling the variables of this stage, the SST can provide an interesting
ancillary service to a microgrid, known as soft load reduction [9]. In a traditional microgrid,
an increase in the power consumed by the loads generates a disturbance in the generators
that fix the frequency of the AC voltage. The SST, by techniques of control and identification
of load, can modify the consumption pattern of the loads and generate a smooth reduction of
the power consumed, within a limited control range.

3. Mid-voltage connection
The connection of a SST to the MV distribution grid requires semiconductor devices
capable of blocking high voltage values. The existing semiconductor technologies impose
limitations and strict requirements for the design of the power converters used mainly in the
AC/DC stage and in the DC/DC stage.
For these reasons, the main design challenge of the SST is associated with the handling
of voltages between 6 kV and 20 kV by the semiconductor devices. If a device with a blocking
voltage selected very close to the operating voltage, the risk of failure will be high, adversely
affecting the reliability of the SST. On the other hand, if the selection of the blocking voltage
of the semiconductor is made with excessive safety margins, efficiency and performance will
be affected, since a higher blocking voltage semiconductor requires a layer of thicker silicon
that generates greater losses. [ABB]
The selection of a semiconductor device depending on the blocking voltage it can support
must take into account three factors. The first of these factors is associated with the probability
of failure by cosmic radiation that limits the maximum DC voltage that can block the device
without increasing the probability of localized damage. The second factor is associated to the
maximum tension that the device can block in a repetitive way, without suffering an
uncontrolled increase in its temperature that causes its destruction. The third factor is given
by the maximum voltage the device can switch for a given current while remaining in the
safe operating area (SOA) specified by the manufacturer.
[Vedat: In this section, our intention is to briefly describe possible design approaches
found in the literature in order to implement the SST: (a) serial connection of keys, (b) single-
cell design or (c) multicell modular design, mentioning the characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages of each alternative. It is possible to prepare a comparative table of the latest
implementations at a prototype level that have been developed in recent years.]

3. Conclusions
The Solid State Transformer provides additional functions impossible to obtain by using
a conventional low frequency transformer. Mainly, the capacity to integrate distributed
generation and new loads such as fast chargers for electric vehicles, added to the possibility
of controlling the power flow in a bidirectional way, make the SST an essential component
for the development of microgrids.
Current semiconductor technology imposes restrictions on the practical implementation
of the SST. The widespread use of SST depends on the development of reliable technologies
applied to the power converters that constitute the equipment and must withstand high
voltage levels. Despite this, in the last 10 years, several experimental prototypes have been
designed to demonstrate the operation of the SST and its advantages compared to the LFT. It
is expected that in the medium term technological developments in new semiconductors
enable the creation of SST with fewer components, reducing the complexity of the system
while improving its reliability.
[Vedat: this is not the final version of the summary/conclusion section]
5. References
[1] “Renewable capacity highlights,” International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2017.
[2] “Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids,” International Energy Agency, Paris, 2011.
[3] E. J. Coster, J. M. A. Myrzik, B. Kruimer, and W. L. Kling, “Integration Issues of
Distributed Generation in Distribution Grids,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 99, no. 1, pp. 28–39, 2011.
[4] S. Borlase, Smart Grids: Infrastructure, Technology, and Solutions. Boca Raton: CRC
Press, 2013.
[5] R. H. Lasseter, "Smart Distribution: Coupled Microgrids," Proc. IEEE, vol. 99, no. 6, pp.
1074-1082, 2011.
[6] J. E. Huber and J. W. Kolar, “Applicability of Solid-State Transformers in Today and
Future Distribution Grids,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 00, no. 0, pp. 1–10, 2017.
[7] J. E. Huber, J. W. Kolar, and Johann W. Kolar, “Volume / Weight / Cost Comparison of a
1 MVA 10 kV / 400 V Solid-State against a Conventional Low-Frequency Distribution
Transformer,” Proc. Energy Convers. Congr. Expo, pp. 4545–4552, 2014.
[8] M. Liserre, G. Buticchi, M. Andresen, G. De Carne, and L. F. Costa, “The Smart
Transformer: A solid-state transformer tailored to provide ancillary services to the
distribution grid,” IEEE Power Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 56–67, 2017.
[9] S. Falcones, X. Mao, and R. Ayyanar, “Topology comparison for solid state transformer
implementation,” IEEE PES Gen. Meet., pp. 1–8, 2010.