Nuclear Energy Today PDF

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Nuclear Development
Nuclear
Energy
Today
NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Foreword
All the forecasts of world energy demand for the next 50 years point towards
very significant increases in consumption. A big share of this new demand will
come from areas of the world where existing energy consumption is now relatively
low in comparison with the OECD countries, and which are becoming increasingly
integrated in the global economy. As energy demand grows, all societies worldwide
will face a real challenge in providing the energy needed to feed economic
growth and improve social development, while enhancing protection of the
environment.
In this context, it is not difficult to conclude that it is the responsibility of policy
makers to establish energy policies that meet that challenge while being robust
enough to cope with the risks associated with the globalisation of the world
economy. Diversification, security of supply, protection of the environment and
technology development are key elements of any energy policy that tries to put into
the markets enough energy at a reasonable price in a sustainable way.
Among the different energy sources that are contributing significantly to world
supply none appears to policy makers as more complex than nuclear energy. The
economic, technological and social implications of nuclear power makes any decision
something that goes far beyond the normal actors of the market place.
2
The serious questions our societies are asking about nuclear energy include the
safety of nuclear installations, the ultimate disposal of long-lived radioactive waste,
nuclear energy’s potential to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the economy of
the whole fuel cycle, especially in liberalised electricity markets, and the non-
proliferation of nuclear weapons.
The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) has worked in many of these areas for
more than 40 years. The NEA methodology calls for having most of the main world
specialists in every field work together to provide a collective analysis in an objective
way as a fundamental input for governments.
The work of the NEA is based on the scientific and technical analysis of the
various components of the entire nuclear fuel cycle. This base of science and
technology is the solid ground on which policy makers can establish nuclear and
energy policies, once the social factors have been incorporated.
It is very difficult to describe in a short publication all the aspects that need to be
considered to establish a robust nuclear policy. Yet, I think that this NEA publication
can help policy makers in fulfilling their responsibilities, and other readers in better
understanding what are the realities surrounding one of the most impressive
technologies of the past 60 years; a technology that is based on something we
cannot see, the internal forces that link together the basic physical entities, which
form that smallest component of matter, the atom.
To the extent to which the atom can be mastered without unacceptable risk, the
contribution of nuclear energy to the sustainable development of our societies is on
the table.
Luis E. Echávarri
NEA Director-General
3
4
Introduction
This book addresses today’s important questions about nuclear energy by
providing an authoritative and factual introduction to the relevant issues. It is
primarily intended for policy makers, but should also be useful to interested
members of the public, industrial managers, academics and journalists.
Chapter 1 gives a brief overview. The rest of the book describes the fundamental
issues important to a discussion of nuclear energy today. Chapters 2 and 3 provide
an introduction to the basic sciences and technologies involved. Chapters 4 to 8
set out the facts and issues connected with radioactive waste management,
nuclear safety, radiological protection, economics, and international law and
non-proliferation. The ninth chapter assesses nuclear energy in the context of
sustainable development. The last chapter looks to the future, and to the potential
of new nuclear-based technologies.
The information throughout is necessarily brief but, at the end of each chapter,
there is an annotated list that guides the reader to a fuller set of references at the
end of the book that are appropriate for further study. Important principles and
terms are normally briefly defined throughout the text with fuller definitions
provided in the Glossary. Text in green indicates a definition can be found in the
Glossary. If the term appears more than once in a chapter it will usually only be
highlighted on its first usage.
5
Table of Contents
Foreword 2
Introduction 5
1. Overview of Nuclear Energy Today 9
2. Basic Principles of Nuclear Energy 13

Nuclear fission 13
Basic components of nuclear reactors 16
Reactor technologies 17
Nuclear fusion 20
3. The Nuclear Fuel Cycle 23

The front end 24
The back end 27
Decommissioning 28
4. Management of Radioactive Waste 31

Radioactive waste types 31
Waste management principles 32
Waste management practice 33
Geological disposal of long-lived waste 35
Transport 37
Societal and policy considerations 38
5. Nuclear Safety 41
Basic elements of nuclear safety 41
Operating experience 46
Impact of market deregulation on safety 47
Safety aspects of future reactors 48
6
6. Radiological Protection 49
Scientific and medical background 49
The radiological protection system and its regulatory basis 54
Accident response 56
Accident recovery 57
7. The Economics of Nuclear Energy 59

Costs, risks and liabilities 59
Competitive aspects 61
8. International Nuclear Law and Non-proliferation 65

International nuclear law 65
Non-proliferation 70
9. Nuclear Energy and Sustainable Development 73

Energy demand 73
Nuclear energy and sustainable development 74
10. The Future of Nuclear Energy 81

Alternative uses of nuclear energy 82
Research and development 85
Conclusions 89
Glossary 91
For Further Information 103
Lists of figures, tables and photo credits 109
7
Chapter 1
Overview of
Nuclear Energy Today
Nuclear energy has grown continuously since its inception – demonstrating

increased performance and efficiency – and today is a major source of energy,
supplying about 17% of the world’s electricity.
Stimulated by the urgency of the Second World countries began nuclear-based generation in the
War, nuclear science progressed rapidly from the 1960s followed by another ten in the 1970s. The
discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick oil crisis of the early seventies provoked a surge
in 1932. Out of this basic knowledge came the in nuclear power plant orders and construction.
discovery in 1939 that when atoms fission (i.e. are Later that decade, the world economic slowdown
split), energy is released. This led in turn to the combined with the declining price of fossil fuels
first controlled chain reaction (1943), the first curtailed the growth of nuclear energy demand.
atomic weapon (1945), and the first production of As this took effect, two accidents, at Three Mile
electricity using nuclear energy (1951). Thus, within Island in the United States (1979) and at
a span of twenty years, nuclear energy developed Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union (1986),
from first principles to practical demonstration. raised serious questions in the public mind about
Following its first application for generating nuclear safety. The overall effect was a significant
electricity in the United States, nuclear energy slowing of nuclear energy’s growth in the nineties.
began to be applied to the production of Nevertheless, some countries continued to push
electricity in the United Kingdom (1953), Russia ahead strongly with reactor construction, thus
(1954), France (1956), and Germany (1961) – contributing to small increases in nuclear
five countries within the first decade. Ten more electricity production (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Historical growth of nuclear energy (1965-2002)

Number
Gigawatts, net of reactors
400 435 436 441 450
Capacity 419
350 Capacity trend 400
Number of reactors 365 352 359
345
300 326 350
250 300
243 253
200 250
150 200
167
100 136 150
50 81 100
72
45
0 5 16 50
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002
Source: IAEA.
9
Sir James Chadwick Altogether, 32 countries have so far produced Table 1.1
discovered the electricity from nuclear reactors, amounting to
neutron in 1932.
Operable reactors by country
over 10 000 reactor-years of operating experience (as of 1 January 2003)
and generating by the end of the first “nuclear
century” over 40 000 Terawatt-hours (TWh) net Country Number of
of electricity. As of 1 January 2003, there were reactors
441 commercially operating nuclear reactors (see United States 104
Table 1.1) representing an installed generating France 59
capacity of about 357 Gigawatts (GWe) net Japan 54
supplying about 7% of the world’s total energy United Kingdom 33
and about 17% of the world’s electricity (see Russian Federation 30
Figures 1.2 and 1.3). Within the OECD area there Germany 19
Republic of Korea 18
Canada 14
India 14
Ukraine 13
Rest of World 83
Total 441
Figure 1.2: World primary energy supply by fuel, 2000
(in percentage) Source: IAEA.
Other
Combustible 0.5
renewables
and waste Coal
11.0 23.5
Hydro 2.3
Nuclear
6.8 Oil
34.9
Gas
21.1
Total: 9 963 Mtoe were 356 nuclear reactors in commercial operation

in 17 countries, representing an installed capacity
of some 306 GWe net and producing about 11% of
the energy supply (about 24% of the electricity
supply). Additionally, 34 reactors were under
construction worldwide that will add a further
Figure 1.3: World electricity generation by fuel, 2000 27 GWe of net capacity.
(in percentage)
Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show the high worldwide
Other reliance on fossil fuels in supplying primary energy
1.6
and producing electricity. The consequent
production of greenhouse gases, which cause
Hydro
17.1 changes in the world’s climate, is a main cause of
Coal the growing emphasis on “decarbonising” the
39.1 world’s economies. Concern for the security of
Nuclear energy supply arising from the concentration of oil
16.9
and natural gas resources among relatively few
Gas Oil suppliers is also an element of reflection in
17.4 7.9
national energy policies. Nuclear energy’s lack of
carbon emissions and the relatively uniform
Total: 15 379 TWh availability of fuel resources worldwide are
focusing attention on its ability to meet these
Source: International Energy Agency. energy policy objectives.
10
Over the last decade, there has been a trend of governmental involvement and public concern
improving nuclear plant performance measured by that makes it unique among energy sources. Many
energy availability. This has led, in recent years, to factors contribute to this, including its military
many countries generating record amounts of origins and potential to be applied to weapons
electricity (see Figure 1.4). For example, the purposes, technical complexity, the long-term
countries experiencing record generation implications of nuclear waste, its complicated
performance during 2001 include Argentina, safety, legal and insurance requirements, the
Brazil, Bulgaria, Finland, France, Germany, India, consequences associated with potential accidents,
the Republic of Korea, Russia, Spain, Switzerland the health effects of exposure to ionising radiation
The first sustained
and the United States. and the large-scale investments required for its atomic chain
Yet despite its maturity, widespread usage and exploitation. Understanding these issues is reaction occurred
steady progress, compared with other energy important, then, to understanding nuclear energy on 2 December
1942 in Chicago,
sources, nuclear energy has a level of today. Illinois, under the
direction of
Dr. Enrico Fermi.
Figure 1.4: Worldwide nuclear power plant energy availability factor (1990-2001)
Per cent
84 83.4
82.3
82 81.1
80 79.2
78.7 78.6
78 77.7
76.2
76
74.2 74.3 74.6
74 72.9
72
70
68
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Source: IAEA, Power Reactor Information System.
The energy availability factor is the percentage of maximum energy generation that a nuclear power plant is capable
of supplying to the electricity grid and is a measure of operational performance.
For further information

See the references listed below provided in the “For Further
Information” section for more in-depth information on:
● The numbers and types of reactors worldwide along
with related information, updated annually, see 1.1
and 1.2.
● Estimates of energy supply and demand by region and
fuel type, see 1.3, including projections of the near
future, see 1.4.
● A general discussion of nuclear energy’s role and
related issues within the OECD, see 1.5.
11
Chapter 2
Basic Principles of Nuclear Energy

Nuclear fission is a type of nuclear reaction that occurs in certain heavy atomic
nuclei after collision with a neutron. When a nucleus undergoes fission it releases
energy, most of which is convertible to heat. Fusion is another heat-producing
nuclear reaction, not so far harnessed for energy production.
Nuclear reactors are machines for creating and controlling fission reactions to
produce electricity and heat. There are many types of reactors in commercial
operation, all possessing several components in common – fuel, moderator,
coolant and control rods.
Currently, nearly 80% of nuclear reactors use ordinary water both as coolant and
moderator. The main types are the pressurised water reactor (PWR) and the boiling
water reactor (BWR). Their fuel is primarily uranium.
A nuclear reactor is, in essence, simply a way The fragments, of which many different
of producing heat to boil water, thereby creating combinations are possible, are called fission
steam to drive turbine generators for electricity products. The total mass of the products of
production. This chapter explains the processes the reaction (fission products and neutrons) is
involved and introduces the basic technologies minutely less than the original mass of the atom
applied to harnessing the energy. and impacting neutron, the difference having been
A nuclear reaction is one that occurs when the converted into energy according to Einstein’s
nucleus of any atom is changed as a result of famous formula E = mc2.
collision with some other physical entity, which Figure 2.2 gives the probabilities of isotopes of
may be alpha particles, gamma rays, neutrons, a given mass being formed by a fission reaction, in
protons or even other atoms. Of the many possible this case that of uranium-235 (235U). In terms of
nuclear reactions, two – fission and fusion – are of abundance and radioactivity, the most important
particular interest because they can produce a fission product isotopes resulting from the fission
great deal of energy. Of these two, only fission has of 235U are radioactive forms of bromine (Br),
so far been harnessed for electricity production. caesium (Cs), iodine (I), krypton (Kr), strontium (Sr)
and xenon (Xe). Like any radioactive element, these
daughter isotopes decay, each over a different
Nuclear fission period measured by and referred to as its half-life.
Certain naturally occurring and man-made Because of their abundance and radioactivity these
heavy elements, for example uranium and daughter isotopes and their decay products form a
plutonium, are relatively unstable. When the significant part of nuclear waste (see Chapter 4).
nucleus of any such element is impacted by a As the fission fragments are ejected after the
neutron which it absorbs, it can fission, or split original impact, they begin to collide with nearby
into two fragments, releasing at the same time atoms and within a millimetre lose most of their
two or three neutrons and energy (see Figure 2.1). motion energy, which is converted into heat
13
Lise Meitner (1878-1968) was one of the central persons in the discovery of nuclear fission. Born in
Austria, she did her experimental work on transuranic elements in Germany. Forced to flee the
Nazis, Meitner, a Jew, went to Sweden in 1938. While visiting her nephew Otto Frisch in Denmark,
she and Frisch proved that a splitting of the uranium atom was feasible. In 1939, they described their
discovery in a landmark paper, Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear
Reaction, and in it coined the term fission.
energy. This heat is then used to generate Neutrons with a relatively low kinetic energy
electricity. [less than 0.1 electron volt (eV)] are known as
When the free neutrons, which are also released thermal neutrons; these are the most efficient in
as a result of fission, are absorbed by other nearby causing fission in uranium or plutonium. Those
fissionable atoms, those too can fission and release with higher kinetic energy, typically in a range up
more neutrons – and so on in what is known as a to 10 million eV (MeV), are referred to as fast
chain reaction. Alternatively, they may bounce off neutrons. All neutrons produced by a fission
a nucleus (scattering), escape without interaction reaction are fast neutrons. Though fast neutrons
(leakage) or simply be absorbed without causing are less efficient in producing fission in uranium,
fission (capture). they can be effective for a wider range of isotopes.
In a situation where enough free neutrons are A moderator is used to slow the fast neutrons
being created to balance the number which are released during fission to the more efficient
lost by leakage and capture, the fission process thermal energies needed in commercial nuclear
becomes self-sustaining, and the system is said at power plants.
that point to have reached criticality. The critical When the nucleus of an atom captures a
mass is the minimum amount of fissionable neutron and does not fission, it may change into
material for a given set of conditions needed to another element. In a nuclear reactor, this results
maintain a chain reaction. in the creation of an important set of long-lived
Figure 2.1: A typical fission reaction
90 Sr
ts
men
g
fra
n
sio
fis
γ rays released
(energy) neutrons
neutron
235 U
nuclear
collision
143 Xe
14
elements which either do not occur, or are very material to produce an equivalent amount of A fissile material is
rare, in nature (see Table 2.1). energy. The energy released by the fission of a material that is
capable of fission
All the elements listed in Table 2.1 are 1 kilogram of uranium in a typical reactor is after the impact of
radioactive, and some – particularly plutonium – equivalent to that released by about 45 000 kg a thermal neutron.
are themselves capable of being used as nuclear of wood, 22 000 kg of coal, 15 000 kg of oil and In practice, the
14 000 kg of liquid natural gas (see Table 2.2). most important
fuel. Because of their long half-lives and high fissile materials are
radiological and biological toxicity they are Similarly, compared with non-combustion 235U and 239Pu.
another important component in nuclear waste, energy sources, like solar and wind, it requires a A fissionable
and are the reason why some waste must be material is a
much smaller land area to generate an equivalent material that
isolated for very long periods (see Chapter 4). power. For example, in the current state of the is capable of
Nuclear fission is an extremely potent source of relevant technologies, a 900 Megawatt electric undergoing fission,
normally
energy with a very high energy density, i.e. energy (MWe) nuclear power station would produce as differentiated from
per mass of fuel. As compared to chemical much electricity in a year as 70 square kilometres fissile in that these
reactions such as combustion of fossil fuels, fission of solar panels, or a few thousand windmills taking will fission if
reactions require a much smaller volume of basic into account efficiency and availability. impacted by a
fast neutron.
An example of a
fissionable material
Table 2.2 is 238U.
A fertile material is
Table 2.1 Energy content of various fuels one that is capable
Important isotopes formed of becoming fissile
Fuel Approximate energy content through the
by neutron capture in a nuclear reactor
in 1 tonne (GJ) capture of a
Wood 14 neutron(s),
Element Approximate half-life possibly followed
Coal 29
Neptunium (237Np) 2 140 000 years Oil 42 by radioactive
decay. Important
Plutonium (239Pu) 24 000 years Natural gas (liquified) 46 examples are 238U,
Americium (243Am) 7 400 years Uranium (LWR, once-through) 630 000 which is fissionable
but can also
transmute into
fissile 239Pu, and
232Th, which can
transmute into
fissile 233U.
Figure 2.2: Fission product yield for thermal fission of 235U
Yields
(in % per fission)
8
Cs, I, Xe
7
Br, Kr, Sr
6
0
60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 Chain mass
15
Basic components of nature, typically 2-5% compared with the 0.711%

found in nature; the fuel is said to be enriched in
nuclear reactors 235U.
The basic technology used to harness the The remainder of the fuel, typically 238U, can
energy of nuclear fission is the nuclear reactor. fission only when hit by fast neutrons of certain
Though there are many types of nuclear reactors, energies; but when neutron capture occurs, it
all have several components in common, viz fuel, eventually transforms into plutonium-239 (239Pu).
moderator, coolant and control rods (see Figure 2.3). This isotope of plutonium (one of many) is also
able to fission under the impact of thermal or fast
Fuel neutrons, and its contribution to the energy
Uranium has two main isotopes: 235U and 238U. output of a light water reactor gradually grows
The former, 235U, is the only fissile material found until it represents almost 30% of the power that is
in nature, i.e. it can easily fission when hit either generated. Some reactors use fuel in which
by thermal or fast neutrons. Thus, almost all plutonium is incorporated at the outset, called
reactors use uranium as fuel. Most fuels for mixed-oxide fuel (or MOX). This is one way of
commercial reactors are processed so as to contain using up stocks of plutonium extracted from spent
a higher concentration of 235U than occurs in fuels, and which could otherwise represent waste.
Figure 2.3: Basic components of a nuclear reactor (pressurised)
Steam out
4 6
1
3
5
Warm water out to cooling tower
Cold water in
Water in
2
Source: New Scientist.
1 – Reactor: fuel (green) heats pressurised water. Control rods (grey) absorb neutrons to control or terminate fission.
2 – Coolant and moderator: fuel and control rods are surrounded by water that serves as coolant and moderator.
3 – Steam generator: hot water from the reactor is pumped through a heat exchanger to generate high-pressure steam.
4 – Turbine generator: steam drives electricity generator to produce electricity.
5 – Condenser: removes heat to convert steam back to water.
6 – Cooling tower: removes heat to return cooling water to near-ambient temperature.
16
Moderator into the core and support systems to permit the

monitoring and control of the reactor, for example
A moderator is necessary to slow the fast
temperature, pressure, radiation and power level.
neutrons created during fission down to the
thermal energy range so as to increase their
efficiency in causing further fission. The moderator Reactor technologies
must be a light material that will allow the
neutrons to slow down without being captured. A popular and useful method of categorising
Usually, ordinary water is used; alternatives in use reactors is according to the type of coolant used.
are graphite, a form of carbon, and heavy water, About 80% of commercial reactors in use at the
water formed with the heavier deuterium isotope beginning of 2003 were cooled and moderated
of hydrogen. with ordinary water and are known as light water
reactors (LWRs). Of these, two major types exist –
pressurised water reactors (PWRs), which includes a
Coolant
Russian variant (VVER), and boiling water reactors
A coolant is necessary to absorb and remove (BWRs). The majority of the remaining 20% of
the heat produced by nuclear fission and maintain reactors are cooled either by heavy water or gas.
the temperature of the fuel within acceptable Figure 2.4 shows how the main types of
limits. It can then transfer the heat to drive commercial reactor are distributed worldwide.
electricity-generating turbines. If water is used as Each of the main types of commercial reactor is
the coolant, the steam produced can be fed briefly described below with data on the number
directly to the turbines. Alternatively, it can be of reactors current as of 1 January 2003.
passed through a heat-exchanger which will
Within each basic type there are different
remove the heat and produce the necessary steam.
designs resulting from different national,
Other possible coolants are heavy water, gases like
manufacturer and customer requirements.
carbon dioxide or helium, or molten metals such as
sodium or lead and bismuth. A coolant can also be
a moderator; water is used in this dual way in
most modern reactors.
Control rods
Control rods are made of materials that absorb
neutrons, for example, boron, silver, indium,
cadmium and hafnium. They are introduced into
the reactor to reduce the number of neutrons and
thus stop the fission process when required, or,
during operation, to control and regulate the level Figure 2.4: Reactor types in use worldwide
and spatial distribution of power in the reactor. (as of 1 January 2003)
Others
Other components 0.9%
The fuel along with its mechanical structure GCR RBMK
7.2% 3.8%
that holds it in place forms the reactor core. PHWR
Typically, a neutron reflector surrounds the core 7.7%
and serves to return as many neutrons as possible
that have leaked out of the core and thus
PWR
maximise the efficiency of their use. Often, the 48%
BWR
coolant and/or moderator serve as the reflector. 20.8%
The core and reflector are often housed in a thick
steel container called the reactor pressure vessel.
VVER
Radiation shielding is provided to reduce the high 11.5%
levels of radiation produced by the fission process
(see Chapter 6). Numerous instruments are inserted Source: IAEA.
17
Pressurised water reactors (PWRs) generator, the heat is transferred to boil water in a
separate, secondary loop. The steam thus produced
At the beginning of 2003, there were 212 PWRs
drives the electricity-producing turbine generators
worldwide, of which 150 were in France, Japan and
(see Figure 2.5).
the United States.
Ordinary water is used as both coolant and VVERs
moderator. The coolant is kept at high pressure
(about 15.5 MPa or 2 250 psi) to keep it liquid at A total of 51 VVERs were in operation, of which
high temperatures (above 300°C). It circulates in 26 were in the Russian Federation and Ukraine.
the primary system, composed mainly of the They are also operating in Armenia, Bulgaria, the
reactor pressure vessel and primary piping, using Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary and the Slovak
powerful pumps. As it passes through the steam Republic. The name is a Russian acronym
connoting a water-cooled, water-moderated
energy reactor. VVERs are, in essence, Russian-
designed PWRs.
First-generation VVER (type 440/230) reactors
Figure 2.5: A pressurised water reactor (PWR) need expensive modifications because their
original designs do not correspond to
Containment structure contemporary practices in nuclear safety. As a
Reactor
result, decisions have been taken to shut down
vessel some of these units, such as in Bulgaria and the
Steam Slovak Republic.
Steam
generator Turbine Generator
Boiling water reactors (BWRs)
Control
rods There were 92 BWRs operating in nine
Reactor countries, of which Japan and the United States
core account for 64. In a BWR, ordinary water acts as
both coolant and moderator. The coolant is kept
Water at a lower pressure than in a PWR (about 7 MPa or
1 000 psi) allowing the coolant to boil as it
Condenser receives heat from the reactor. The resultant steam
is passed directly to the turbine generators to
produce electricity (see Figure 2.6). While the
absence of a steam generator simplifies the design,
as compared with PWRs, radioactivity
Figure 2.6: A boiling water reactor (BWR) contaminates the electricity generating turbine.
Containment structure Pressurised heavy water reactors

(PHWRs)
Reactor Steam Thirty-four PHWRs were operating worldwide in
vessel Turbine six countries, of which 14 were in their country of
Generator
origin, Canada, and the remainder in Argentina,
India, Pakistan, the Republic of Korea and
Reactor Romania. Known as CANDU reactors (short for
core
Canadian deuterium uranium), they use heavy
Control water (D2O, water formed with the heavier
rods deuterium isotope of hydrogen), as both coolant
Water and moderator.
Heavy water allows natural uranium to be used
Condenser as the fuel, thereby eliminating the need, and cost,
Source: Nuclear Energy Institute website. to enrich the uranium. On the other hand, the
18
production of heavy water requires a dedicated to make use of fast neutrons with much higher A breeder reactor is
plant to separate the D2O from ordinary water, kinetic energies. Fast reactors essentially create one that generates
as much, or more,
raising the concentration of D2O from its natural more neutrons per fission than thermal reactors fuel than it uses.
concentration of much less than O.1% to the 99% and make better use of them because the
used in a CANDU reactor. As in a PWR, the coolant probability of neutron capture decreases at higher A reactor’s power
is passed through a steam generator so as to boil neutron energies. These excess neutrons can be rating can be given
ordinary water in a separate loop. An advantage of used to convert fertile materials, e.g. 238U and in terms of either
232Th, into fissile materials through neutron thermal or electrical
the CANDU design is that refuelling can take place power. The thermal
during operation, whereas PWRs and BWRs must capture. This newly created fissile material can in power of a reactor
shut down in order to refuel. This feature allows turn fuel the reactor. It is possible to design represents the
amount of heat
high availability but also increases the complexity reactors to produce more fuel than they consume generated per unit
of operation. in breeder reactors. Typically, breeder reactors are time and is usually
fast reactors, though designs exist that could use given in megawatts
thermal neutrons. Fast breeder reactors, by thermal or MWth.
Gas-cooled reactors (GCR) Most often the
creating fuel from non-fissile isotopes and reactor’s electrical
As regards gas-cooled reactors, 33 were in
improving the efficiency of utilisation through power is given in
commercial use only in the United Kingdom. There recycling, can potentially increase available world terms of megawatts
are two types, the Magnox (named from the nuclear fuel resources up to 50-fold and are thus a electric or MWe.
magnesium alloy used to clad the fuel elements) Because the
key element in the sustainability of nuclear energy efficiency of
and the advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR). Both in the very long term. Breeder reactors have been transforming the
use carbon dioxide as the coolant and graphite as built and operated in a number of countries, heat energy into
the moderator. The Magnox uses natural uranium electricity in light
though in 2002 they were operated only in France, water reactor plant
as fuel and the AGR, enriched uranium. Like CANDU India, Japan and the Russian Federation. is around 33%, a
reactors, these designs can be refuelled on-line, power plant with
with the same characteristics as stated above. Reactor lifetimes a thermal power
rating of around
Some first-generation reactors, such as the 3 300 MWth would
RBMK have an electrical
Magnox reactors in the United Kingdom, are still in power rating of
Seventeen RBMK remain in operation of which service, though after 35 years or more they are 1 000 MWe. A third
15 were in the Russian Federation and two in approaching the end of their operational lives. form of power
Lithuania. The name is a Russian acronym meaning Many of today’s reactors were built in the 1970s rating of a reactor
large power boiling reactor. is megawatts net,
and 1980s and will approach lifetimes of 40 years MWnet, which
Ordinary water is used as the coolant and beginning around 2015. However, studies based on accounts for the
graphite as the moderator. As with a BWR, the operating and materials experience have revealed electricity used
within the site and
coolant boils as it passes through the reactor and no major technological issues inhibiting longer not sold on the
the resultant steam is passed directly to turbine operational lives for many reactors, particularly open market.
generators. PWRs and BWRs. Careful monitoring of plant Typically this
performance, analysis of operating experience, represents a small
The RBMK, as an early design, was often built, percentage of the
and some are being operated, without safety modernisation programmes and refurbishments electrical output.
characteristics and features required elsewhere. The offer good prospects for life extensions at many For example, the
plants. For example, as of January 2003, the latest French PWR
well-known accident at Chernobyl (Ukraine) in at Civaux has an
1986 happened to a reactor of this type. nuclear safety authorities in the United States electrical rating of
had granted extensions to permit ten reactors 1 516 MWe and a
Reactors of this type are the object of special
to operate for 60 years, 20 years beyond the net rating of
safety concerns because they cannot be upgraded 1 450 MWnet.
originally licensed operational life. Other countries
to correspond to contemporary safety practices at
such as the Russian Federation are also planning to
reasonable cost.
extend the lifetimes of existing reactors. In many
countries decisions on plant lifetimes are made
Fast breeder reactors through the periodic renewal of operating licenses,
The reactor types described above are thermal which involve comprehensive safety analyses using
reactors, most of the fission being caused by the latest methods, information and safety
thermal neutrons. Fast reactors are designed so as requirements.
19
Nuclear fusion a major challenge in the development of fusion

power.
Whereas nuclear fission involves the splitting of
The design of a fusion reactor would differ
a heavy atomic nucleus and a consequent release
considerably from that of a fission reactor. The
of energy, nuclear fusion is a process of combining
principal problem is containment of the plasma
Ten grams of light nuclei to form more massive nuclei with the fuel, which needs to be kept at very high
deuterium, which release of energy. This process takes place
can be extracted temperatures to initiate and maintain the reaction.
from 500 litres of continuously in the universe. In the core of the Research has focused on two different means of
ordinary water, and sun, at temperatures of 10-15 million °C, hydrogen containment – magnetic and inertial. In the first,
15 grams of tritium, is converted to helium, providing the energy that
produced from just the plasma is held in a “bottle” or “torus” by
30 grams of lithium,
sustains life on earth. magnetic fields. In the second, the mass of the
a plentiful naturally The possibility of producing energy for fuel itself, under rapid compression, prevents
occurring element, commercial use by fusion has been researched for escape of the plasma.
would produce
enough energy to decades. One possible fusion reaction being In either case, the plasma must be isolated
supply the lifetime investigated (the D-T fusion reaction) is illustrated from material surfaces to avoid cooling and the
electricity needs of in Figure 2.7. The nuclei of two isotopes of introduction of impurities from the surface that
an average person
in an industrialised hydrogen, one (deuterium) having one neutron would contaminate the plasma. One of the most
country. and one proton, and the other (tritium) having promising means for achieving this is a toroidal
two neutrons and one proton, combine to form (ring-shaped) magnetic confinement system of
helium and a neutron, releasing energy in the which the Tokamak configuration is now the most
process. generally favoured (see Figure 2.8).
At the extremely high temperatures required If they become practicable, fusion reactors
for fusion reactions to take place, the fuel has could potentially have certain beneficial nuclear
changed its state from gas to plasma, a state of characteristics. They could for example:
matter where all the electrons have been stripped ● have a more or less unlimited supply of fuel
from atoms, leaving only the nuclei. The (deuterium available from water and tritium
understanding and control of plasma has been produced from abundant lithium);
Figure 2.7: Typical fusion reaction
4
D + T He + n + Energy
deuterium (D) neutron (n)
tritium (T) helium ( 4 He)
Source: Joint European Torus.
20
● be inherently safe (since the dispersion of the considerable, many years of further research would
plasma would instantly stop the fusion process); be needed before a viable reactor could be
● produce only small amounts of long-lived available. Existing major facilities include the
highly radioactive waste (though other types of European Union’s Joint European Torus (JET)
radioactive waste would be produced with located in the United Kingdom; the Princeton
tritium being the most problematic); Plasma Physics Laboratory (United States), and the
JT-60U Tokamak at the Japanese Atomic Energy
● be unable to produce fissile materials that Research Institute. Canada, China, the European
could be used for nuclear weapons. Union, Japan, Russia and the United States are
Experiments in fusion are being conducted and co-operating to build the next-generation fusion
test facilities exist in many parts of the world. test reactor – the International Thermonuclear
Nevertheless, although progress has been Experimental Reactor, or ITER.
Figure 2.8: Simple diagram of a Tokamak fusion reactor

Iron transformer core
Toroidal field coils

Transformer winding
(primary circuit)
Poloidal magnetic field
Plasma current
(secondary circuit)
Toroidal magnetic field
Resultant helical field
(twist exaggerated)
Source: Joint European Torus.

● The visualisation and manipulation of basic nuclear data
including fission cross-sections, radionuclide half-lives and
fission product yields, see 2.1.
● Data on the numbers and types of reactors worldwide along
with related information, updated annually, see 1.1, 1.2 and
1.3.
● The basics of nuclear fission and the different types of
nuclear reactor, see 2.2 through 2.4.
● Nuclear fusion and the ITER, see 2.5.
21
Chapter 3
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

The nuclear fuel cycle is a chain of processes, beginning with the mining of
uranium, for manufacturing and managing nuclear fuel prior to and after its use
in a reactor.
A once-through fuel cycle is usual, but several countries recycle spent fuel, mainly to
make fuller use of the fuel and to minimise the long-term radiotoxicity of the waste.
The nuclear fuel cycle is the chain of processes way the spent nuclear fuel is managed. The major
whereby nuclear fuel is produced and managed processes in the cycle are summarised in Figure 3.1.
before and after its use in a reactor; respectively, In the once-through fuel cycle, fuel removed from
the front end and the back end of the fuel cycle. a reactor is set aside in storage areas pending its
Here, the extraction of energy from the fuel while it ultimate disposal. A closed fuel cycle, also known as
is in the reactor is not regarded as part of the cycle. a “recycling” fuel cycle, allows the unused fissile
Two major types of fuel cycle exist – material of the spent fuel to be recovered and
once-through and closed – the difference being the reused to produce energy as new fuel.
Figure 3.1: The nuclear fuel cycle

URANIUM ENRICHMENT FUEL FABRICATION
Depleted uranium
Enriched uranium
hexafluoride
Fresh fuel
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
Uranium
hexafluoride
CONVERSION
Plutonium
REPROCESSING INTERIM STORAGE
Spent fuel
Recycled uranium SNF

Natural uranium
URANIUM
MINING AND MILLING High-level Spent nuclear
waste fuel (SNF)
WASTE DISPOSAL
23
Most uranium is The front end

extracted using
conventional mining
techniques. Uranium mining and milling
The extraction of uranium ore from the earth
is conducted in much the same manner as the
recovery of other mineral resources, such as copper.
Over 70% of uranium production is achieved by
the extraction of ore using conventional open pit
or underground mining methods. The remainder is
mainly accounted for by in situ leaching (ISL),
a method whereby a solvent solution is injected
underground, dissolves the uranium into the
solution and is recovered from wells for the
extraction of the dissolved uranium.
Milling is the process through which mined
uranium ore is physically reduced to a suitable size,
then chemically treated to extract and purify the
uranium. It also reduces the volume of material to
Uranium be transported to the next stage of the fuel cycle.
“yellowcake”.
Reflecting its colour and consistency, the solid
product of milling (U3O8) is known as “yellowcake”,
though it can also be grey in colour.
At the beginning of 2001, there were
21 uranium producing countries of which ten
(Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Namibia, Niger,
the Russian Federation, South Africa, Ukraine,
A UF6 cylinder. the United States and Uzbekistan) produced 90%
of the world’s output. The dominant producers are
Australia and Canada, who between them
accounted for over 50% of world output in 2000.
Mining and milling of uranium ore produces
waste of different types, all of which require
appropriate management. Waste from open pit
and underground mining are soils and/or waste
rock. They may also include ore with sub-economic
levels of uranium or excessively high levels of
contaminants. Milling produces the largest volume
of waste in the form of mill tailings, which are a
mixture of finely ground rock and process liquid.
Tailings pose particular problems because of their
large volume and radiological and chemical
Table 3.1 contaminants. ISL produces no waste rock or mill
Major uranium conversion facilities worldwide tailings but it is suitable only in specific geological
circumstances and it must be appropriately
Country Site(s) managed to protect groundwater.
Canada Blind River and Port Hope, Ontario The quantity of ore required to produce a tonne
France Malvési; Pierrelatte of product, whether it be copper or uranium,
Russian Federation Angarsk; Ekaterinburg using open pit or underground mining depends
United Kingdom Springfields, Lancashire
primarily on the average grade of the ore and
United States Metropolis, Illinois
can range from 10 to 1 000 tonnes (average grades
24
of 10% to 0.1%). Thus, the volume of tailings that

results from milling this ore is large. For example,
over its lifetime, the Shirley Basin mine in the
United States produced 9 460 tonnes of uranium
from ore with an average grade of 0.145%. This
resulted in 7.1 million tonnes of tailings that cover
an area of 106 ha.
The mining and milling processes are mature
industries with competitive international markets.
Uranium enrichment plant at Tricastin, France. This
Conversion enrichment plant alone is large enough to more than meet
Conversion is the chemical process that the needs of all nuclear reactors in France.
transforms yellowcake into uranium hexafluoride
(UF6). It is conducted at only a few locations
worldwide, mostly in OECD countries (see
Table 3.1). Uranium hexafluoride is solid at room
temperature but readily turns into a gas at a
temperature below the boiling point of water, and
in this form is very suitable for the enrichment
process. It is usually stored and transported in large
cylinders, nominally 122 cm in diameter and
holding about 12 000 kg of UF6. At this point the
uranium still retains the same composition of
isotopes as found in natural uranium.
Cascade of
centrifuges
Enrichment at Rokkasho-
Uranium enrichment involves the partial mura in Japan.
separation of uranium into its two main isotopes
(235U and 238U), yielding two streams, the first
enriched so as to contain more 235U than its
natural concentration (0.711%), and the second
correspondingly depleted. Most commercial
reactors require uranium enriched to less than 5%
235U. Some research reactors use highly enriched
uranium fuels, i.e. more than 20% 235U, but there
Table 3.2: Major uranium enrichment facilities worldwide
are programmes in place to move to low enriched
uranium. Country Site(s) Technology
Two methods of enrichment are in commercial
China Lanzhou Centrifuge1
use, gaseous diffusion and centrifugation, both Shaanxi Centrifuge
based on UF6. Early plants used gaseous diffusion France Tricastin Gaseous diffusion
technology despite its high electricity requirement Germany Gronau Centrifuge
and the very large size of the plants, factors which Japan Rokkasho-mura Centrifuge
account for their small number worldwide Netherlands Almelo Centrifuge
(see Table 3.2). For example, the gaseous diffusion Russia Angarsk Centrifuge
plant at Tricastin in France is supplied by four Ekaterinburg Centrifuge
nuclear reactors. More recently, advances in Krasnoyarsk Centrifuge
Seversk Centrifuge
materials technology and fabrication methods have
United Kingdom Capenhurst Centrifuge
led to an increased use of centrifugation, resulting United States Paducah Gaseous diffusion
in lower enrichment costs, due mainly to a
reduction in energy consumption by a factor of 50. 1. Under construction.
25
The enrichment process also produces depleted powder, which is then pressed and heated at high
uranium, of which there existed, at the end of temperatures (up to 1 400 °C) to produce
1999, an estimated stock of over 1.2 million dice-sized cylindrical pellets. These are loaded into
tonnes mainly produced using the gaseous hollow metal tubes (fuel rods) that are then
diffusion process. The depleted uranium from bundled as fuel assemblies. The metal used is
Typical fuel pellet. the gaseous diffusion process often contains highly corrosion-resistant, typically stainless steel
recoverable 235U, normally around 0.3% 235U or zirconium alloy. Over 730 fuel assemblies,
(compared with the initial 0.711%). containing about 46 000 fuel rods would fuel a
Different countries have adopted different typical BWR reactor.
strategies for managing this material. Typically, the Less than 10% of reactors worldwide have been
depleted uranium is stored in UF6 form in large licensed to use mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel – a
cylinders as in the United States and Russia. In this mixture of uranium dioxide and plutonium dioxide.
form, it can represent a potential chemical hazard The plutonium dioxide mainly results from the
if the cylinders leak. Other countries, France for commercial recycling of spent fuel, though the
example, are converting their stock into a stable Russian Federation and the United States are
oxide for long-term storage and possible eventual planning to use plutonium from surplus nuclear
re-use as a fuel in fast breeder reactors. Depending warheads. The production process for MOX is
on the economies and available centrifuge similar to that already described for uranium
enrichment capacity, some countries, Russia for dioxide fuels, with additional precautions to
example, “re-enrich” to recover the remaining protect workers from the increased radiation of
usable 235U. this material and from inhalation of plutonium.
Enrichment is considered a mature service Although there are a large number of fuel
industry with competitive international markets. fabricators worldwide, commercial competition
between them is inhibited, largely due to the
highly specific requirements, different national
Fuel fabrication regulatory systems and variety of reactor types.
Most reactors use uranium dioxide as their Furthermore, the fuel management strategies
fuel. Its production in fuel form involves the pursued in different countries vary according to
transformation of UF6 into uranium dioxide (UO2) market circumstances.
Dry storage of spent fuel.
Typical spent nuclear fuel

storage pool.
Typical BWR fuel

assembly: about 4 m
tall and about 15 cm
on each side; it
weighs about 300 kg.
26
The back end disposal. This approach to spent fuel management Between seven
and ten tonnes of
has been chosen by some European countries
The back end of the fuel cycle starts when the natural uranium
(Belgium, France, Germany and Switzerland), are required to
irradiated or “spent“ fuel is unloaded from the China, India, Japan and Russia, though not by the produce a tonne of
reactor and stored at the reactor site for an initial majority of the countries operating nuclear power enriched uranium
period, typically between five and ten years. This plants. used in a light-
initial storage involves placing the spent fuel in water reactor.
Reprocessing can reduce by approximately
water-filled “pools”. The water both shields the
10-15% the requirements for natural uranium,
high radiation of the recently discharged fuel and
mainly through the use of the plutonium created
helps to cool it. After this initial period of cooling,
during the fission process, which is extracted from
during which the highest heat dissipation occurs,
the spent fuel and recycled in MOX fuel. The
the fuel’s temperature is much lower and it is then
separation of the uranium and plutonium from
ready for longer-term storage or for reprocessing if
other isotopes is achieved commercially using a
a recycling strategy is being pursued.
chemical process called PUREX (plutonium uranium
Long-term storage of spent fuel may be under extraction). The remnant of fission products and
wet or dry conditions. If wet storage is chosen the minor actinides are high-level waste (see
spent fuel is transferred to another pool of water Chapter 4). Another remnant is the non-dissolvable
similar to that in which it has rested during the metallic structure of the fuel assemblies called
initial period of cooling. Alternatively, and hulls and end-pieces. Current reprocessing plants
nowadays increasingly, the fuel can be loaded are large, complex and expensive facilities that
into large, dry shielded casks in which natural have, for that reason, been built in only a few
air circulation maintains it at the required countries (see Table 3.3).
temperatures, in what is known as dry storage.
These casks can be transported by truck or rail
to other sites if necessary. Spent fuel can be Figure 3.2: Composition and reprocessing of spent fuel
maintained under either wet or dry conditions
for over 30 to 50 years before packaging or Spent fuel
l
ue
1%
f
repackaging becomes necessary, or before fuel
as
Plutonium
ed
disposal. cl
cy
Re
Reprocessing
Reprocessing 96% plant ered
Uranium Recov
Reprocessing is the operation by which the
unused energy content of spent fuel is recovered Vi
with an intention of future re-use or, in some tri
3% fie
cases, to condition the fuel for disposal (see d
High-level
Figure 3.2). It also reduces the volume and waste High-level waste
long-term radiotoxicity of the waste that requires Source: METI, Japan.
Table 3.3: Commercial spent nuclear fuel reprocessing plants worldwide
Country Facility/location Year of Fuel type

commissioning
China Diwopu (Ganzu) 2002 LWR
France La Hague 1976 LWR
India Kalpakkam 1998 PHWR
Tarapur 1974 PHWR
Japan Rokkasho-mura 2005 (planned) LWR
Tokai-mura 1977 LWR, ATR
Russian Federation Tcheliabinsk-65 Mayak 1984 VVER
UK B205/Sellafield 1964 Magnox GCR
Thorp/Sellafield 1994 LWR, AGR
27
The number of plutonium recycles possible with and external apertures in the plant blocked or
current reprocessing and reactor technologies is sealed. The atmosphere in the containment
limited by the build-up of plutonium isotopes that building is controlled and access is limited, with
are not fissionable by the thermal neutrons found surveillance systems installed. Usually, closeout
in light water reactors and by the build-up of takes place very soon after shutdown.
undesirable elements, especially curium. After two
to three cycles the fuel would have to be managed Decontamination and dismantling
as a waste similar to the once-through cycle. This
limitation on the number of recycles, however, All surfaces are washed with water or treated
does not apply if the recycled material is used in by mechanical, chemical or electrochemical means
fast reactors. to remove radioactivity (decontamination). All
The uranium recovered during reprocessing has working equipment and buildings connected with
been recycled into fuel in the past but currently it the process are then removed, monitored for any
is not; rather it is stored for future reuse. This is remaining radioactivity and either recycled or
because the recovered uranium is more radioactive placed in interim storage, leaving only the core
than natural uranium due to its exposure to reactor parts, particularly the reactor vessel and its
neutrons in a reactor and its recycle would protective shielding. The non-nuclear parts of the
contaminate the enrichment and fuel fabrication establishment – offices, turbines, boilers, etc. are
facilities, complicating their operation. To use it scrapped or put to other uses. An appropriate
would require dedicated facilities, something not degree of surveillance of the remaining parts and
currently economical. the surrounding environment is then maintained.
All of these activities may occur 10, 20 or more
years after shutdown.
Decommissioning
When any nuclear plant closes permanently, Demolition and site clearance
whether it is a reactor, a uranium mine or a Eventually, and unless parts of the remaining
fuel cycle facility, it needs to be put into a state
facilities are to be used for some other purpose, all
where it can do no harm to the public, workers or
the plant and materials are removed and the site
the environment. This process, known as
delicensed and made available for new uses. The
decommissioning, usually consists of several stages.
timing of this final phase is determined in each
As of January 2003, over 120 commercial country by economic, technical and regulatory
reactors have been shut down and are in various factors; in some cases, it may not take place until
stages of decommissioning.
a very long time, perhaps 100 years after
shutdown. However, with the introduction of
Closeout robotic and telemanipulation techniques, this
The spent fuel is recovered from the reactor and phase of decommissioning is often being
stored in the usual way, the liquid systems are performed earlier.
drained, the operating systems are disconnected, The relatively long delays between completion
of the three phases are to allow for the
radioactivity to decay so as to protect the workers
involved in the decommissioning process, as well as
to facilitate storage and, ultimately, disposal of the
radioactive materials.
Nuclear power plants have now reached quite
Top biological shield advanced stages of decommissioning in the United
being dismantled using States and several European countries (see
a thermic lance process
Table 3.4). Decommissioning practices are maturing
at the Windscale
Advanced Gas-cooled and experience is being exchanged to the point
Reactor Dismantling where the processes can now be considered a
Project. predictable part of the life cycle of a reactor.
28
Decommissioning waste Table 3.4: Selected reactors undergoing or having

completed decommissioning
The decommissioning of a nuclear power
plant or other nuclear installation generates a Reactor Size Country Comment
significant amount of radioactive waste, most of it (MWe)
low-level waste (see Chapter 4). The European Niederaichbach 100 Germany Gas-cooled reactor shut down in 1974.
Commission estimates that decommissioning of an The plant was decommissioned and
“average” nuclear power plant produces up to demolished with the site released for
10 000 m3 of radioactive waste. The bulk of unrestricted agricultural use in 1995.
radioactive waste, in terms of volume, is concrete
or other building materials that contain only very Shippingport 60 USA Light water breeder reactor shut down
small amounts of radioactivity. in 1982. In 1989 the site was
released for unrestricted use.
The spent fuel in the reactor is the largest
source of radioactivity and with its removal the Trojan 1 180 USA PWR shut down in 1993. The steam
total radioactivity inventory of the site is reduced generators were removed and disposed
by about 99%. Large components such as the of in 1995; the reactor vessel was
reactor pressure vessel and the steam generators removed and disposed of in 1999. The
are also treated as radioactive waste though their buildings are being decontaminated,
size presents unique issues. They can be reduced by but demolition is not planned until
cutting them into more manageable sizes or can, 2018.
as is commonly done, be removed and transported
to low-level waste repositories intact. Rancho Seco 913 USA PWR shut down in 1989. The plant
was placed in a safe storage condition
One decommissioning issue currently under and is planned to remain in this state
discussion is an internationally agreed-upon until 2008 when funds are available
criterion below which slightly contaminated to dismantle it.
materials can be released from radiological
regulatory control. On one side of this issue, free- Chinon 70 France Three gas-cooled plants, the last of
release and recycling of large volumes of slightly 210 which was shut down in 1990. They
contaminated concrete and metals from 480 were partially dismantled with final
decommissioning would significantly reduce the dismantling postponed for 50 years.
costs of disposal of these materials and pose only
Berkeley 2 x 138 UK Gas-cooled reactor shut down in 1989.
very low radiological hazards. On the other side,
Defuelling was completed in 1992. The
the public assessment of what is a justifiable and plant is being prepared for an extended
acceptable risk has, in most cases, resulted in period of care and maintenance.
governments deciding against the free release of
such decommissioning waste and, consequently, Source: World Nuclear Association.
they are typically disposed of in low-level waste
repositories.

● The typical uranium fuel cycle, see 3.1.
● The technologies and processes involved with the existing

and potential advanced fuel cycles, see 3.2 and 3.3.
● The depleted uranium resulting from the enrichment
process, see 3.4.
Removal of the
● Decommissioning, see 3.5 and 3.6.
Belgian BR3 reactor
pressure vessel for ● The environmental remediation of uranium production
further dismantling. facilities, see 3.7.
29
Chapter 4
Management of Radioactive Waste

Radioactive waste arises from numerous industrial and medical processes, of which
nuclear energy production is the most important because of the volumes generated
and its long-lived nature.
Radioactive waste is generally separated into three categories: low-level waste (LLW),
intermediate-level waste (ILW) and high-level waste (HLW) depending on its level of
radioactivity and the length of time it remains hazardous.
Disposal of LLW and most ILW is a mature practice. The disposal of HLW without
harmful releases from its repository is accepted to be practicable by the scientific
and technical community, but there is as yet little societal consensus for proceeding.
Radioactive waste results from any activity Intermediate-level waste (ILW) is

that makes use of nuclear materials, be it nuclear typically more industrial, e.g. equipment that has
reactors or medical and industrial uses. Whatever been used in conjunction with nuclear materials or
its origin, it has to be managed safely and spent ion-exchange resins used in the clean-up of
economically, as well as in an environmentally radioactive liquids. It typically generates negligible
and publicly acceptable manner. heat, but emits radiation which requires shielding
to protect people. In the case of reprocessing, a
Radioactive waste types waste is produced consisting of the non-dissolved
metal structure of the fuel (called hulls and end-
Radioactive waste is normally classified into a pieces) that is categorised as ILW.
small number of categories to facilitate regulation
of handling, storage and disposal, based on the High-level waste (HLW) consists mainly of
concentration of radioactive material they contain highly radioactive and often long-lived remnants
and the time for which they remain radioactive. of the fission process. It must be heavily shielded
The definitions of categories differ from country and generally requires cooling. Within the HLW
to country; however, in general, they can be category, a distinction is made between spent
addressed as low-level, intermediate-level and nuclear fuel (SNF) that will not be reprocessed and
high-level waste. the remnants of reprocessing. Though the two
subsets are in many respects managed similarly,
Low-level waste (LLW) normally consists they are different in form and content, not least
of items that have come into contact with small because the reprocessing remnants are most often
amounts of short-lived radioactivity, such as initially in liquid form.
overalls, containers, syringes, etc. LLW can
generally be handled using rubber gloves. Much For the handling or transport of waste, the
of the waste generated during decommissioning important factor is its radioactivity level. But for
of a nuclear power plant is managed as LLW. disposal, another important factor is the length of
31
Figure 4.1: Decay of a radioactive element time that a waste must be kept isolated, as
with a half-life of five days determined by the half-lives of the radioactive
Atoms of isotopes it contains. Some long-lived isotopes such
radioactive element as those found in HLW and SNF require isolation
100 for thousands of years.
100
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time
it takes for half of any given number of atoms to
80 decay. This can vary from less than one second to
infinity (i.e. stable) according to the isotope.
60 50 Figure 4.1 shows that after five half-lives, the
amount of a radioactive isotope remaining is about
40 3% of the original amount; after 10 half-lives, less
25 than 0.1% remains. Table 4.1 shows some isotopes
20 12.5 that are important in determining conditions for
6.25 3.125 disposal of HLW and SNF. Caesium, strontium and
0 technetium are fission products; the others result
0 5 10 15 20 25 from neutron capture.
Time (days)
Radioactive waste volumes
generated by nuclear energy
Because of its high energy density, nuclear
energy generates a relatively low volume of waste
per unit of energy generated. Different reactor and
fuel cycles produce different amounts and types of
Table 4.1 waste. Table 4.2 nevertheless gives a general idea
Selected HLW isotopes of the volumes of waste generated in producing
nuclear energy.
Isotope Approximate half-life
There has been a general trend towards a
Strontium-90 29 years reduction in the volume of waste generated per
Caesium-137 30 years unit of electricity through improved practices and
Americium-241 430 years technologies, in part, as a means to reduce
Americium-243 7 400 years
operation and maintenance expenses.
Plutonium-239 24 000 years
Technetium-99 213 000 years To put these quantities into perspective, it
should be borne in mind that large quantities of
radioactive waste are also generated by factories,
hospitals and cancer treatment centres, and that
radioactive waste as a whole is only a small
fraction of the toxic waste generated industrially
each year, and a smaller fraction by far of society’s
Table 4.2 total waste (see Figure 4.2).
Indicative volumes of radioactive waste
generated by a LWR of 1 000 MWe
(m3 per annum) Waste management principles
Waste Once-through Recycling Managing and disposing of radioactive waste is
type fuel cycle fuel cycle everywhere regarded as a national responsibility.
LLW/ILW 50-100 70-190 Although there are different national approaches
HLW 0 15-35 to waste management, international co-operation
SNF 45-55 0 has created a set of fundamental principles and
obligations that form a common understanding;
Source: European Commission, Radioactive Waste
Management in the European Union (Brussels: EC, the IAEA Principles of Radioactive Waste
1998). Management are an example.
32
Figure 4.2: Waste generation comparison – yearly production of waste in the European Union
High activity
Industrial waste Toxic industrial waste Radioactive waste radioactive waste
approx. 1 000 million m3 approx. 10 million m3 50 000 m 3 500 m 3
Source: Nuclear and Renewable Energies (Rome: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 2000), updated with data from the European
Commission, Radioactive Waste Management in the European Union (Brussels: EC, 1998).
In broad summary, the tenor of this document Minimisation About 90% of

is that radioactive waste should be managed so as the volume of
Existing facilities can, with foresight and good radioactive waste
to ensure that: generated in the
practice, reduce the amount of waste created. New
● There is an acceptable level of protection for world each year is
technologies and plant designs also aim for waste LLW, though it
human health and for the environment, reduction through such means as simplifying contains only
applying across national boundaries. maintenance requirements. about 1% of the
● The impact on future generations is no greater total radioactivity
of all radioactive
than that acceptable today, and that undue Conditioning and packaging waste.
burdens on future generations are avoided. About 99% of the
Solid LLW and ILW can be super-compacted total radioactivity
● There is an appropriate national, legal
into much smaller volumes. Since waste in liquid from nuclear
framework with clear allocation of form cannot in practice be disposed of, it needs to fission is
responsibilities and provision for independent be transformed into solids. The radioactive concentrated in
regulation. the HLW.
elements can be removed from the liquid by
● Generation of waste is kept to the minimum filtration or ion exchange and then dried, absorbed
practicable, with the interdependencies among into a fixing medium, or solidified in concrete.
the various necessary steps taken into account. After conditioning, ILW or LLW can be packaged
● The safety of facilities for management of for interim storage or disposal in steel drums or
waste is appropriately assured. boxes. For example, the metallic remnants of
Waste management practice

The activities necessary for managing
radioactive waste properly can be categorised as:
● minimising the amounts created;
● conditioning and packaging to permit safe
handling and protection during transport;

● interim storage; Storage of conditioned
● final disposal. radioactive waste in steel drums.
33
The amount of reprocessing are typically compacted, then Interim storage

HLW that would cemented in steel drums for disposal.
be produced if Storage differs from disposal in that there is
nuclear energy HLW, which is a by-product of reprocessing, an intent to retrieve the waste sometime in the
were to supply the emerges as a liquid and needs to be transformed
lifetime electricity future. Thus active monitoring, maintenance and
into a solid, normally by a process of vitrification
needs of a person institutional controls must be maintained for
could fit into a (producing a special type of glass) – see photo
safety and security.
person’s hand. The below. Other waste forms using ceramics have
high heat and also been tested. These waste forms share the When a disposal site is available, ILW and LLW
radioactivity of characteristics of being extremely durable and can be sent there directly at regular intervals. If
HLW requires it to not, interim storage in a structure above ground is
be heavily suited to immobilise the waste for long periods.
shielded. Spent nuclear fuel that has not been reprocessed necessary. For HLW and SNF, interim storage to
requires little in the way of conditioning other permit decay of radiation and heat generation has
than being placed in specialised containers for always been recognised as necessary. Interim
interim storage and/or disposal. storage of waste may be required and can be
safely accomplished for many decades.
Disposal
Disposal is the final step in radioactive waste
management. Usually it is understood to mean
Test glass produced putting waste away without any intention of
by vitrification process.
retrieving it, and that very long-term surveillance
and monitoring will not be needed to keep it
safely isolated from the public and the environ-
ment. Radioactive waste is disposed of in dedi-
cated facilities, and is not mixed with non-
radioactive waste.
Table 4.3: LLW and ILW disposal sites
in OECD member countries Short-lived waste
Short-lived ILW and LLW are disposed of
Country Site(s) routinely at numerous sites in many countries (see
Australia Mt. Walton East Table 4.3); some sites have already been filled and
Czech Republic Richard II closed. Most facilities are near-surface and usually
Bratrstvi equipped with simple engineered barriers to
Dukovany improve isolation – typically a lining of concrete or
Finland Loviisa
some other material in the disposal trenches. Spaces
Olkiluoto
France Centre de l’Aube between waste packages are often filled with soil,
Germany Morsleben clay or concrete. Low permeability covers are added
Hungary RHFT Puspokszilagy to minimise water entry, and drainage systems divert
Japan Rokkasho water away from the disposal trenches or units.
Mexico Maquixco These precautions extend the life of the waste
Norway Himdalen
packaging and are intended to prevent the
Spain El Cabril
Sweden SFR possibility of migration of radioactivity from the
Oskarshamn NPP site. Nevertheless it is expected that for a period
Studsvik of about 100 to 300 years following closure of an
Forsmark ILW/LLW disposal site active or passive controls will
Ringhals be applied, including groundwater monitoring,
United Kingdom Dounreay; Drigg restrictions on access, periodic maintenance and
United States Barnwell, South Carolina restrictions on further land use. After this period
Richland, Washington
the radioactive isotopes will have decayed to
Envirocare, Utah
negligible levels.
34
Long-lived waste The geological barrier

Solutions for long-lived waste, either HLW and Potential host geological formations are
SNF, or long-lived ILW, have proved more elusive. chosen for their long-term stability, as well as their
No repository for SNF and HLW has yet been ability to accommodate a facility of sufficient size
opened anywhere, though disposal of long-lived, and to prevent or severely attenuate any eventual
defence-related waste in the United States does release of radioactivity. A key feature is low
exist. Many countries (including Belgium, Canada, groundwater flow, this potentially being the most
China, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, likely pathway for migration to the human
Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the environment. The main types of formation studied
United States) have set up programmes to develop so far are salt, sedimentary foundations such as clay
disposal of long-lived waste. and shale, crystalline formations such as granite,
and volcanic formations such as basalt and tuff.
Geological disposal of Engineered barriers
long-lived waste
Engineered barriers are envisaged as
The main disposal concept under active complementing natural barriers by providing
consideration for long-lived waste is burial deep physical and chemical containment of the waste
underground, i.e. deep geological disposal, to package (see Figure 4.4). The engineered barriers
ensure security and containment over long typically consist of:
timescales (see Figure 4.3). The desired result is a
● in the case of HLW, the glass matrix;
long-lasting, passively safe system imposing no
● in the case of SNF, the fuel pellets and cladding;
burden of care on future generations and ensuring
that no significant radioactivity returns to the ● in the case of other waste, the cement or other
surface environment. The main issue of this matrix material.

approach is that the public lacks confidence that These engineered barriers are completed by the
understanding geological processes and material steel or concrete waste packaging and the backfill
properties is sufficient to guarantee containment material placed around the containers in the
over the long timescales being considered. repository.
Figure 4.3: Disposal concept

at Eurajoki, Finland
Figure 4.4: Engineered barrier design features
for the proposed repository in the United States at Yucca Mountain
Water drips Carbon steel sets (no

(including colloids) barrier to flow)
Gas (H2O, O2, CO2, N2) Basket materials (carbon

steel/aluminium)
Drip shield (titanium) Waste form (spent
fuel, glass)
Waste package (alloy-22,
stainless steel)
Rockfall
Invert beam
(carbon steel)
Emplacement pallet
(alloy-22, stainless steel)
Invert ballast (crushed
tuff ballast)
Source: Posiva Oy, Finland. Source: CRWMS, TDR-WIS-PA-000001 REV 00 ICN 01, Dec. 2000.
35
The natural A number of container designs and materials knowledge of geology, hydrology, material sciences
reactors at Oklo, have been proposed, depending on the geological and geochemistry, reinforced by research
Gabon
In 1972, French environment and the specific safety function underground. Laboratories, mostly established in
physicist attributed to them. The engineered barriers are used mines, have helped to obtain information on
Francis Perrin intended to delay access of groundwater. They can site-specific characteristics and to test the models
found that also provide chemical conditions that ensure that, used to assure performance (see Table 4.4).
naturally occurring
nuclear chain in the unlikely event that any waste escapes the Confidence has also been given by studies of the
reactions had taken packaging, it would not readily dissolve and that behaviour of deposits of uranium and related
place at the site of any dissolved waste would become immobilised. radionuclides in their natural settings over very
the Oklo uranium long timescales, that is, comparing these natural
deposit in Gabon,
Africa, about Performance assurance analogues with repository situations. Taken
two billion years together, these studies confirm that geological
ago. They remain Since the timeframes involved in geological disposal can be designed to prevent harmful
the world’s best- disposal are well beyond recorded human
known natural
releases. To achieve a potentially significant
experience and the chemical and physical release, very unlikely events have to be assumed.
analogues. These
natural reactors interactions complex, demonstrating that a
generated waste geological disposal site will remain safe over its Current deep disposal activity
similar to those of existence is difficult. Defining appropriate models
modern nuclear In 1999, the United States began disposal of
power plants. and obtaining the data necessary for performance
assessment are major challenges. waste containing long-lived, non-heat-emitting
Thus, the Oklo
reactors are of radioactive waste from defence-related activities
The timescale over which a repository must be
special interest to at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in New
geological disposal demonstrated to perform safely differs between
Mexico, in caverns 650 metres below ground in a
scientists because countries – 10 000 years has been specified by
they can look at
salt formation. In 2002, the United States officially
some countries, though some require longer and proposed the Yucca Mountain site to serve as a
the behaviour of
the long-lived others have specified no limit. Any prediction so national repository for HLW and SNF following a
waste over millions many years into the future necessarily amounts comprehensive investigation; but a decision to
of years and better more to a qualitative indication of safety than
understand its proceed will require a finding by the independent
a precise prediction of the behaviour of the nuclear safety regulator that the facility is safe,
behaviour in a
geological repository. However, even allowing for and this will take several more years. In 2001, the
repository. uncertainties of several orders of magnitude, Finnish Parliament took a decision in principle to
Geochemical calculated releases have been shown to be clearly
observations of the proceed with implementation of a geological
Oklo site suggest within acceptable limits. repository for SNF at Eurajoki, where the local
that once the Technical confidence in the practicality of community has agreed to host a national
natural reactors geological disposal stems from basic scientific repository.
burned themselves
out, the highly
radioactive waste
they generated was
held in place by
the granite,
sandstone and
Table 4.4: Examples of underground laboratories
clays surrounding
the reactors. Country Site(s)
Belgium Mol/Dessel: specific research on site since 1984
Finland Olkiluoto: specific research on site since 1992
France Bure: construction of laboratory began in 2000
Germany Asse: specific research on site since 1965
Gorleben: specific research on site since 1985
Japan Mizunami: specific research on site since 2002
Horonobe: specific research on site since 2001
Switzerland Grimsel: specific research on site since 1984
Mont Terri: specific research on site since 1995
United States Yucca Mountain, Nevada: specific research on
site since 1993
36
Transport probable at some stage, this principle works to Finland moving

forward
prevent any radiological consequences even if the
Because of the comparatively small volumes On 18 May 2001,
package were to be involved in a severe accident. the Finnish
of radioactive waste and the need for long-term
The requirements and controls are proportioned Parliament
isolation, centralised storage and disposal is declared that
to the hazard presented by the material. For
generally practised. This in turn necessitates construction of
transport to the chosen localities. Radioactive example, some shipments of medical isotopes may an underground
materials used in industrial and medical be shipped in fairly unsophisticated cardboard repository for the
packages, though the radioactive contents are disposal of spent
applications also require transport between the nuclear fuel
supplier and user. strictly limited, there must be clear labelling, the produced in
packages must be certified for transport, and the Finnish nuclear
The safe transport of radioactive materials is shippers must have documentation to that effect. power plants was
primarily a national responsibility. Nevertheless, in the overall
Spent nuclear fuel or high-level waste, on the
nearly 60 countries apply the IAEA Regulations for interest of society.
other hand, must be shipped in high integrity This decision in
the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, which
containers designed to shield people and assure principle gives
serve to harmonise and standardise transport national political
containment under extreme accident conditions
practices. Additionally, the International Civil backing to the
(see Figure 4.5).
Aviation Organisation (188 contracting parties) project and means
and the International Maritime Organisation In the 1970s and 1980s, the United States that construction of
conducted tests to determine the effects of underground
(162 member states) incorporate these IAEA research facilities
principles making their adherence mandatory in subjecting nuclear fuel transport containers to and detailed site
air and sea transport. These regulations embody real-world accident conditions. The tests included: characterisation
● running a truck loaded with a container directly
can begin at the
the basic principle that safety is dependent on the Olkiluoto site near
packaging of the radioactive material, regardless of into a reinforced concrete wall at about the city of Eurajoki.
how it is transported. With traffic accidents being 130 km/h (see photos next page); Construction and
operating licenses
will still need to
Figure 4.5: A typical HLW transport cask be granted.
Construction of the
disposal facility
would begin after
2010 and it is not
expected to
Wood become
Shock-absorbing cover operational before
Neutron shielding
2020.
(polyethylene) Finnish
Inner cover (steel) parliamentary
Neutron shielding record 63/2001vp.
(polyethylene)
Basket (aluminium)
28 containers of Handling pins

vitrified HLW
Gamma shielding
Exterior (steel) (steel)
Neutron shielding
(polyethylene)
Heat conductor (copper)
Integrated collision
protection cover Source: Cogema, France.
37
● hitting a container resting on a tractor-trailer Societal and policy

broadside with a locomotive travelling at about
130 km/h;
considerations
● dropping a container from a height of about Radioactive waste management has sometimes
600 metres onto compacted soil, the container been called the “Achilles heel” of nuclear energy
moving at about 380 km/h on impact. because of the perceived absence of disposal
facilities. There has been difficulty in achieving
In all these tests, as in similar tests conducted social and political confidence in strategies to
in the United Kingdom in 1984, the container protect present and future generations from any
survived intact, and subsequent examinations risk.
demonstrated that there could have been no
Technical experts have confidence that
release of radioactivity.
removing highly radioactive waste from the human
environment by disposal in deep geological
Safety record
repositories is ethically and environmentally sound,
Numerous shipments of all forms of radioactive and that the technology is both well developed
materials and waste take place worldwide each and trustworthy.
year and incidents are, in fact, extremely rare. For However, many people do not share this
example, in France about 300 000 such movements confidence. Communicating with the public
take place annually, of which 15 000 relate to the remains a key issue and a challenge to nuclear
nuclear fuel cycle and 750 contain fresh or spent energy. However remote the risks to human
fuel or HLW. During the period 1975-97 there was populations from the disposal of long-lived
on average only one incident per annum with radionuclides, a portion of public opinion feels
some possible local impact, e.g. contamination of that they represent a kind of burden on future
the transport container. Worldwide, since 1971 generations that is ethically unsatisfactory. Others
there have been over 20 000 shipments of SNF and tend to regard risks of this low order, applying to
HLW using trains, trucks and ships, the material generations whose physical environment and
weighing in aggregate over 50 000 tonnes and technical capabilities we cannot possibly envisage,
travelling in total over 30 million kilometres. None as being negligible in the scale of the risks that
have involved any accident that has breached a future generations must bear. In any case, this
container or released radioactivity. conflict of philosophies is hindering the adoption
Testing of a nuclear fuel transport container.
38
of disposal solutions. Yet, the fact remains that this with difficult geological or environmental
waste exists and solutions will need to be decided situations. Studies suggest that there are unlikely
upon at some point. to be any significant technical or environmental
Other aspects of waste disposal currently under objections to the development of an international
debate include long-term storage while waiting for repository. However the ethical and political
disposal; permitting the reversibility of disposal problems associated with siting, and public
actions; and the desirability of repositories that disinclination to accept another country’s waste,
would serve multiple countries. seem to pose major obstacles to progress, at least
in the near future.
Long-term storage
The near-term alternative to disposal of HLW
and SNF is its long-term storage above ground.
Repository for LLW and ILW in Sweden.
This is generally acknowledged to be technically
feasible and indeed, represents existing practice.
However, long-term storage has generally been
regarded as a “second best” solution. The need to
maintain security and environmental surveillance
on the site increases costs. The unavoidable
deterioration of the storage facilities and the
waste packages they contain leaves to future
generations the costs and risks of their periodic
replacement and this option leaves open the
question of the disposal of the waste should
this eventually be decided upon. It remains,
nonetheless, an attainable procedure either on
a medium-term or on a semi-permanent basis.
Reversibility
Closely related to the concept of long-term
storage, with many of the same issues of cost and
risk is the provision for reversal of the disposal
process by retrieving previously emplaced waste.
This seems technically feasible, but could conflict
with the aim of securing maximal isolation. For further information
Moreover, it may involve a later financial provision See the references listed below provided in the “For Further
for a second stage of disposal. However, it would Information” section for more in-depth information on:
be technically possible to adopt a phased ● The fundamental principles and obligations related to
approach, progressing gradually towards a final radioactive waste management, see 4.1 through 4.7.
configuration with all the waste in place and the ● Biennial reports on the status of radioactive waste
repository sealed to provide maximum passive management programmes in NEA member countries,
safety, postponing steps that would be difficult to see 4.8.
reverse. ● The technical aspects of geological disposal, see 4.9 through
4.12.
International repositories ● The societal aspects of waste disposal, see 4.13 and 4.14.
The quantities of waste needing geological ● The issues of reversibility and retrievability, see 4.15.
disposal are small enough to make the concept of ● The Oklo natural nuclear reactors and other natural
one repository serving several countries attractive analogues, see 4.16 and 4.17.
in principle, and particularly attractive to smaller ● Transport of radioactive waste including information on
countries for whom the fixed costs of developing a real-life tests of radioactive material transport casks,
repository would be a large burden, or to those see 4.18 and 4.19.
39
Chapter 5
Nuclear Safety
The safety of a nuclear facility depends on the engineered protection built into it
and on the organisation, training, procedures and attitudes of the operators.
The basic design philosophy underpinning the safety
of nuclear facilities is defence in depth, a key aspect being the provision of
several layers of protection against the release of radioactivity, each providing
backup if another fails.
Nuclear energy has the potential to cause damage to people and
to the environment through the accidental escape of harmful radioactive
substances. Very high levels of safety have therefore always been considered
essential to its deployment. There nevertheless remains some degree of risk,
however slight, as with numerous other human endeavours.
Nuclear energy installations, whether they manufacturing, construction and commissioning;

be nuclear power plants, reprocessing or waste during operation; and finally its decommissioning.
conditioning plants or spent fuel storage facilities, An accident at a nuclear power plant has a
typically involve large amounts of radioactivity greater potential to do harm than accidents in
whose release could produce radioactive other types of nuclear installation, since the fission
contamination of the environment and be process produces a major concentration of
injurious to people’s health. The primary purpose radioactivity. Additionally, large energies are
of all nuclear safety measures is thus to ensure involved, and the process liquids and gases could
that radioactivity remains in all circumstances be agents in dispersing the radioactivity over wide
contained or, if released, then only in amounts and areas. Much of the discussion that follows
under controls that ensure no significant harm is therefore relates primarily to nuclear power plants,
done. but the same principles and approaches apply to
In general terms, then, the safety of a nuclear other nuclear installations.
installation can be understood as the ability of the
installation’s systems and its personnel to prevent Basic elements of nuclear
accidents from occurring, or should one occur,
to mitigate its consequences to a minimum.
safety
Ultimately, the radiological impact on people and Nuclear safety is achieved as a result of a
the environment resulting from operating nuclear number of complementary and overlapping factors
installations must be as small as possible for both (see Figure 5.1):
normal operation and potential accidents. To ● detailed attention from the outset to all the
achieve this objective, or in other words to ensure factors that bear upon the safety of a planned
that the installation is considered sufficiently safe, installation, viz, its siting, its robust and proven
technical and organisational measures are put in design, high quality manufacturing and
place at all stages of a nuclear facility’s lifetime: construction, and comprehensive testing prior
starting with its siting and design; its to operation;
41
● ensuring that the probability of plant failures include a potential site’s hydrological, geological,
is low and considered in plant design, and that meteorological, seismic and demographic
multiple protections are provided to prevent characteristics. The objects are minimising the
any particular fault or failure resulting in an human and environmental exposure to any release
accident (a concept known as defence of radioactivity and ensuring that safety-related
in depth); structures and systems are able to withstand the
● close attention to the human element through strongest foreseeable natural or human-induced
sound operational practices and management event, e.g. an earthquake. For these reasons
systems that include performing periodic safety nuclear power stations are, to the extent possible,
assessments and that foster the safety culture generally sited away from large population
of the operating and regulatory organisations; centres. Re-evaluation of a site may occur as
understanding or methods to assess possible
● monitoring and inspection by an independent
natural or man-made hazards improve.
regulatory authority with powers to suspend
operations, or in the last resort to withdraw a
licence.
Robust and proven design
These concepts lead to the practical The basic design philosophy of nuclear facilities
arrangements summarised below. is one of defence in depth, that is, providing
several levels of protection against the release of
Siting radioactive substances. The first level of defence is
the prevention of failures. Thus nuclear designs
The selection of a site for a nuclear power strive to ensure reliable, stable and easily
station (or for any nuclear facility) is governed by manageable operation. The use of high-quality
national legislation and requires safety regulator technology with allowance for considerable safety
approval. The safety factors taken into account margins in the strength and capacity of safety-
critical components are vital elements in achieving
this. These factors also work to maximise potential
productivity and favour safety.
Figure 5.1: Elements of nuclear safety
The second level of defence, the detection and
control of failures, is to ensure that any deviation
Saf from normal operation is quickly detectable
Overs ety cu and, where possible, is corrected
ight lt
Sound operational prac and ure automatically by process control and
tices reg
ula protection systems, without
tio
interfering with normal
n
th
ng operation. In case such systems

p
de
ti
5th level: Emergency plans

es
fail due to some abnormal

Sa
in
et
fet
4th level: Control of severe accidents

e
operational occurrence,
iv
nc
ya
rd
3 level: Control of design basis accidents
ens
fe
sses
engineered safety systems

De
2nd level: Detection and control of failures

Compreh
sments
1st level: Prevention of failures (see below) are built in to

automatically place the
reactor into a safe
Robust
& proven condition and to contain
design High the radioactive materials.
quality These systems are designed
to withstand the so-called
Appropriate site
design basis accidents, a set
of abnormal occurrences and
potential accidents that have been
foreseen and provided for in the design.
The control of these design basis accidents
is the third level of defence.
42
The design characteristics summarised above means of shutdown is always provided, e.g. by the
represent the first, second and third level of injection of neutron-absorbing liquids to ensure
protection in depth against a nuclear accident. The long-term reactor shutdown.
fourth and fifth levels consist respectively in the Heat is normally removed from a reactor by the
control of severe accidents with an aim to limit ordinary operation of the coolant, e.g. for a LWR
consequences and prevent an external release of that means creating steam to drive the electricity-
radioactivity (if necessary, at the sacrifice of the producing turbine generators. Should this fail,
future operability of the plant), and the mitigation separate engineered systems are in place to assure
of radiological consequences if in fact a serious that residual heat (heat generated in the reactor
release occurs through off-site emergency after shutdown) is removed. The power for these
planning (see Chapter 6 for additional information and other needed systems is, if necessary, provided
on accident response). by onsite emergency backup generators, typically
diesel-fuelled.
Engineered safety systems The continuous availability and reliable
In a nuclear power plant, systems are put in operation of the engineered systems are key
place to ensure that (1) radioactive material is at elements of defence in depth, and their operation
all times contained, that (2) the fission process can is regularly tested. Design of these systems must
at all times be shut down almost instantaneously ensure that the failure of any single safety
if any abnormality persists so as to terminate component would not cause loss of function
the generation of all but residual heat, and that (single failure criterion).
(3) residual heat is removed after shutdown in Moreover, the safety systems are designed
order to protect the integrity of the barriers by applying the principles of redundancy, i.e.
against a radioactive release. providing additional backups or greater strength
Taking these concerns in order, multiple barriers than is needed based on already pessimistic
are provided to prevent the release of radioactivity. assumptions; diversity, i.e. the avoidance of
The primary containment barriers against a release
of radioactivity are the fuel matrix and its
hermetic container – the fuel cladding. Next is the
robust reactor pressure boundary within which
the coolant circulates during normal operation,
particularly the pressure vessel that contains the Figure 5.2: Typical barriers confining radioactive materials
reactor core itself. Normally, the ultimate barrier Fuel rod
is the containment building, typically a large
reinforced concrete structure designed both to
retain the products of an unconfined radioactive
release and to protect the structures that
constitute the pressure boundary from external Steam line 1st barrier:
hazards such as missiles, fires or explosions (see fuel pellet matrix
Figure 5.2). In the Three Mile Island accident in
1979, one of two very serious accidents to have Steam
occurred in commercial nuclear power stations, the generator 2nd barrier:
reactor pressure vessel and containment building fuel cladding
successfully prevented any injury to the public,
though serious core damage had occurred Reactor 3rd barrier:
releasing both intense heat and radioactivity. pressure reactor pressure
The fission process can be shut down by means vessel boundary
of neutron-absorbing control rods (see Chapter 2).
These rods can be inserted in a controlled fashion Primary pump
to shut down a reactor slowly or rapidly inserted 4th barrier:
to almost instantly stop the fission reaction in containment
what is known as a scram. In addition, a secondary building
43
common cause failure by the provision of several systems to a set of design basis accidents, e.g. a
pathways to operation; and the physical separation loss of coolant, is within the prescribed regulatory
of safety systems from plant process systems. limits and requirements. This approach does not
Underlying all this is conservatism in all account for the probability of their occurrence and
assumptions about risks of failure, the practice of it assumes that all designed safety systems will be
basing design safety on a “what if?” approach and available to perform their designed safety
the close analysis of previous component and function.
materials performance. Such an assessment is conducted before a
design is finalised, so as to confirm the plant’s
High-quality manufacturing and ability to operate easily within prescribed
construction operating and regulatory limits given the
characteristics of the proposed site. These
High-quality equipment is a prerequisite for
assessments are documented in “safety analysis
reliable operation. Thus quality assurance is a vital
reports” or “safety cases”. These are critically
component of nuclear safety. A special set of
reviewed by regulatory authorities prior to licensing;
codes and standards has been developed for the
afterwards they constitute the baseline point of
equipment and components used in any nuclear
reference for the safe operation of the plant.
facility. These demand rigorous testing to confirm
that quality standards are met, and their criteria National regulations also frequently require
ensure that only well-proven and established that systematic safety assessments be made
technologies are employed. National regulatory periodically throughout the lifetime of any nuclear
authorities oversee the implementation of these plant, together with self-assessments by operators,
quality assurance and control programmes, whose to ensure that plants can continue to operate in
extra cost accounts for a significant part of the accordance with their safety cases and other
high cost of constructing and maintaining a operating requirements.
nuclear facility. It has been common practice since the 1980s to
complement the deterministic analysis using a type
Comprehensive testing of analysis called probabilistic safety assessments
(PSA). In a PSA, all types of circumstances,
Commissioning is an important stage in the
including equipment failures and human errors
completion of a nuclear power plant. The reactor
that can lead to an accident, are analysed. The
power is gradually increased to specified levels
combinations of events and failures that can
and the as-built operating characteristics of the
potentially lead to severe accidents are also
process and safety systems are determined,
identified and their probability of occurrence
documented and checked against pre-defined
estimated. The results of these studies are used for
success criteria. A large number of specific tests
a variety of purposes, such as prioritising plant
are conducted to verify the functioning of
safety improvements, training operators and
components and systems and the overall behaviour
setting inspection priorities.
of the plant; weaknesses are corrected, and the
tests repeated until satisfactorily completed.
Sound operational practices
Extensive testing is also conducted after major
maintenance operations or the replacement or Experience has shown that safe operation
upgrading of components. depends on adherence to certain principles,
The current including:
practice in most
OECD countries
Safety assessments ● laying the prime responsibility for safety on the
requires basic and operator, with management principles giving

The safety of any nuclear installation must be
refresher training the necessary priority to safety;
of plant operators assessed through a systematic analysis of a defined
set of potential failures and their interaction with ● a strong organisation ensuring among other
in a wide variety of
operational and safety barriers, known as the deterministic safety things an adequate number and deployment of
emergency approach. In the deterministic approach, qualified and experienced personnel;
situations using full
scale replicas of conservative assumptions are used to demonstrate ● establishing conservative limits and conditions
control rooms. that the response of the plant and its safety that define the safe boundaries for operation;
44
● approved procedures for all operations Safety culture Safety culture

including tests, maintenance and non-standard means that
Experience has shown that a weak “safety “assembly of
operations that include self-checking and
culture” is in many cases a root cause of declining characteristics
independent verification processes; and attitudes in
safety performance. Despite all the systems-based
● extensive quality-assurance programmes for organisations and
safeguards, it is the people involved who are the individuals which
all operations, inspections, testing and ultimate guarantors of the safety of any nuclear establishes that, as
maintenance; plant. The existence of a good safety culture, an overriding
● training programmes for all activities having which strongly influences the attitudes and states priority, nuclear
plant safety issues
a direct impact on nuclear safety; of mind of all the individuals whose actions can receive the
● necessary engineering and technical support impact on safety, is a key nuclear safety principle. attention warranted
The attributes of a good safety culture include a by their
throughout the lifetime of the installation; significance”.
strong sense of responsibility, self-discipline and IAEA Report, Safety
● timely reporting of all incidents to the
respect for regulatory requirements on the part Culture, 1991.
appropriate regulatory body;
of individuals, but management style is also an
● the establishment of programmes for collecting essential component. Safety culture is not inherent
and analysing operational experience, and for and as it is linked to national habits and attitudes,
sharing it with international bodies, regulatory it cannot be acquired in a short period of time or
authorities and other operating organisations, “installed” like a piece of hardware. It must be
and for its incorporation in training transmitted continuously and unmistakably from
programmes; the top, and permeate the whole of the operating
● the preparation before start-up of emergency and regulatory organisations. A set of
internationally
procedures and plans, and thereafter their accepted nuclear
regular rehearsal, so as to harmonise the Oversight and regulation safety principles
responses of the various organisations that has been defined
The responsibility for nuclear safety is foremost in the Convention
would be involved in mitigating the a national one with each country responsible for on Nuclear Safety
consequences of any accident; the safety of the nuclear power plants that it has deposited with
careful consideration of human factors the IAEA.
● permitted to be constructed and operated within This incentive
engineering principles in the design and layout its borders. The prime responsibility for safety is agreement entered
of the control room, alarm and indicating most often assigned to plant operators who are into force in
systems. the license-holders. However, international October 1996 and
as of April 2002
there were
54 parties and
65 signatories
including all states
with operating
nuclear power
Periodic refresher training in simulators is one of the sound plants. The
operational practices through which nuclear safety is achieved. Convention
addresses
establishing a
legislative and
regulatory
framework; facility
siting, design,
construction and
operation; the
availability of
adequate financial
and human
resources; the
assessment and
verification of
safety; quality
assurance; and
emergency
preparedness.
45
co-operation including organisations such as ● verify compliance with regulatory requirements

the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and the or regulations and impose corrections in case of
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has malpractice or departure from prescribed
always made a fundamental contribution to standards.
the development of relevant concepts and An important principle reflected in the Nuclear
the spreading of good practice (see also Safety Convention is the effective separation
Chapter 8). between the regulatory organisation and other
For example, the Convention on Nuclear Safety, groups involved in promoting or using nuclear
to which all States operating nuclear power plants energy, so that the safety authority and its
are now signatory, defines a set of internationally decision-making process are protected from
accepted principles and a set of obligations undue external pressure.
relating to the basic elements of safety assurance.
Although the responsibility for nuclear safety
is the operator’s, regulatory review and control
Operating experience
are essential. In all countries with a nuclear A great deal of information and many lessons
programme there exists a nuclear regulatory have been gathered from over 10 000 reactor-
organisation responsible for licensing nuclear years of operating experience worldwide. These
installations and for enforcing the relevant lessons are routinely shared through such means
regulations. as databases and reports by international
These regulatory organisations: organisations, journals and conferences. A
significant result has been a steady improvement
● develop and enact appropriate regulatory
in the operating safety performance of nuclear
requirements, safety standards or regulations;
plants, particularly in recent years. For example,
● issue licences following their assessment of the number of unplanned automatic scrams has
plant safety; been decreasing over the past decade, indicating a
● inspect, monitor and review the safety widespread improvement in plant operation (see
performance of licensees; Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: Worldwide unplanned automatic shutdown rate (number per 7 000 hours)
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5 1.4
1.1 1.1
1.0
1.0 0.9 0.9
0.7 0.7
0.6
0.5
0.0
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Units reporting 369 391 387 391 400 404 418 410 413 418 417 428
The unplanned automatic scrams per 7 000 hours critical indicator tracks the mean scram (automatic shutdown) rate for approximately one year (7 000 hours)
of operation. Unplanned automatic scrams result in thermal and hydraulic transients that affect plant systems.
Source: WANO, 2001 Performance Indicators.
46
The overall good safety record of commercial It showed that a weak safety culture not only
nuclear power plants is marred by two severe among operators, but also stemming from weak
accidents – those at Three Mile Island (TMI) in the management and distracting external influences,
United States in 1979 and at Chernobyl in Ukraine could lead to operational behaviour breaching
(former Soviet Union) in 1986. The TMI accident every element of defence in depth.
resulted in serious damage to the reactor core but
the reactor pressure vessel and containment
building prevented all but trace amounts of Impact of market
radioactive gases from being released and caused deregulation on safety
no effect on the population. It was subsequently
rated 5 on the INES scale. The Chernobyl accident There has been a growing recent trend towards
was on any reckoning a disaster and the only opening electricity markets to competitive supply
event ever rated above 5 (at 7). At Chernobyl, and pricing. While there are few doubts that
there was a meltdown of the nuclear fuel that economic deregulation will improve the overall
combined with a steam explosion, and the lack of economic effectiveness of electricity production,
a complete containment building resulted in large its impact on nuclear safety is a matter for
amounts of solid and gaseous radioactive materials discussion. Early indications are that regulatory
being widely distributed over Europe. compliance and competitive economic
These two accidents provided important lessons. performance are not in conflict, though an
The TMI accident emphasised the need for greater independent and vigilant oversight is necessary to A tool that allows
attention to the human factors, including ensure that this remains so. Regulatory bodies may the prompt and
need to develop and adapt their regulations and consistent
improved operator qualification and training communication
and better emergency procedures and public staff to meet the changing market circumstances of the safety
communication. The Chernobyl accident, as well as in order to ensure that effective oversight is significance of a
publicising weaknesses in the RBMK reactor design maintained while not unnecessarily impacting on nuclear event is the
International Nuclear
(not present in OECD countries), led to the an operator’s ability to compete in an open Event Scale (INES –
recognition of the importance of safety culture. market. see Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: The international nuclear event scale (INES)
7 Major accident**
6 Serious accident
Accident
5 Accident with off-site risk*
4 Accident without significant off-site risk
3 Serious incident
2 Incident (with significant failure in safety provisions) Incident
1 Anomaly (beyond the authorised operating regime)
0 No safety significance Deviation
* Three Mile Island, USA, 1979 ** Chernobyl, Ukraine, 1986
47
Safety aspects of future ● effective elimination of some severe accident

sequences by use of inherent safety features;
reactors
● significant reduction or elimination of large
Over the next few decades new reactor designs radioactive release even should a severe
may be introduced to compete with other sources accident occur;
of electricity. These advanced designs will be faced ● improved operability and maintainability by
with the challenge of cutting generating costs extensive use of digital technology;
while maintaining or improving safety levels. ● reduction in system complexity and potential
Various concepts of the next generation of nuclear for human error.
power reactors have been proposed and are being
All of these, if successfully implemented, could
studied (see Chapter 10). Some safety-related
result in the reduction of on-site and off-site
features can be characterised as follows: protective measures, such as evacuation plans for
● explicit consideration of severe accidents as a the public and would represent improvements over
part of the design basis; the current safety posture.

● Basic nuclear safety principles, see 5.1 and 5.3.
● Nuclear safety culture, see 5.4 and 5.5.
● The International Nuclear Event Scale, see 5.6.
● The causes of the Chernobyl accident and its radiological

and health impacts, see 5.7 and 6.1.
● Operational experience and lessons learned, see 5.8.
● The impacts of market deregulation, see 5.9 and 5.10.
● The safety aspects of future nuclear reactors, see 5.11.
48
Chapter 6
Radiological Protection
Radiation is everywhere and it has been found useful for medical and
industrial purposes. It is one of the most studied risks to health
and these risks are increasingly well understood. There are many types
of radiation, some more harmful than others, and many ways of assuring the safe,
beneficial use of radiation and radiation-generating processes.
Radiological protection of the public, environment and workers is a prime safety
objective for the nuclear power industry. Systematic approaches to radiation
protection are based on three principles: the justification of practices,
the optimisation of protection and the limitation of exposures.
The universe is awash with radiation, as is the atom that results in the emission of radiation.
earth and the living creatures on it. Since man’s This process of change is often referred to as
discovery of their existence in the late 1800s, the “decay” of atoms. Radioactive atoms are often
many uses for radiation and radioactivity have called “radionuclides” or “radioactive isotopes” of
been discovered and exploited. the relevant chemical element.
Medical science was among the first to make When radiation, either particles or
use of the penetrating properties of radiation; electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to
the use of X-rays revolutionised the study and remove the electrons of atoms with which it
treatment of the human body. But very early on, it interacts, it causes the atoms to become charged,
was discovered that along with the benefits came or “ionised”, and it is called ionising radiation.
risks, and thus the need to protect people from The ions resulting from the interaction are capable
radiation. Ever since, the use of radiation has been of causing chemical changes damaging to the
a matter of balancing benefits and risks. To assist exposed cells. If radiation, either particles or
this balancing, the theory, policy, regulation and electromagnetic waves, has insufficient energy to
practice of radiological protection has been ionise atoms, it is known as non-ionising radiation.
developed, always alongside an evolving Ionising radiation occurs in several forms – as
understanding of the sources, uses and effects alpha particles, beta particles or neutrons, or in the
of radiation. form of electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays
and X-rays). Each type of ionising radiation
Scientific and medical interacts differently with matter, including the
human body, and each can be effectively stopped
background by different types of material (see Figure 6.1).
Alpha particles are emitted from the nucleus
Types of radiation of an atom and consist of two protons and two
Radiation is energy travelling through space neutrons. They are identical to the nucleus of a
or matter in the form of sub-atomic particles helium atom and have a double positive charge.
or electromagnetic waves. Radioactivity is the Because they are heavy and doubly charged, they
spontaneous change in the nucleus of an unstable lose their energy very quickly in matter. A sheet of
49
Cosmogenic paper or a person’s surface layer of dead skin will Sources of radiation
radionuclides are stop them. Alpha particles are only considered
radioactive isotopes There are two primary categories of radiation
produced by hazardous to a person’s health if they are ingested
sources to which we are exposed: natural sources
interaction of or inhaled and thus come into contact with
cosmic radiation and man-made sources.
sensitive cells.
with the nucleus of
an atom. They can Beta particles are electrons emitted from the Natural radiation
be in the earth’s nucleus of an atom. They have only one negative
atmosphere, on the charge, which causes them to interact less with Natural radiation, which may be either ionising
solid surface of the matter than alpha particles and thus penetrate or non-ionising, can be characterised either as
earth, or produced
in meteorites and further. They will be stopped by thin layers of “cosmic” or “terrestrial”. Cosmic radiation comes
other extraterrestrial plastic or metal, and again, are considered from the heavens and is generated through various
materials, which hazardous mainly if a beta-emitter is ingested processes including the birth and death of stars.
then fall to earth. or inhaled. They can, however, cause radiation The biggest emitter of cosmic radiation, so far as
Examples include
tritium (3H), damage to the skin if the exposure is large enough. we on earth are concerned, is the sun. Terrestrial
hydrogen with Neutrons are contained in the nucleus of an radiation comes from the earth itself, and is
two extra neutrons produced by the decay of primordial and
(12.3-year half-life) atom, from which they may be expelled by
collision, or fission. They are electrically neutral cosmogenic radionuclides embedded in the earth’s
and carbon-14
(5 730-year half- particles with approximately the same mass as a crust. Two common elements, uranium and
life), both of which proton, and, being neutral, interact only weakly thorium, emit ionising radiation as they gradually
exist in small decay over millions of years, eventually becoming
amounts in every with matter and are thus very penetrating – not
easy to stop. They are best shielded by thick layers lead – which is stable and therefore emits no
living thing.
of concrete, or by materials rich in hydrogen radiation.
Primordial atoms, such as water or oil. One of the members of the uranium decay
radionuclides are
left over from Gamma rays and X-rays are both chain is radon, a gas that enters the atmosphere
when the earth electromagnetic waves, the one being emitted if it is “born” near the surface of the earth. So
and universe were radiation is not only emitted directly from its
created. They are from the nucleus of an atom, the other by energy
changes in an atom’s electrons. Both are forms sources in the earth, but forms part of the
typically long-lived,
with half-lives often of high-energy electromagnetic radiation that atmosphere we breathe, in greater or lesser
on the order of interact lightly with matter. They are best stopped quantity according to the amounts and types
hundreds of of radioactive materials in the part of the earth
millions of years. by thick layers of lead or other dense materials,
Important examples and are hazardous to people even when their where we happen to be.
are uranium-238 emitters are external to the body. Even our food is naturally radioactive, since
(4 470 million-year plants and animals absorb radioactive materials
half-life),
thorium-232 from the environment. As a result, our own bodies
(14 100 million-year and particularly our bones contain small amounts
half-life), and of radioactive elements like carbon-14,
potassium-40 potassium-40 and radium-226. Potassium is an
(1 280 million-year Figure 6.1: Penetrating distances
half-life). important nutritive mineral; bananas, for example
for different radiation types
are a rich source of potassium, including the
Paper Plastic Lead Concrete radioactive isotope potassium-40. Tritium, a
naturally occurring and man-made radioactive
4 2 α ++ Alpha isotope of hydrogen that forms part of all water
on earth, is also found in small amounts in our
0 -1 β - Beta bodies, mostly in the soft tissues and bloodstream.
Man-made radiation
00 γ Gamma and X-rays
The development of nuclear energy and science
has created various new sources of radiation, man-
10 n Neutron made radiation. Nuclear weapons tests, initially
conducted above ground, resulted in large
Source: University of Michigan, United States. quantities of radioactive material being thrown
50
into the upper atmosphere where it encircled the absorbed. Nowadays, radiation exposure (also One joule is the
globe. Most of the population of the Northern referred to as “dose”) is measured in grays (Gy). energy that is
required to raise
Hemisphere and some of the Southern was, and One gray is defined as an absorption of radiation the temperature of
continues to be, exposed to radiation from this which deposits one joule of energy in one one gram of water
material. kilogram of material. by 0.24°C.
The development of nuclear power since the Some types of ionising radiation are more
1950s has also led to releases of radioactivity into damaging than others. For example, alpha
The terms dose
the atmosphere and into water from various stages particles, because of their large mass and electrical and exposure are,
of the fuel cycle, largely from the reprocessing of charge tend to deposit lots of energy over very in general,
spent fuel and to a lesser extent from fuel short distances, and they can thus cause equivalent and
manufacture and power production. significant damage if they travel through sensitive interchangeable;
both are commonly
Radiation has been extensively used in medicine biological tissue. Neutrons, on the other hand, used.
since its discovery. The use of X-rays involves a interact very infrequently with atoms but when
very significant exposure to ionising radiation; a they do, the effects can be significant. For these
recent development is the use of real-time physical reasons, the different types of radiation
television X-ray images in the operating room to have been given different weighting factors that
help guide the surgeon in positioning surgical are used to relate their physically deposited energy People routinely
to the biological significance of the damage they encounter electro-
instruments. Other sophisticated medical uses of magnetic radiation
gamma rays include computerised tomography (CT) cause. that is not ionising.
and positron emission tomography (PET). The unit used to measure this biological It makes up our
significance is the sievert (Sv). The sievert is equal visible light, radio
Radiation is also used in therapy, precisely and television
because it can kill cells – such as tumour cells. to the amount of energy deposited, in grays, signals, emanates
Radiation sources can be surgically implanted in multiplied by the relevant weighting factor; the from our computer
higher the factor, the greater the reckoned screens and heats
tumours, and liquid radiation sources can be our food in micro-
injected into the bloodstream and concentrate in damage. For alpha particles the factor is 20; for
wave ovens. Yet,
target cells – a practice used to cure thyroid neutrons it is in the 5-20 range varying with their because of their
cancer. All these procedures are sources of ionising energy; for gamma rays, beta rays and X-rays, the low energy, all of
factor is 1. these examples are
radiation both to the patient and to medical staff. classified as
In estimating damage, account also has to be non-ionising
Levels of radiation exposure taken of whether the whole body is exposed or radiation.
To what levels of radiation are humans typically

exposed, and what are the most important
Figure 6.2: Typical sources of public radiation exposure
sources? The United Nations Scientific Committee
(in mSv per year)
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) has
gathered this information since 1955 and produces Atmospheric Nuclear power Natural radiation
nuclear production Man-made radiation
a report about every four years summarising the
test fallout Chernobyl (excluding Chernobyl)
average exposures from all sources. Figure 6.2 0.005 0.002 0.0002
summarises the results of the latest such report,
UNSCEAR 2000. Cosmic
Radiation radiation
Our exposure to these various natural and man- in food 0.4
made sources of radiation may of course be either 0.3
Terrestrial
voluntary or involuntary. Diagnostic radiation
medical exams 0.5
Effects of radiation exposure 0.4
The principal result of radiation passing through

something – such as human tissue – is the Radon
deposition of energy. Radiation loses energy as it 1.2
interacts with matter and the matter gains this
energy. So the unit used to measure radiation Source: UNSCEAR. Sources and Effects of
exposure is based on the amount of energy Ionizing Radiation, Vol. 1 (New York: UN, 2000).
51
Radionuclides that only a part, and if so, which part. Different tissues it scientifically possible to study the effects that
enter the body can (e.g. lungs, liver, bones) have different sensitivities different amounts of radiation exposure can have
remain for some
time, being to radiation damage. For example, the most on humans.
eliminated through biologically significant radiation emitted by However, the physics of radiation are just the
biological functions uranium are alpha particles. These cannot even beginning of the story. Looking at it more closely,
and through
radioactive decay. penetrate a person’s skin, so exposure to uranium the energy from ionising radiation is transferred to
To account for the dust on the skin is generally not hazardous. But the atoms of the substance through which it
doses caused by if the same dust is inhaled and ends up next to passes. Water is the most abundant molecule in
these radionuclides our bodies, and is quite often ionised, i.e. made
and to ensure that
sensitive lung tissue it can be very damaging to
associated risks are the cells exposed. In this case, primarily one tissue abnormally chemically reactive by radiation. If the
not underestimated, is exposed and the deposited energy is limited to water molecule in question happens to be located
it is assumed for it alone. To allow this exposure to be equated next to a molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
regulatory purposes
that the exposure to others, researchers have developed tissue- within a human tissue cell, it might damage it –
that would accrue weighting factors. This allows for the comparison and DNA is the cell’s engine of reproduction. It
over the 50 years and summation of the biological significance of an follows that there can be three principal results to
after the intake a body cell that is damaged by radiation (see
occurs in the single exposure to one type of radiation affecting the
year of the intake. whole body with exposure of another type that Figure 6.3):
This calcuclated ● It repairs itself successfully.
has affected only a particular organ. This makes it
internal exposure ● It fails to repair itself and dies.
is known as possible to represent the biological significance of
● It cannot repair itself, but does not die.
“committed” dose. different exposures to radiation on a single scale.
The potential for long-term effects lies in the
Biological effects of radiation third case; the damage may cause the cell to
exposure become cancerous. Additionally, if the damaged
cell is a human reproductive cell – an egg or a
Radiation is one of the most studied of all toxic sperm cell – the damage to the DNA could
agents. Although it cannot be touched, tasted or potentially result in a genetic mutation. It is these
smelled, it happens – unlike, for example, cancer- two potential effects that are the principal
causing chemicals – to be very easy to identify and concern of radiation health scientists.
quantify. The physics of radiation passing through When people are exposed to ionising radiation,
matter is also very well understood, and this makes the possible effects on their health can be
categorised as follows:
● Immediate effects, occurring as soon as an
exposure to radiation has taken place – called

deterministic effects.
Figure 6.3: Potential biological results
● Delayed effects, perhaps revealing themselves
after radiation damages a cell
only many years later - called stochastic effects.
For humans, the threshold level of radiation
exposure that results in deterministic effects is
around 0.25 sievert (250 mSv). Depending on the
Cell damaged amount of the dose above this threshold, different
air All damage repaired,
types of biological reaction will occur, the effects
by radiation Rep cell regains health
increasing in severity as the dose increases (see
Possible cancer
development Figure 6.4).
r Fortunately, accidents involving such high
re pai Partial loss of
radiation exposures are very rare, and the medical
No cell functions
treatments for highly exposed people have
Damaged cell Possible genetic advanced greatly and continue to do so.
effects (if sperm
or egg cell) Stochastic effects are not certain to occur, but
their chance of occurrence increases with
Dead cell increasing exposure. The important types of
52
stochastic effects are cancers, including leukaemia. Using the information gathered from high-dose
Should reproductive cells be exposed, genetic accidents, including the Japan bombings, it has
modifications can theoretically occur, though none been possible to develop a dose-response curve, a
have ever been observed in any studied human graph that correlates the predicted number of
population, including the survivors of Hiroshima, cancer deaths to calculated individual exposures.
Nagasaki and Chernobyl. This curve has been used to predict and describe
the excess risk of cancer death associated with
Risks at high doses any given level of exposure. For every sievert of
exposure, the risk above the “normal” 20% chance
A fair amount is known about the effects of
of dying from cancer is an additional 5%, that is,
large radiation doses received instantaneously.
the total lifetime risk from cancer raises from 20%
Over the 55 years or more since the atomic
to 25% for one sievert of exposure received.
bombing of Japan, the 100 000 exposed survivors
have been medically monitored. About 20% of
the deaths in this population have been due to
Risks at low doses
some form of cancer – approximately the same As with scientific study in general, there are
percentage of deaths from cancer as is average for things that are known and things that are not
any group of similar composition in any Western known about the biological effects of radiation.
society. However, when the comparison is made The statistics so far considered are based on
with similar Japanese populations that were not relatively high doses and it is known how much
exposed to the bombing, it has been concluded increased cancer risk can be attributed to high
that about 400 of the cancer deaths in the group radiation exposures. What is not known is whether
of atomic bomb survivors can be attributed to similar significant effects can result from low
radiation received in the bomb blasts. doses of radiation such as we all naturally receive
Figure 6.4: Deterministic effects of radiation at high doses
Dose at which a person will die within a few hours unless

they receive medical treatment. Even with treatment
death is usually only delayed, not avoided.
Biological consequence
Dose to the whole body that will likely result
in the death of 50% of those exposed
if no medical treatment is received.
Dose producing a temporary radiation sickness

that may include headaches and nausea.
Dose producing the first noticeable radiation

effects on the body, mostly changes to blood
cells, known as the "threshold dose".
Average annual dose received Note:

per year from natural sources. 1 Sv = 1 000 mSv
(millisievert)
2.4 250 1 000 4 000 7 000 mSv
53
from background radiation, or that certain workers as those mentioned above, and through studies
may receive as part of their jobs. of the effects of radiation on plants, insects and
The data from the high-dose groups show a animals. This worldwide system is now based on
definite link between the amount of the dose and three basic principles:
an increased risk of cancer starting from about ● justification of practices causing exposure;
100 mSv above natural background levels. For ● optimisation of protection;

exposures below this level studies to date have not
● limitation of the exposure of individuals.
demonstrated any statistical evidence of harm. In
the many studies of populations that have received This approach, as codified in the
radiation doses below 100 mSv, no increases of Recommendations of the International
cancer have been observed compared to similar Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP),
populations not exposed to this “extra” radiation. has been implemented in virtually all national
regulatory arrangements. The ICRP meets annually
However, because it is known that radiation and publishes recommendations as needed to
can cause cancer at the higher doses, and because respond to new developments. The current system
our understanding of the relevant biological of radiological protection is evolving and is
mechanisms is incomplete, we cannot reasonably expected to undergo major revision with a new set
assume that cancer cannot be caused by low of ICRP recommendations by 2005. Among other
doses of radiation. So it has always been deemed improvements, the radiological protection of
prudent to assume that every dose received, no non-human species will be specifically addressed.
matter how small, carries a certain risk
proportionate to the dose. It is, in other words, ICRP Recommendations are also reflected
in international standards, such as the IAEA’s
assumed that there is no threshold of safety; that
Basic Safety Standards (BSS) and regional
is, that there is no dose, however small, at which
agreements such as European Union directives
there is no risk.
(e.g. 96/29/EURATOM).
These two assumptions, that any radiation dose
carries some risk and that the risk is proportionate Justification
to the dose, are known as the linear no-threshold
hypothesis (LNT). This hypothesis forms an The principle is that no practice should be
important basis for the regulation and application allowed unless it is justified. In such a matter,
of radiological protection and is conservative in decision criteria cannot rest on scientific
nature. In the absence of conclusive scientific considerations alone, but necessarily include social,
evidence either for or against the existence of economic and ethical factors. The scientific
cancer risks at low doses, a prudent, precautionary community can assess and inform about the risks,
approach has been taken. but ultimately it is society, through democratic
processes, that has to decide whether a risk-
causing practice is justified, and the process is
The radiological protection essentially judgemental. The principle is applied on
system and its regulatory a case-by-case basis, the important point being
that those who take decisions to expose people
basis must be prepared to advance their reasons, as well
The objective of radiological protection is to as to accept that these may be challenged.
protect people from potentially harmful effects To take a general case, the medical use of
of radiation while allowing beneficial exposure- X-rays is routinely taken to be justifiable, but
causing activity to take place. medical staff are expected to consider the value of
The radiological protection system applied each exposure before they apply it. They must
worldwide has developed since its origins in weigh the very slight increased risk of causing a
1928 – with the creation of the International cancer against the benefit they expect from a
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) precise diagnosis. Similarly, in many countries,
at the International Congress of Radiology, the benefit of using nuclear energy to produce
through applying the knowledge gained by electricity in the light of its risks has been
numerous studies of exposed populations such challenged and public policy decisions taken.
54
Optimisation In summary, for any justified practice,

radiological protection must be optimised
The principle of optimising protection applies
such that all individual exposures are as low
only for practices that have been judged to be
as reasonably achievable, but must also be below
justified. It requires that all resulting exposures
any relevant regulatory limits.
be kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).
Practically speaking, the ALARA principle resolves Radiological protection in the
itself into the questions “Has enough been done to
reduce exposure in this particular case? Might it nuclear industry
be possible and reasonable to reduce exposure Because uranium and its daughter isotopes
further?” It should be noted that the objective of naturally emit radiation and because nuclear
optimisation, or ALARA, is not to reduce exposures fission emits radiation and creates waste that
to zero, but to ensure that the risks are reduced to emits radiation, radiological protection is a central
an acceptable level in the circumstances of each safety issue in the nuclear industry. However, the
case. What is acceptable is a matter of scientific various sectors of the nuclear fuel cycle face
and social judgement. different radiological protection issues.
Various means can be employed to do this, such For example, the mining of uranium results in
as minimising the size of the radiation source, workers being exposed to dust containing uranium
limiting the time a person is exposed, maximising and its daughter products. These can be hazardous
the distance between people and radiation sources, to the lungs from alpha-emitting radionuclides
using shielding, etc. The number of people exposed that may be inhaled, thus requiring adequate mine
in any operation and the geographic distribution ventilation and worker respiratory protection.
of doses (e.g. exposure of the public to radiation These same alpha-emitting radionuclides are also
over any particular geographic area) are also the main source of potential hazard during the
important considerations of the optimisation front-end fuel cycle processes.
process.
Limitation
Over and above the principle that doses must Continuous monitoring of the environment
be optimised using the ALARA test, individuals is mandatory for all nuclear installations.
must not be exposed above stipulated dose limits.
Exposure limits for members of the public have
been fixed nationally and internationally at 1 mSv
per year. For radiation workers the international
limit is a total of 100 mSv over any five-year
period, without exceeding 50 mSv in any one year.
Some national regulators have implemented a
stricter limit for workers of 20 mSv per annum. In
practice, the rigorous application of the ALARA
principle and such things as the limitation of
gaseous and liquid discharges have ensured that
actual and average doses are normally far lower
than these limits.
As with highway speed limits, the dose limit is
not a boundary above which dire consequences
will occur, or below which they certainly will not.
It simply represents a level above which societies
and their national governments prefer not to go
in routine circumstances. As with many other
radiological decisions, it involves the best
attainable scientific understanding of the risks
but is ultimately judgemental.
55
In nuclear power plants, radiation exposure of The main objective of these programmes and
workers generally comes from more penetrating approaches is to minimise the consequences of any
gamma-emitting radionuclides such as cobalt-60. relevant event. Nuclear accident preparedness
Such radiation is limited, within the plants, to the involves developing plans and procedures that can
piping and systems directly associated with cooling be put rapidly into action. This involves imagining
the reactor core. These generally only represent a and studying numerous “accident scenarios”, and
hazard for workers during maintenance of these then developing, in consultation with all the
systems. During normal operation these systems necessary services, a basic organisational structure
are shielded and workers are excluded from the and a set of planned responses variable according
hazardous areas. Worker protection is afforded to circumstances. These flexible plans are then kept
during maintenance through the use of shielding on “hot stand-by” and rehearsed.
and by appropriately selecting work tasks and The organisational structures developed under
managing work to minimise worker time in preparedness programmes include: command and
proximity to radiation-emitting sources. communications systems, the careful definition of
Exposure hazards from waste management the responsibilities of the various authorities and
operations, including spent fuel handling, results services likely to be involved, and the training of
largely from gamma-emitting radionuclides. With personnel. All nuclear installations around the
LLW and ILW, cobalt-60 is a significant source world maintain such plans and structures in
of radiation. Fission products, e.g. caesium-137 conjunction with local and national authorities.
and strontium-90, are the significant source of Those who would be involved in decision making
radiation connected with high-level waste and during an incident train regularly with technical
spent nuclear fuel. Radiation exposure associated experts and with each other. In many countries,
with waste management is minimised through the the public in the vicinity of nuclear plants is also
use of specially designed facilities, equipment and kept informed and is involved in training exercises.
procedures that keeps the radiation remote from Emergency response is the application of these
the workers. measures according to the nature of the nuclear
Several parts of the nuclear fuel cycle release facility and of the accident (e.g. fire, unplanned
small quantities of radioactivity into the criticality or radioactive release). Large nuclear
environment. These emissions come mostly from installations, particularly power plants, are
spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, but also from equipped with many barriers to halt the
nuclear power plants during normal operation. As progression of an accident (see Chapter 5),
such, there is a need to minimise and measure and severe accidents, necessarily involving the
these effluents in order to protect the public and successive failure of these systems, would be likely
environment. Filtering and purification of air to develop over a considerable period before the
and water effluents minimise these releases and public was directly threatened. There would usually
extensive environmental monitoring around all be hours, even days, to warn of the need to take
nuclear installations verify that these are working protective measures.
appropriately. There are three types of countermeasure that
can be taken during the early stages of a nuclear
or radiological emergency as follows:
Accident response ● Sheltering the affected population. Simple
There is no such thing as zero risk for any measures can be effective. A very easy way to
human activity. Despite the very high levels of greatly reduce the impact of a cloud of released
safety maintained in all radiological activity, radioactivity is to ask people to move indoors,
accidents involving the exposure of workers and close all windows and turn off ventilation
of the public can occur, and can possibly (like systems pending the dispersal of the cloud by
Chernobyl) have international scope. The wind and weather.
international community has therefore developed ● Evacuation of the population. This measure
detailed programmes and approaches for nuclear would be taken if an expected release was
emergency preparedness and nuclear accident estimated to be sufficiently high. Clearly,
management. evacuation is most effective if it takes place
56
before a release and after the requisite

meteorological judgements have been made Chernobyl Health Effects 15 Years On
about its likely direction and speed of dispersal. The health impact of the Chernobyl accident can
be described in terms of acute health effects and late
● Administration of iodine tablets containing a health effects.
non-radioactive, stable form of iodine. Taking The acute health effects occurred among the plant
stable iodine can greatly reduce the uptake of personnel and the persons who intervened in the
radioactive iodine that is produced by the emergency phase to fight fires, provide medical aid
fission process and would be an important part and help with immediate clean-up operations. A total
of 31 persons died as a direct consequence of the
of any release resulting from a severe accident accident and about 140 persons suffered various
from a nuclear power plant. Iodine is used by degrees of radiation sickness and health impairment.
the body for many purposes, and stored in the No members of the general public suffered these
thyroid gland. So any radioactive iodine that kinds of effects.
enters the body concentrates in the thyroid, In terms of late health effects, there was a real
and significant increase of carcinomas of the thyroid
causing it a large dose that could lead to among the children living in the contaminated
thyroid cancer, especially in children. Similarly, regions of the former Soviet Union, which should be
radioactive iodine deposited on the ground attributed to the accident until proved otherwise. For
could enter the milk or other food supplies with example, for the eight years prior to the accident,
only five cases of childhood thyroid cancer
similar results. The answer therefore is to “fill (0-14 years old) were seen in Minsk, the main
up” the thyroid gland with non-radioactive, Belarussian centre for childhood thyroid cancer
stable iodine by taking iodine tablets; any diagnosis and treatment. By the end of 1998 the total
surplus that then entered the body would be number of thyroid cancers in children had reached
over 600 in Belarus. Similarly, the Ukraine saw
quickly eliminated, mostly in sweat and urine. 402 cases of thyroid cancer develop between 1986
In most countries, steps are now taken to and 1998. Of these cases, three of these children have
ensure the speedy availability of iodine tablets to died, while the rest have been successfully treated.
There might also be some increase of thyroid cancers
populations vulnerable to any significant release of among the adults living in those regions. From the
fission products. The administration of iodine is, observed trend of this increase of thyroid cancers it is
however, seen only as a measure additional to expected that the peak has not yet been reached and
sheltering or evacuation. that this kind of cancer will continue for some time to
show an excess above its natural rate in the area.
On the other hand, scientific and medical
Accident recovery observation of the population to date has not
revealed any increase above “natural” levels in other
Once an emergency situation is brought under cancers, or in leukaemia, congenital abnormalities,
adverse pregnancy outcomes or any other radiation-
control and the population protected, the longer- induced disease that could be attributed to the
term work of recovery must begin. This would accident.
generally first involve establishing the levels of
contamination deposited in the environment,
assessing the doses that will have been received by
individuals, and developing appropriate clean-up
and medical follow-up programmes. The clean-up
of contaminated land, particularly land used for
food production, would be an important part of
these programmes. Fortunately, the fact that
radioactivity can be readily detected assists greatly For further information
in applying the many relevant clean-up techniques
that exist. See the references listed below provided in the “For Further
In the case of very severe contamination, as for
● Sources of radiation and summaries of average exposures,
example in the area surrounding the damaged
see 6.1.
Chernobyl reactor, a return to pre-accident levels
● The basics of radiological protection, see 6.2 through 6.5.
and exposures might only be achievable through
extreme measures such as the removal of all ● Recent developments in radiological protection, see 6.6
topsoil and vegetation or the voluntary curbing through 6.8.

of consumption of local products. ● The emergency response system, see 6.9.
57
Chapter 7
The Economics of Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is characterised by low production costs, high capital costs,
insensitivity to variations in fuel prices, long operational life and significant
regulatory costs.
Existing nuclear power plants are generally competitive even in deregulated markets
and particularly when initial investment costs have been amortised. Mainly because
of high capital costs, decisions to build new nuclear power plants may depend
significantly on public policy factors.
A difference between nuclear energy and other forms of electricity production
is that some costs that are mainly external to other energy sources are internalised
in the case of nuclear.
Costs, risks and liabilities ● high capital investment costs;

● long planning horizons and operational life;
Factors influencing the economics ● low fuel, operating and maintenance (O &M)
of nuclear energy costs;
Figure 7.1 shows the life cycle revenues and ● significant costs incurred after cessation of
costs for a typical nuclear power plant. It power generation (notably management
demonstrates the factors that characterise and disposal of radioactive waste and
the economics of nuclear energy, viz: decommissioning).
Figure 7.1: Illustrative life cycle cash flow for a nuclear power plant
Revenues from electricity sales

(actual revenues will vary with market
conditions and customer makeup)
Years 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80-100
}
Design and Production costs Major refurbishment Decommissioning
construction (O&M plus fuel) (e.g. steam generator replacement)
59
Elements of nuclear generating security, health and safety, and management and
costs disposal of operational waste. The costs of
Investment costs day-to-day and periodic maintenance and
include those of The costs of generating electricity are usually inspection (during which plants usually have to
construction, major broken down into three major categories, the costs
refurbishment be taken off-line) are also included. Because
during the life of of investment (capital); operation and investment costs are essentially fixed after
the plant and maintenance; and fuel. construction, O&M costs represent a major
decommissioning. Investment costs include those of design opportunity for cost-reduction in an existing
Operations and and construction, major refurbishing, and power plant.
maintenance costs
include those for decommissioning. The last comprises all the costs Fuel costs include costs related to the fuel
operating staff, incurred from the shutdown of the plant until the cycle, including the costs of purchasing, converting
training, security, site is released in accordance with national policy
health, safety and and enriching uranium, fuel fabrication, spent fuel
the costs for man- and includes the costs to manage the radioactive conditioning, reprocessing, disposal of the spent
agement of low- and other waste generated during fuel or the high-level waste resulting from
and intermediate- decommissioning until they are disposed of. reprocessing and transport. Fuel costs make up
level operational To these costs are added those associated with
waste. In fact, this only about 20% of the costs of nuclear-generated
category includes securing regulatory approval to proceed electricity, which is therefore relatively insensitive
all costs that are with construction and operation. to fuel price fluctuations – in contrast to the
not considered
investment or fuel Investment costs must be financed, and they position of fossil fuels.
costs. thus incur interest charges. These are amortised Although generating costs are country-specific,
Fuel costs include over some set period, perhaps on the order of Figure 7.2 shows the relative importance of the
all those related to 20-25 years, and the debt service becomes part of components in the cost of nuclear generation of
the fuel cycle. They the costs of electricity generation. Provisions are
include the cost of electricity.
the uranium, its also required to be set aside or paid by plant
conversion and operators for decommissioning and disposal of its Long-term financial risks and
enrichment, fuel associated waste – processes that can take many
fabrication, spent liabilities
fuel conditioning decades.
and disposal or Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs A decision to build or to continue to operate
recycling, as well as include all costs that are not considered a nuclear power plant represents a greater
disposal of the commercial risk than is normally associated with
waste of investment or fuel costs, the main elements being
reprocessing. the costs of operating and support staff, training, alternative energy sources, for several reasons:
● The long planning timescale and operational life
provides greater potential for long-term
changes in the market to impact revenues
Figure 7.2: Typical nuclear electricity generation cost breakdown negatively or positively.
● The high fixed-cost element, due largely to
the high investment costs, produces greater
vulnerability to short-term fluctuations in
market conditions.
● The strong regulatory framework reduces
operational flexibility and introduces the
possibility of changes in regulatory
requirements that could impact adversely
on costs (and historically have done so).
● Uncertainties associated with the costs of
decommissioning and long-lived waste disposal,
including the time periods involved.
● Whereas non-nuclear plants can trade or sell
much of their cost base under negative
economic conditions, this is in practice largely
60
ruled out for nuclear power plants (e.g. a represent a relatively large proportion of
gas-fired power plant can sell its gas supply fossil-fuel-based generating costs that are, as a
on the open market). result, sensitive to fuel price variations. Renewable
Although decommissioning costs and the costs sources of energy, e.g. wind and hydropower, are
of managing its associated waste are high, they are similar to nuclear power in having high investment
a relatively small component of total life-cycle and low production costs per unit of power
costs, not least because the long time periods produced.
involved produce considerable discounting.
Uncertainties in the accuracy of predicted future Existing plants
costs are possible given the long service lives of Given the relatively low cost of nuclear fuel,
reactors and the potential for changing and the recent advances in improving efficiency, and
usually strengthening regulatory requirements. the fact that in many cases original investment
Therefore, allowances for uncertainty are made a costs are now substantially amortised, existing
part of the provisions to cover decommissioning nuclear power plants have mainly proved to be
costs. competitive worldwide.
If these costs are provided for based on Data from the European Commission on
projected income over the expected life of a plant, electricity production costs (investment, O&M and
there is a risk of shortfall should economic fuel costs included) show nuclear energy to be
conditions force early closure or should the plant competitive even accounting for its large
produce revenues below projected levels. In investment costs (see Table 7.1).
practice, however, these funds have been collected
over projected lifetimes considerably shorter than
those actually achieved. The potential also exists
for advances in the relevant technologies to
reduce costs below those envisaged.
Figure 7.3: Breakdown of representative generation costs
Per cent
(10% discount rate)
Competitive aspects
100
Comparative costs of generating 80
electricity
60
Figure 7.3 gives a comparison of the Fuel
representative generating costs of electricity 40
from nuclear and some fossil fuel sources. O&M
20
Compared with nuclear energy, natural Investment
gas-fired plants are characterised by low capital 0
investment costs and significant fuel costs. Nuclear Coal Gas
Coal-fired plants are characterised by mid-range Source: NEA. Projected Costs of Generating Electricity (Paris: OECD, 1998). Average
investment and fuel costs. In general, fuel costs of values for Canada, France, Japan, Spain and the United States.
Table 7.1: Electricity production costs for 7 000 hours of production (1990 Euro cents/kWh)
Coal Oil & lignite Gas Nuclear Biomass Photovoltaic Wind
Minimum 3.2 4.9 2.6 3.4 3.4 51.2 6.7

Maximum 5.0 5.2 3.5 5.9 34.5 85.3 7.2
Source: European Commission. Green Paper: Towards a European Strategy for Energy Supply (Brussels: EC, 2000), Annex 2, Table 1 without excise
taxes and subsidies.
61
External costs are Data from the United States on energy New plants
costs that are operating costs (only O&M plus fuel costs) show a
imposed on society The 1998 OECD/NEA study on Projected Costs
and the environ- similar result. In 1999, operating expenses were
reported as US 1.92 cents/kWh for nuclear, of Generating Electricity compares the levelised
ment that are
not accounted US 2.02 cents/kWh for fossil fuel sources, costs of electricity for various fuel types. The
for in the cost US 0.68 cents/kWh for hydro and results showed that the attractiveness of building
to producers and new plants is dependent on country-specific
consumers of US 3.87 cents/kWh for gas turbines.
factors including the prevailing discount rate. For
energy, and omitted The outlook for existing plants on economic
when calculating example, according to the study, nuclear power is
grounds is therefore one of continuing use of
the market price. cheapest in 5 of 12 countries at a 5% per year rate
these facilities, particularly as the costs for lifetime
while at 10% per year it is cheapest in none.
extension or capacity upgrade are typically much
lower than those for building new plant. The relatively large investment cost for
new nuclear plants is a main factor. To make
Nuclear energy in deregulated construction of new plants commercially more
attractive under competitive conditions,
markets
investment costs must be reduced. New more cost-
An OECD/NEA study on Nuclear Power in effective designs, improved construction methods,
Competitive Electricity Markets, published in 2000, standardisation and series construction and
found that nuclear power plants in Finland, multiple unit construction are all means to reduce
Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, the the investment costs of nuclear power plants.
United States and the United Kingdom had been Improvement is possible. For example, in Japan
competitive in their respective deregulated during the 1990s, use of a standardised advanced
markets. design together with duplication of construction
Generally, the response to market deregulation on a single site enabled the construction of new
had been an improvement in operating efficiency plants to be completed in under 6 years as
and profitability. The pressure to manage a plant compared with a previous range of 7-10 years,
properly to meet stringent nuclear safety the construction of two advanced boiling water
regulations appears to provide a sound basis for reactors (ABWR) at Kashiwazaki-Kariwa
competitive performance. having been accomplished (from start to
commercialisation) in 62 and 65 months.
However, the high levels of financial
commitment and risk in a competitive market can
make it difficult for the private sector alone to
finance new nuclear power plants, even given the
potential time and cost savings. Historically, the
exploitation of nuclear energy on a highly
Construction of units 6 and 7 innovative basis has been driven by public-private
at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power station in Japan sector relationships. The question now is whether
was accomplished in under six years. this relationship can or should exist under
deregulated conditions.
External costs
A difference between nuclear energy and other
forms of electricity production is that nuclear
energy bears some costs that are not included in
(are external to) the costs of other sources of
electricity. Some of the costs associated with
nuclear electricity generation included in the
prices at which the resulting electricity is sold on
the open market include radioactive waste
management and disposal. Fossil fuel energy bears
62
certain costs for reducing its emissions to air and Figure 7.4: Effect of carbon tax on levelised generation cost
water, as does nuclear, but a considerable part of in different countries (10% discount rate)
the waste is disposed of to the atmosphere,
imposing costs on the community that are not Canada
0
reflected in the price of its electricity. Table 7.2 Nuclear 50 $/tC
represents the outcome of a major study by the 100
Coal 150
European Commission on the external costs of
Gas
electricity production by fuel source, including not
only the costs of waste deposition but also the France
impacts on public health, together with certain Nuclear
other detriments whose costs are generally borne
Coal
by society rather than the consumer.
The economic competitiveness of nuclear power Gas
might be dramatically shifted if the external costs Rep. of Korea
of fossil fuel generation were to be internalised. Nuclear
For example, if the external costs for carbon
Coal
emissions alone were internalised through the
imposition of a “carbon tax”, the effect on Gas
levelised generation costs would be significant Spain
(see Figure 7.4). Nuclear
Unless there is a steep reduction in nuclear
Coal
energy capital costs, a significant and sustained
rise in fossil fuel costs or political decisions to Gas
internalise some of the external costs associated United States
with fossil fuels, private sector investment in new Nuclear
nuclear power plants may be lacking. Until then,
decisions to build new nuclear power plants are Coal
likely to be significantly influenced by public Gas
policy factors, such as security of supply. Whether
and how these governmental concerns may be 0 2 4 6 8 10
addressed in competitive markets is an open Generation cost (US cents/kWh)
question and outside the purview of the private
sector. Source: NEA. Nuclear Energy and the Kyoto Protocol (Paris: OECD, 2002).
Table 7.2
External costs for electricity production
in the European Union (Euro cents/kWh) For further information
Coal and lignite 1.8 - 15.0

Oil 2.6 - 10.9
● The economics of the nuclear fuel cycle, see 7.1.
Gas 0.5 - 3.5
● An in-depth analysis of the cost of generating
Hydro 0.04 - 0.7 electricity by the various technologies in current use,
Photovoltaic 0.1 - 0.3 including nuclear, see 7.2.
Biomass (includes peat) 0.1 - 5.2 ● Additional information on the economics of nuclear
Wind 0.05 - 0.25 energy, see 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4.

Nuclear 0.3 - 0.7 ● Nuclear energy in competitive electricity markets, see
7.3 through 7.5.
Source: European Commission, ExternE – Externalities
of Energy, Vol. 10: National Implementation ● External costs of generating energy, see 7.6 through
(Luxembourg: EC, 1999), p. 6. 7.8.
63
Chapter 8
International Nuclear Law

and Non-proliferation
Virtually all aspects of the use of nuclear energy are governed by a framework of
national laws, frequently based on principles that have been agreed to internationally
and which are often reflected in international agreements or other instruments.
Those agreements and instruments that deal with non-proliferation, are
a particularly important strand in these arrangements, responding to widely held
public concerns regarding the spread of nuclear weapons. The Nuclear
Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968 is the fundamental legal basis for the international
nuclear non-proliferation regime.
This chapter does not attempt to deal enough to keep pace with changes in technology
comprehensively with the extensive web of and public concerns. Finally, because the
agreements, conventions, laws, regulations, consequences of nuclear energy’s use may not be
standards and institutions that govern nuclear confined within national borders, the framework
matters. Rather, it concentrates on two particularly should be international in character.
important aspects of nuclear energy use – its legal
framework and the non-proliferation of nuclear National requirements
weapons. All OECD countries using nuclear energy have
established (1) general legislative requirements for
International nuclear law the conduct of civil nuclear activities and (2) a
public authority empowered to enforce compliance
Responsible regulation of nuclear energy has with these requirements.
always been indispensable for public confidence in Most countries have established a mandatory
its exploitation. Achieving that confidence requires licensing system, a form of regulation under which
the existence of a comprehensive and effective specific activities can only be lawfully carried out
legal framework whose goal is the protection of in accordance with terms and conditions specified
the health, safety and security of the public and in a licence issued by a public authority. In the vast
the integrity of the natural environment. majority of cases, compliance is verified through
Public confidence also requires trust in the systematic inspection by the licensing authority,
involved institutions, both in the regulator and and by reporting requirements imposed on the
the regulated. This, in turn, requires among licensee. Non-compliance with license conditions
other things transparency and pro-active can result in the suspension or revocation of the
communication. license, the imposition of fines, or even
An effective legal framework depends on strong imprisonment of the licensee or other responsible
requirements, as well as enforcement measures to entity, depending on the severity of the violation.
ensure compliance with those requirements. At the With the rapid development of nuclear
same time, the framework needs to be flexible science and technology over the past decades,
65
The OECD Nuclear governments have had to ensure that legislative Transport of Radioactive Material. These
Energy Agency requirements kept pace with the utilisation of international instruments flow from the
was established
in 1958 and as of new technologies and with new uses for existing co-operation and advice of national governments
January 2003 had technologies. In so doing, national legislation has and experts.
28 member steadily extended its scope with the intention of
countries. protecting the public and the environment from International framework
The European
Commission takes the risks associated with these new developments.
There are a variety of international conventions
part in the work As a result, today’s national legislative
of the Agency. The
in the nuclear field, to which most OECD countries
requirements cover an extremely wide range
NEA also works in are party, dealing with such matters as non-
of activities, including:
close collaboration proliferation of nuclear weapons, physical
with the IAEA as ● uranium mining and milling; protection of nuclear materials, co-operation and
well as with other
● use of nuclear substances and radiation in mutual assistance in the event of a nuclear
international
organisations in the research and medicine; accident, nuclear safety and radioactive waste
nuclear field. ● packaging and transport of radioactive management. The most important of these are:
Specific areas of
materials including nuclear fuel; ● the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear
competence
include safety and ● nuclear safety for all stages in the life of Weapons (in force since 1970), that works to
regulation of nuclear installations, from power plants to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and
nuclear activities, weapons technology and to foster the peaceful
radioactive waste radiation therapy units, and from design to
management, decommissioning; uses of nuclear energy;
radiological ● the Convention on the Physical Protection of
● physical protection (security) of nuclear
protection, nuclear
science, economic materials and nuclear installations; Nuclear Materials (entered into force in 1987),
and technical which imposes obligations on contracting
● international trade in nuclear materials,
analyses of the States in relation to the protection of nuclear
nuclear fuel cycle, equipment and technology;
materials within their territory or in the course
nuclear law and ● management of spent fuel and radioactive
liability and public of international transport;1
information. The
waste;
● the Convention on Early Notification of a
NEA Data Bank ● non-proliferation and safeguards obligations;
Nuclear Accident (entered into force in 1986),
provides nuclear
● radiological emergency preparedness and that establishes a system for notifying the IAEA
data and computer
program services incident response measures; and neighbouring States in the event of a
for participating ● liability and compensation for damage suffered nuclear accident which could have
countries. transnational consequences;
as a result of accidents.
Many of these legislative requirements derive ● the Convention on Assistance in the Case of
from, or are based on, internationally accepted a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency
principles and standards. Most industrialised (in force since 1987), which establishes an
countries, for example, follow the international framework to facilitate prompt
Recommendations of the International Commission assistance and support in the event of nuclear
on Radiological Protection with regard to dose accidents or radiological emergencies (see
rates (see Chapter 6), though some apply still Chapter 6 for more information on nuclear
stricter requirements. Similarly, they follow the accident response);
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Basic ● the Convention on Nuclear Safety (entered into
Safety Standards for Protection Against Ionising force in 1996), an incentive convention2 that
Radiation and for the Safety of Radioactive aims to maintain a high level of safety at
Sources as well as its Regulations for the Safe operating nuclear power plants by setting
1. A revision of this convention is currently being negotiated. While the existing convention covers the physical
protection of nuclear materials in the course of international transit only, it is anticipated that its scope will be
expanded to cover such materials while in domestic use, storage or transit, as well as the sabotage of such
materials.
2. An incentive convention is designed to obtain compliance through voluntary co-operation rather than by means of
controls and sanctions.
66
international benchmarks for nuclear safety deviating as they do from the normal legal As a result of the
practices and regulation (see Chapter 5 for principles that determine liability for damages 1979 nuclear
accident at
more information on nuclear safety); resulting from a hazardous activity. Three Mile Island
● the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Under these regimes, the operator of a nuclear in the United States,
Fuel Management and on the Safety of installation3 is both strictly and exclusively liable the insurance paid
or on reserve to
Radioactive Waste Management (entered into for nuclear damage suffered by third parties as be paid is
force in 2001), an incentive convention that a result of a nuclear accident occurring at its USD 100 million
aims to achieve and maintain a high level of installation or involving nuclear substances coming for settlement of
safety through the enhancement of national from that installation. However, a limit is usually damage claims.
measures and international co-operation placed upon the amount of that liability as well as
(see Chapters 3 and 4 for more information upon the time within which claims for damages
on radioactive waste management). must be brought. Within the OECD, the operator
In addition to these conventions, a considerable of a nuclear installation is required to maintain
number of multilateral agreements have been financial security covering the amount of its
entered into, often by neighbouring countries, as liability to ensure that funds will be available to
for example the 1998 agreement for co-operation compensate the damage suffered. Although this
in the transport of nuclear materials between the financial security may be obtained through a
Strict liability means
Czech Republic, the Russian Federation, the Slovak variety of means, e.g. a bank guarantee, a pledge that the operator
Republic and Ukraine. There are also bilateral of assets, a State guarantee or through a form of of a nuclear
State insurance, in practice, private insurance is installation is liable
agreements on co-operation on such matters as for injuries or
the exchange of technical information and the most common form of financial security.
damage suffered by
specialists; the provision of materials and Given the risks involved and the large amounts third parties as a
equipment for experiments; and the carrying out of coverage required, it is impossible for individual result of a nuclear
accident occurring
of joint research and similar agreements dealing insurance companies to insure this risk on their at its installation,
with aspects of safety and radiological protection. own. As a result, within each country private without the need to
Finally, there is the routine activity of nuclear insurance is provided by a “pool”, a group prove that the
of insurance companies who have joined together operator was
supranational bodies such as the European Union negligent or at
and international organisations such as the IAEA on a co-insurance basis.4 Since their creation in fault.
and the OECD/NEA, in the setting of guidelines and the mid-1950s, the capacity of these pools has Exclusive liability
standards and in providing fora for international increased many times over – not only because means that only the
discussion and mutual assistance. In the case of more companies join but because with increasing operator of the
experience, they are able to assume more risk. nuclear installation
the European Union this extends to a variety where the accident
of Council Regulations, Directives and other Nevertheless, even with this pooling of resources, occurs can be held
instruments with binding force on its members. their total financial capacity is still usually less liable for injuries or
than the amount of financial security required damage suffered by
of the operator of a nuclear power plant. third parties.
A special regime for liability and Third parties, in this
Consequently, the national pools work with other
compensation national pools to obtain coverage for the balance.
context, are anyone
who is neither the
Most OECD countries have adopted special Generally, the sponsoring national pool commits operator of the
liability and compensation legislation to ensure itself to provide the full amount of insurance to nuclear installation
that those who suffer damage as a result of a the policyholder and then reinsures5 most of that nor a supplier of
goods, services or
nuclear accident have recourse to adequate amount through re-insurance contracts with technology to that
compensation. These special regimes are unique, another pool. operator.
It may be noted
that in most OECD
3. While the definition of nuclear installation may vary somewhat from country to country, it generally includes countries, the
nuclear reactors, nuclear fuel fabrication and processing plants, isotope separation plants, irradiated nuclear fuel required financial
reprocessing plants, and facilities for the storage or disposal of nuclear fuel or radioactive products or waste. security may only
be used as
4. Co-insurance means that a number of insurers collectively insure a certain risk, the sum of their individual shares compensation for
totalling 100%. victims and not for
5. Re-insurance is where an insurer or co-insurer cedes part of the risk it has assumed to another insurer for which the payment of
it pays a premium, essentially insuring the risk it has itself insured. interest or costs.
67
International agreements ● the 1997 Protocol to Amend the Vienna

are an important element Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear
in harmonising nuclear energy Damage (Vienna Amending Protocol);6
legislation worldwide.
● the 1997 Convention on Supplementary
Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC).7

The Paris and Vienna Conventions as well as the
Vienna Amending Protocol contain the same basic
principles:
● strict and exclusive liability of the operator for
third party nuclear damage;

It is acknowledged that the operator liability
● the operator’s obligation to secure this liability
amounts may not be sufficient to cover the
financially;
consequences of a catastrophic nuclear accident.
Therefore, supplementing these financial security ● limitation on the amount of operator liability
requirements, most OECD member countries have and a time limit within which victims must
mechanisms or policies in place to provide bring their claims;
additional financial assistance or compensation out ● non-discrimination among victims on grounds
of public funds in the event that the operator’s of nationality, domicile or residence;
financial security is not adequate to compensate ● unity of jurisdiction, meaning that one single
for the damages incurred. Specific measures and court determines all claims for compensation
amounts vary from country to country. resulting from a particular accident.
In addition to these national compensation The 1988 Joint Protocol acts as a geographical
regimes, many countries are signatory or party link between the Paris and Vienna Conventions.
to one or another of the several international The Brussels Supplementary Convention provides
conventions that establish liability and for compensation supplementary to that called
compensation regimes to manage the complicated for under the Paris Convention. The CSC is
process of claiming compensation for a nuclear designed to provide for compensation
accident with transnational effects. These supplementary to that called for under either
conventions include: the Paris Convention, the Vienna Convention
Under the Paris ● the 1960 Paris Convention on Third Party or the legislation of an Annex State as defined
Convention Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (Paris in that Convention.
an operator of
a nuclear
Convention); As for the amounts of liability that are imposed
installation is ● the 1963 Brussels Convention Supplementary upon nuclear operators under these conventions:
not relieved of to the Paris Convention (Brussels ● the Vienna Convention imposes a minimum
liability for damage
caused by a Supplementary Convention, BSC); liability amount of USD 5 million;8
nuclear incident ● the 1963 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability ● the Paris Convention imposes a maximum
directly due to for Nuclear Damage (Vienna Convention);
a terrorist act. liability amount of 15 million SDR9 (about
● the 1988 Joint Protocol Relating to the EUR 22 million) although most contracting
Application of the Vienna Convention and the parties have imposed higher amounts on
Paris Convention (1988 Joint Protocol); nuclear operators pursuant to national
6. It should be noted that the 1997 Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
had not yet come into force as of 1 January 2003.
7. It may be noted that the 1997 Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage had not yet
come into force as of 1 January 2003.
8. This amount is defined by reference to its value in gold on 29 April 1963 (USD 35 per one troy ounce of fine gold),
and is generally considered as having a value of approximately USD 60 million today.
9. SDR stands for special drawing right, a unit of account defined by the International Monetary Fund. It is
calculated daily on the basis of a basket of currencies consisting as of 1 January 2003 of the euro, the yen, the
US dollar and the pound sterling. As of 20 February 2003 an SDR was equivalent to Euro 1.48 and USD 1.37.
68
Table 8.1: International liability and compensation conventions

and coverage for OECD member countriesi
Approximate operator liability amounts imposed under

Paris BSC Vienna Joint national legislation (unless otherwise indicated the
Conv. Conv. Protocol financial security limit is equal to the liability amount)ii
Australia No specific legislation.

Austria Unlimited liability though a maximum financial security
limit is set at about EUR 400 million.
Belgium ✔ ✔ EUR 300 million.
Canada Financial security limit of CAD 75 million.
Czech Republic ✔ ✔ CZK 6 000 million.
Denmark ✔ ✔ ✔ SDR 60 million (about EUR 90 million).
Finland ✔ ✔ ✔ SDR 175 million (about EUR 260 million).
France ✔ ✔ EUR 91.5 million.
Germany ✔ ✔ ✔ Unlimited liability though a financial security limit is set
at about EUR 2 500 million.
Greece ✔ ✔ No specific legislation.
Hungary ✔ ✔ SDR 100 million (about EUR 150 million).
Iceland No specific legislation.
Ireland No specific legislation.
Italy ✔ ✔ ✔ EUR 4 million.
Japan Unlimited liability though a maximum financial security limit
is set at JPY 60 000 million for reactors over 10 000 kW.iii
Luxembourg No specific legislation.
Mexico ✔ MXP 100 million.
Netherlands ✔ ✔ ✔ EUR 340 million.
New Zealand No specific legislation.
Norway ✔ ✔ ✔ SDR 60 million (about EUR 90 million).
Poland ✔ ✔ SDR 150 million (about EUR 225 million).
Portugal ✔ No specific legislation.
Republic of Korea SDR 300 million (about EUR 450 million).
Slovak Republic ✔ ✔ SKK 2 000 million.
Spain ✔ ✔ EUR 150 million.
Sweden ✔ ✔ ✔ SDR 300 million (about EUR 450 million).
Switzerland Unlimited liability though a financial security limit is set
at about CHF 1 000 million.
Turkey ✔ No specific legislation.
United Kingdom ✔ ✔ GBP 140 million.
United States USD 9 700 million though a financial security limit is set
at USD 200 million.
i. Based upon unofficial statistics of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency as of October 2002.
ii. SDR converted to euros at 1.48 euro per SDR (20 February 2003, IMF SDR valuation).
iii. Reactors of less than 10 000 kW have a security limit of JPY 12 000 million and other nuclear facilities, JPY 2 000 million.
legislation, usually in the range of through the liable operator’s financial security,
150 million SDR (about EUR 220 million); public funds provided by the State in which the
● the Brussels Supplementary Convention liable operator’s installation is located, and
provides for a maximum of 300 million SDR public funds provided by all contracting parties
(about EUR 450 million) to be made available together;
69
The International ● the Vienna Amending Protocol will impose a countries are party is given in Table 8.1. The table
Atomic Energy minimum liability amount of 300 million SDR indicates the liability amounts imposed on nuclear
Agency (IAEA)
founded in 1957, is (about EUR 450 million) (of which one-half may operators under national legislation, which may
an independent, be provided by the State in whose territory its differ from the amounts applicable under the
intergovernmental installation is situated); conventions that the State is party to. Where the
organisation in the limits differ the higher amount is applicable.
United Nations ● the CSC will provide for approximately
family that serves 600 million SDR (about EUR 900 million) to be Nuclear installation operators must maintain
as a forum for scien- made available, it being understood that the financial security equal to the liability amount.
tific and technical Some countries, though, have imposed very high
co-operation in the “supplementary” portion of the fund under this
Convention will amount to approximately or even unlimited amounts of liability. In these
peaceful use of
nuclear technology. 300 million SDR (about EUR 450 million). cases, lower financial security limits have been
Key aspects of its established in order to permit the operators to
responsibilities Both the Paris and Brussels Supplementary obtain insurance and are indicated in the table.
include developing Conventions are currently in the process of
internationally As can be seen, many countries that generate
revision. Once these revisions come into force, the
accepted nuclear significant amounts of nuclear power are not party
safety standards liability limits imposed upon Paris Convention
to these conventions, e.g. Canada, China, Japan,
and verifying that parties cannot be set at less than EUR 700 million,
States use nuclear the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation,
while the total amount of compensation to be
materials and Switzerland and the United States, although most
facilities only for made available under the combined Paris-Brussels
of them have adopted identical principles in their
peaceful purposes. regime will increase to a maximum of
national legislation.
As of May 2003, EUR 1.5 billion.
136 States were As in the past, nuclear law will continue to
members of A summary of the international liability and
evolve at both the national and international
the IAEA. compensation conventions to which OECD member
levels. This evolution will reflect not only the need
to properly manage scientific and technological
developments in the nuclear field, but also the
need to ensure that maximum benefits are derived
from the peaceful use of nuclear energy while
protecting public health and safety, and the
environment.
Non-proliferation
Figure 8.1: The elements of non-proliferation The incredible destructive potential of nuclear
weapons has driven the international community
to prevent their proliferation, or to “keep the genie
in the bottle”. Yet, the peaceful uses of nuclear
Te
energy are seen to provide much benefit. Because

ch
a good deal of knowledge relevant to nuclear

no
l
log co
tro weapons is intrinsically acquired in the course of

c on ng
y e ntro
ia l t i
ter oun the preparation for and actual use of nuclear
xp ls
Ma acc
or
d energy and/or nuclear research facilities,

an
t
NON- preventing weapons proliferation while allowing

ive
civil nuclear development to go on is a difficult

ns
PROLIFERATION
ba he
task. Consequently, the risk of weapons

Physical
security
st pre
n
proliferation will remain an issue for nuclear

m
Co
energy and an important concern for the public

te
IAE as long as the link between civilian and military

A
insp use of nuclear energy cannot be effectively and
ecti
ons
permanently cut.
Obtaining nuclear weapons is a complex
undertaking requiring not just specialised fissile
70
material, but also the necessary knowledge and suppliers of the facilities or the nuclear material “Not achieving a
technology to be able to design, build, handle and involved. In 1997, an additional safeguards nuclear test ban
would have to be
deliver them. Physical testing of a nuclear weapon protocol, which includes measures to improve the classed as the
may also be sought to ensure its reliability and capability to detect possibly undeclared nuclear greatest
effectiveness. activities, was agreed. About 70 States have disappointment of
any administration,
Beginning in 1946, the international already signed it and the ratification process has of any decade, of
community targeted each of these “essentials” with been completed for 30 of them. any time and of
the object of preventing access to the materials The essence of safeguards is a State declaration any party.”
and critical technologies, preventing testing and Dwight D.
about its nuclear material, facilities and activities Eisenhower, 1961.
also seeking to control access to the technologies coupled with IAEA inspection or access to verify
needed to deliver a weapon (see Figure 8.1). These this information. Inspections are usually conducted
efforts culminated in a series of treaties, notably on a random, yet pre-announced basis at least
the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear annually. In the most sensitive facilities physical
Weapons (NPT, in force since 1970) and the inspections may even be performed continuously.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT, IAEA inspection activities can include verification
not entered into force), which continue to form that the design of nuclear facilities is as declared,
the basis of all efforts to prevent proliferation. examination of operating records, measurement
The NPT divides the world into two groups – and sampling of the nuclear material itself, and
States that had nuclear weapons when the Treaty the use of surveillance equipment and sealing
came into place, or the “nuclear weapon States” devices to maintain knowledge of the material. The
which included China, France, Russia, the United additional safeguards protocol requires that States
Kingdom and the United States; and the remainder provide even more wide-ranging information on
of the signatories called the “non-nuclear weapon their nuclear activities (extending to those that do
States”. As of the beginning of 2003 there were not necessarily involve nuclear material, and to
188 signatories of the treaty, the most recent dual-use activities for nuclear and non-nuclear
being Cuba, which acceded to the treaty in purposes) and allow the IAEA access to all the loca-
November 2002. Each nuclear weapon State
tions concerned on a surprise or challenge basis.
pledged not to transfer nuclear weapons, not to
assist any non-nuclear weapon State to develop IAEA safeguards are complemented by other
nuclear weapons and to work to achieve nuclear regional arrangements such as the Euratom
disarmament. India, Israel and Pakistan have so far safeguards programme and the Brazilian-Argentine
refused to sign the NPT. Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear
Materials. In addition, national security measures
Controls on nuclear materials are used to prevent theft or diversion of nuclear
materials and technologies as well as to prevent
IAEA safeguards are the key means of detecting sabotage. These security measures consist largely
and deterring the diversion of nuclear material by of physical security controls such as secure
a State. All non-nuclear weapon States party to
facilities, armed guards, special locks and access
the NPT must agree to the application of IAEA
codes and cameras, but include also organisational
safeguards to all of their nuclear material. Such
controls such as limiting access to sensitive
comprehensive or full-scope safeguards
information and the security clearance of
agreements are intended to provide confidence
individuals.
that a non-nuclear weapon State is complying
with its commitment not to manufacture nuclear Recent events have renewed concerns about
weapons. Furthermore, while not obligated to do the use of radioactive or nuclear materials
so, each of the nuclear weapon States has for terrorist purposes. The potential to use
concluded safeguards agreements (so-called conventional explosives to disperse radioactive
voluntary offers) that permit the IAEA to verify material, a so-called “dirty bomb”, reinforces the
some or all of its civil nuclear activities. IAEA importance of national and international controls
safeguards are also applied in States that have not of these materials. For example, the IAEA is
signed the NPT (India, Israel and Pakistan), but only working to establish an international framework
on selected facilities when required by the to improve the security of radioactive sources.
71
The Nuclear Controls on key technologies Controls on testing of nuclear

Suppliers Group
(NSG) is a group of
and materials weapons
nuclear supplier Certain key materials and technologies are Negotiations for a “comprehensive test ban”
countries, 39 as
of October 2002, subject to very strict international export controls were initiated in January 1994 and the CTBT was
which work because it is considered very important to ensure concluded in September 1996, although it will not
together to prevent that they are not diverted to military purposes. enter into force until all of the 44 States with
the proliferation of The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) has a series of nuclear power or research reactors have ratified
nuclear weapons.
These countries nuclear suppliers guidelines governing the transfer it. It prohibits all nuclear explosions, either for
pursue the aims of of key materials and technologies. The Guidelines military or civilian purposes. Its signatories
the NSG through for Nuclear Transfers concern the transfer of (numbering 166 countries by October 2002) agree
adherence to
consensus
nuclear material, equipment, technology, to prohibit or prevent nuclear explosions at any
guidelines components and facilities defined in an export place within their jurisdiction or control, and not
concerning nuclear trigger list. Members of the NSG have agreed not to encourage in any way participation in any
and nuclear-related to transfer trigger list items to a non-nuclear nuclear explosion. The treaty establishes a
exports and
through the weapon State that does not have a full-scope comprehensive verification regime including the
exchange of safeguards agreement with the IAEA. The NSG also conduct of on-site inspections, provisions for
information. has guidelines relating to the transfer of certain consultation and clarification, and mutual
dual-use items or technologies that can have confidence-building measures.
non-nuclear use in addition to a nuclear-related
use, such as high-speed computers.
Similarly, most parties to the NPT already
Mixed results
co-operate to control missile technologies that can
deliver nuclear weapons through the Missile So far, national and international controls on
Technology Control Regime. Actions are also being nuclear materials, testing and key technologies
taken to stop smuggling of nuclear materials, most have succeeded in slowing the proliferation of
prominently the G-8 illicit trafficking programme nuclear weapons. Nevertheless, the challenges
and its IAEA follow-up. Less formally, many posed by countries violating their international
governments share information on suspected commitments and by countries refusing to join
illegal exports and imports of nuclear technology the international non-proliferation regime are
and materials and may well apply sanctions in proving that continued efforts and vigilance are
the case of suspected or actual actions of needed to ensure that the genie gets no further
proliferation. out of the bottle.

● Nuclear law, see 8.1 through 8.6.
● Third party liability and compensation for nuclear accidents,

see 8.7 through 8.9.
● The conventions and agreements under IAEA auspices,
see 8.10.
● Safeguards and non-proliferation, see 8.11 through 8.13.
● Specific international safeguards regimes, see 8.14 through

8.16.
● Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines, see 8.17.
● Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, see 8.18.
72
Chapter 9
Nuclear Energy and

Sustainable Development
World energy demand is likely to grow rapidly against a background
of increasing public concern about the environmental implications of competing
sources of energy supply.
The question of the sustainability of different energy sources is likely
to assume greater significance, and in this context, nuclear energy has certain
advantages in its carbon-free generation of electricity and heat, as well as
in security of supply.
This chapter considers the future of nuclear for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) and the World
energy in the broader context of the world’s Energy Council concluded that by 2050, global
supply of and demand for energy. energy demand would probably grow by a factor
between 1.5 and 3.0 with demand for electricity at
Energy demand least doubling. The British Royal Society and Royal
Academy of Engineering concluded in 1999 that
The world’s demand for energy will continue
the consumption of energy would:
to increase as a result of economic development
and population growth (see Figure 9.1). The ...at least double in the next 50 years and...
overwhelming share of this growth is likely to take grow by a factor of up to five in the next
place in the developing countries, as they strive 100 years as the world population increases
to raise the living standards of their growing and as people seek to improve their
populations. In 1998, the International Institute standard of living.
Figure 9.1: Projected energy demand to 2100

Gtoe Gtoe
50
47
A - High growth (income,
42 energy, technology)
40
37
B - Modest growth
33
30
23
C - Ecologically
20 19
driven growth
10
0
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
Source: IIASA. Global Energy Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
73
Worldwide, The challenge will be one of responding to Economic aspects

2 billion people are these demands in a way that supports society’s
without access to The microeconomic aspects of nuclear energy
electricity and an growing desire to meet current needs without
unduly impacting on future generations. were discussed in Chapter 7. The following
equal number
continue to use paragraphs concentrate on macroeconomic
traditional solid elements.
fuels for cooking. Nuclear energy and
World Energy Direct cost savings
Assessment, sustainable development
United Nations The ability to provide reliable, low-cost
Development Energy is an important component of any electricity is an important aspect of sustainable
Program, 2000. policy for sustainable development because it is development. As shown in Chapter 7, nuclear
vital to human activity and economic growth. The energy can become cost-competitive with other
fact that current technologies for providing energy major forms of electricity generation in the long
Sustainable are now increasingly viewed as unsustainable term, possibly supplemented by political action to
development – provides both opportunity and challenge. The internalise environmental costs, engender social
development that extent to which nuclear energy can be shown to
meets the needs of acceptance and ensure security of fuel supplies. In
be sustainable will to a significant extent the shorter run, its competitiveness is different in
the present without
compromising the determine its place in the energy supply spectrum.
each country, depending primarily on fossil fuel
ability of future The sustainability of any development is
generations to meet
prices, which tend to fluctuate.
customarily discussed under three dimensions –
their own needs.
Brundtland economic, environmental and social Diversity and security of energy supply
Commission, 1987. (see Figure 9.2). Oil and gas have a fairly limited geographical
availability, with Middle Eastern countries and the
Russian Federation controlling over 70% of world
crude oil reserves and about two-thirds of natural
gas reserves. Quite aside from the political
instability that has sometimes characterised the
supplier regions, the long supply routes to major
markets are also vulnerable to disruption by
Figure 9.2: Elements of sustainable development political action.
applicable to nuclear energy Conversely, OECD countries produce almost
55% of the world’s uranium, and have 40% of the
known reserves, as compared with about 7% of oil,
12% of gas and 40% of coal reserves. OECD
countries are moreover self-sufficient in the
essential services that turn natural uranium into
finished nuclear fuels (see Chapter 3).
Technical infrastructure Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear fuel and fuel
Direct cost savings and employment feedstock are compact and easy to stockpile; large
Diversity and security Spin-offs inventories can be kept at comparatively low cost.
of supply Social concerns
The risks from NPPs About 25 tonnes of fuel assemblies will provide
Balance of payments
Price stability a year’s fuel for a 1 GWe current generation
S o c ia l pressurised water reactor. A coal-fired plant of
E c o n o m ic similar output would require 3 million tonnes
of fuel, i.e. more than one hundred thousand times
as much.
Resource availability
Direct environment impact As a nation’s dependency on foreign sources for
Waste longevity its energy increases, so do the costs and economic
consequences of any disruption. Any energy source
E n v i ro n m e nt a l that reduces dependence on external fuel sources
can be said to enhance the security of energy
74
supplies and ultimately the security of the nation. towards fluctuations in fossil fuel prices Uranium
Security has always been one of the main aims of (see Figure 9.3) translates itself into variations in resources are
classified based on
energy policy in all OECD countries. the price of electricity, especially in a competitive their economic
market. The low share of fuel costs and high share attractiveness and
Balance of payments of fixed costs in the case of nuclear electricity on the confidence
Nuclear energy can be seen to have two generation have, by contrast, a potentially in their existence.
Resources that are
potential positive influences on the balance of stabilising effect on electricity costs and prices. known to exist and
trade, assuming its costs are fairly competitive. Generally, the availability and use of as wide are inexpensive to
First, importing relatively small amounts of low- exploit using
a range as possible of alternative energy sources conventional
cost uranium would be more attractive than tends to reduce demand pressures on any one mining techniques
importing relatively large amounts of high-cost fuel source and so contributes potentially to are classed as
coal, oil or gas. Second, the creation or extension Known
macroeconomic stability overall.
of the high-technology infrastructure needed to Conventional
support nuclear energy can assist technology Resources. These
Environmental aspects resources are
export. categorised into
The environmental sustainability of a particular two sub-groups:
Price stability material is usually discussed in terms of its Reasonably Assured
Resources (RAR)
Fuel costs are a major component in the price availability, e.g. the adequacy of reserves, and its and Estimated
of fossil fuel electricity. Hence the tendency direct impacts on the environment. Additional
Resources –
category I (EAR-I).
Resources believed
to exist and to be
exploitable using
conventional
mining techniques
but not yet
physically
confirmed are
classed as
Undiscovered
Conventional
Figure 9.3: Historical price fluctuation in fossil fuels Resources. They
include Estimated
250 Additional
Coal Resources –
category II (EAR-II)
and Speculative
200 Resources (SR).
Oil
150
Natural gas
100
50
0
1981 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001
Note: The "real" price index is computed from prices in national currencies and divided by the country-specific
producer price index for the industrial sector and by the consumer price index for the household sector. Here,
the base year is 1995.
Source: IEA. Energy Prices and Taxes (Paris: IEA, Second quarter 2002).
75
Resource availability resources in which uranium exists at very low

Uranium is widely dispersed in the earth’s crust grades, or is recovered as a by-product. These
and in the oceans, being more abundant than amount to about a further 22 million tonnes that
Air pollution causes
2.7-3.0 million silver. At the beginning of 2001, estimated exist in phosphate deposits and up to 4 000 million
premature deaths conventional uranium resources (known and tonnes of uranium contained in seawater. Research
a year, or 5-6% of has hinted that it is possible to tap the vast
global mortality.
undiscovered) totalled above 16 million tonnes or
nearly 250 years of supply at the prevailing rate of seawater resources though, at present, only on
World Health
Organisation, 1997. usage. There are, in addition, unconventional a laboratory-scale. The cost of doing so is also
estimated to be very high, approximately
5-10 times the current cost of conventionally
mined uranium.
Figure 9.4: Greenhouse gas emissions In the long term however, the adequacy of
from electricity generation by different sources natural uranium resources depends on the reactor
gCeq/kWh
technologies and fuel cycle strategies adopted.
Reprocessing of spent fuel using current light
400 water reactor technology could, in principle,
reduce the demand for uranium by 10-15%. The
The ranges correspond to differences in generation technology. introduction of fast reactors would further
300
increase fuel efficiency; replacing all current
thermal reactors with fast reactors and
200 reprocessing fuel cycles would increase uranium
resources by a factor of 50 (see Table 10.1). Other
advanced techniques currently envisaged could
100 employ thorium as a fuel feedstock rather than
uranium, thereby further expanding nuclear fuel
resources. India, in particular, with large thorium
0
Coal Oil Natural Renewable Nuclear reserves, is working to implement a thorium fuel
gas sources power cycle. In essence, nuclear energy cannot be
Source: IAEA. considered to be resource-limited.
Direct environmental impact

Nuclear power is one of the few energy sources
that emit virtually no air-polluting or greenhouse
gases. The entire nuclear fuel cycle including
Figure 9.5: Overall waste generation by fuel source mining of ore and the construction of power
plants has been estimated to emit between 2.5 and
Million tonnes 6 grams of carbon equivalent per kWh of energy
per GWe yearly produced. This is roughly equal to the estimated
0.5 releases from the use of renewable sources (wind,
Flue gas desulphurisation
Ash hydro and solar power) and about 20-75 times less
Gas sweetening than the emissions from natural gas power sources,
0.4 Radioactive
Toxic the cleanest fossil fuel available (see Figure 9.4).
0.3 Nuclear power is thus one of the prime means
available for limiting the emission of carbon into
0.2 the environment. In OECD countries alone nuclear
power plants avoid some 1 200 million tonnes of
0.1 carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions annually. Assuming
that all nuclear power plants in the world were
0 replaced by modern fossil-fuelled power plants,
Coal Oil Natural Wood Nuclear Solar
gas PV CO2 emissions from the world energy sector would
Source: IAEA. rise by some 8%.
76
Nuclear power avoids the emission of local air- remains, at present, a challenge to the sustainable
polluting gases and particulates such as the development of nuclear energy.
sulphur and nitrogen oxides that have been linked Research and development on advanced fuel
to acid rain and respiratory diseases. The quantity cycles and for the treatment of waste promise to
of solid waste generated per unit of electricity is reduce the volume of waste requiring isolation and
much lower for nuclear than for any fossil fuel the time this waste must remain isolated. Yet, the
source. It is essentially equivalent to that of results of these investigations will not likely be
renewable energy sources such as solar energy available for several decades.
(see Figure 9.5).
However, for nuclear power to make a very Social aspects
large contribution to precluding undue global
warming, a large expansion in nuclear generating Technical infrastructure and employment
capacity would be necessary. At present, nuclear It is people who create and maintain any
power is applied only in the production of technology. In this respect nuclear energy has
electricity, one sector of energy use. Under current certain special characteristics, based as it is on
estimates, even if installed nuclear power capacity major 20th century scientific and technological
were to increase by a factor of 10 by 2100, its developments. Much of the high cost of nuclear
proportion of primary energy use would rise from facilities is embodied in science and technology,
the current 7% to no more than 25%, thereby essential for their continued safety and future
avoiding some 15% of the expected cumulative development. The nuclear industry also employs a
carbon emission during the period. However, if this high proportion of skilled, graduate staff relative
expansion in nuclear capacity were to take place to most other major energy and manufacturing
on the basis of current technology, there would be industries. They are important, though vulnerable,
a considerable addition to the accumulated volume social capital as well as a base for continuous
(and also the activity) of radioactive waste. improvement in performance within the industry
Nuclear energy is one of the options that could (and in certain respects beyond it).
contribute to meeting the projected increases in The sustainability of nuclear power depends
the world’s energy demand, essentially without upon the complex and expensive infrastructure
adding to carbon emissions. But, to be effective that underlies this social capital, which, if it were
and acceptable at this level, advanced reactor lost, might be hard to replace either cheaply or
technologies and recycling fuel strategies would be quickly.
required. In essence, as the century unfolds, the
current fleet of thermal, light water reactors would Spin-offs
need to be replaced by advanced technologies, Maintaining and improving the technical and
such as fast-breeder reactors with fuel recycling. intellectual infrastructure to support nuclear
Such a change would require considerable energy provides numerous spin-off benefits for a
investment, though not one likely to exceed the society. As with other very advanced technologies,
investment demands of other strategies for nuclear energy has historically played a very
meeting increased energy demand while limiting important part in the development of new
global warming. materials, techniques and skills, which have
spun off into other sectors, e.g. medicine,
Waste longevity manufacturing, public health and agriculture,
High-level waste, though small in volume, with consequent economic benefit.
remains radioactive for very long periods. Deep
geological repositories have been investigated Social concerns
for several decades and the expert judgement All energy technologies have a tendency to
is that there are no technical barriers to their create social concern, even conflict. In the case of
construction to very high standards of integrity. nuclear energy, concern has focused on questions
Although there has been recent progress in Finland of safety, proliferation and waste disposal. Coal has
and the United States, no repository is yet its own profound history of conflict and social
operational. So the disposal of high-level waste division, as, on an international scale, has oil. The
77
exploitation even of renewable energies has come Risks from accidents

under recent scrutiny and opposition arising from The risks from accidents are much harder to
their visual intrusiveness and large-scale demands estimate, partly because nuclear accidents of all
on land area. Large hydro projects have raised kinds have been very rare, and partly because the
opposition on a global scale because of the social consequences could vary over so wide a range.
and environmental impacts of the massive
inundations involved. Studies have been conducted to estimate the
chances of the protective barriers built into
The risks from nuclear power plants modern power plants failing in the course of an
accident, causing radioactive releases of various
As with any other major industrial installation, hypothetical sizes. The calculations typically show
and despite all precautions, nuclear power plants that the chances of any such accident at a modern
present risks to workers, to people living in the reactor, one that has been upgraded in keeping
immediate vicinity, and, in the case of a very with the lessons of Three Mile Island and
severe accident such as that at Chernobyl, to Chernobyl, are less than 1 in 100 000 per annum.
people living very far away. Usually, these risks are Designs for reactors planned for future deployment
analysed in terms of radiological consequences as have more explicitly considered severe accidents
a result of (1) normal operation and (2) from in their design and calculations indicate the
accidents. Given the highly qualified personnel, likelihood of a severe accident being even lower,
sound operational practices, and strict regulatory on the order of 1 in 1000 000 per annum. In
oversight, nuclear energy from an industrial safety considering these figures, however, it needs to be
viewpoint, is relatively safe. For example, data from borne in mind that the effects of a major nuclear
the United States for 2000 reveals an accident rate accident may have considerable impacts including
at nuclear power plants of 0.26 accidents per the deaths of individuals (which may occur decades
200 000 worker-hours compared with a country- after the accident), the loss of use of land for
wide workplace average of 3.0. living or farming, and the loss of large amounts of
electricity generating capacity, all of which would
Risks from normal operation
have serious consequences for society.
Radiological risks from normal operation arise
In considering the potential risks of nuclear
from the day-to-day discharges both to air and
energy it is necessary to regard it in the context
to water of radioactive material. Such discharges
of meeting increasing societal energy demands.
are strictly governed in all OECD countries by
authorisations from the relevant regulatory Looking at the potential risks from different
authorities. They are also the subject of energy sources shows that the potential
international understandings, such as the environmental and public health burdens from
OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the nuclear energy are smaller than those associated
Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, with fossil fuels (see Figure 9.6).
of which the most recent Ministerial agreement, Taking a wider view, one should also consider
reached at Sintra, Portugal in 1998, called for the the more intangible risks such as placing undue
reduction of additional radioactive burdens from reliance on fuels imported from distant countries
marine discharges, emissions and losses to be that could cause significant economic disruption
“close to zero” by 2020. should those supplies be interrupted. Additionally,
In principle, discharges of this kind can affect fossil energy sources, which are increasingly
the human food chain (via shellfish for example) believed to contribute to global warming, could, in
and so represent a hazard to the public. Estimates several centuries, have serious consequences such
can be made of the chances of people being as parts of seaboard cities becoming uninhabitable.
adversely impacted by low-level discharges Nuclear installations of all kinds are among the
stemming from living near nuclear plants or eating numerous potential targets for terrorist activity.
very large quantities of seafood. Where such However, unlike many other industrial activities,
estimates have been made they indicate a risk that nuclear power plants take active measures in
is considerably less than one in 1 000 000 per response to this potential threat, though absolute
annum to any of the people theoretically at risk. security can never be guaranteed. It is very
78
difficult to quantify or even describe risks of this gaining public confidence. It will be important to
kind, but nuclear power stations, because of their enable the public to put the social, ethical and
inherent robustness, built-in protection, security political issues raised by nuclear power into a
forces and generally remote locations, are perspective with the different, but not altogether
comparatively unattractive and unrewarding dissimilar, issues raised by the alternative sources
targets for a terrorist attack. of electricity generation.
Ultimately, only individuals can judge the Generally, when viewed by applying the three
extent to which particular risks concern them. dimensions of sustainable development, nuclear
Comparative risk figures can therefore have only a energy can be seen to have potential to meet a
significant part of the world’s future energy needs
limited significance, but they are nonetheless a
while meeting many of the objectives of
way of putting matters into proportion, and of
sustainable development. The overall political
reminding ourselves that the world is a risky place,
trade-offs between the three dimensions of
and that all the available means for electricity sustainability will differ from country to country,
production carry risks. and will affect both the decisions taken and the
The social element in sustainable development means of addressing public concerns and securing
can only be met by addressing public concerns and public confidence.
Figure 9.6: Comparison of health risks for energy systems

Particles (0.138 YOLL/t)
Nuclear SO2 (0.085 YOLL/t)
NOx (0.130 YOLL/t)
Cancers (before 100 years)
Gas Cancers (beyond 100 years)
Oil
Coal
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Years of life lost (YOLL)/GWh
Source: “Comparative Assessment of Emissions from Energy Systems”, IAEA Bulletin, 41/1/1999.

● Projections of future world energy demand, see 1.4, 9.1 and
9.2.
● Projections of uranium resources and demand, see 9.3.
● Nuclear energy in a sustainable development context, see

9.4 and 9.5.
● The role of nuclear energy with respect to climate change,
see 9.6 and 9.7.
● The broad impacts of nuclear energy, see 9.8.
● Spin-off technologies developed through nuclear activities,

see 9.9.
● The education and supply of qualified personnel, see 9.10.
79
Chapter 10
The Future of Nuclear Energy

The future of nuclear energy depends on the interplay between four factors – growth
in energy demand, cost-competitiveness with other fuel sources, environmental
considerations, and questions of public attitude and perception.
Depending on the satisfactory resolution of these factors and on technical
advances, many new and enlarged applications of nuclear energy can be envisaged,
including hydrogen production, seawater desalination and expanded production
of isotopes for medical purposes.
Much research is under way to develop these potential applications and to improve
the performance of nuclear energy systems.
At the end of 2000, world nuclear generating national governments suggest a fairly stable
capacity represented about 17% of the world’s picture up to and perhaps beyond 2020, with
electricity. Most of this capacity had, however, projections of installed nuclear capacity ranging
already been installed by 1990 (see Figure 1.1). between 334 and 466 GWe, compared with
Since then, though new plants continue to come 362 GWe at present. Figure 10.1 shows, however,
online, there have also been withdrawals due to the considerable regional variations implicit in
the ageing of existing plants, and very little net these projections. In Western Europe at least, it
capacity has been added. Capacity forecasts by will only be a matter of time before a gradual
Figure 10.1: Projected installed nuclear generating capacity

to 2020 (low and high projections)
MWe
140 000 140 000
Western Europe and Scandinavia
120 000 120 000
North America
100 000 100 000
80 000 East Asia 80 000
60 000 60 000
40 000 Central, Eastern and South East Europe 40 000
20 000 20 000
Others
0 0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Source: NEA. Uranium 2001: Resources, Production and Demand (Paris: OECD, 2002.
81
Where will future reduction in installed capacity begins to take place, Hydrogen production
nuclear plants be based on present trends and despite the increasing
built? Hydrogen is already an important industrial
● As of January
longevity of the existing stock. The Far East, by
commodity with an annual world consumption of
2003, there were contrast, is experiencing strong growth that is
33 reactors under
some 45 million tonnes. Its uses are primarily in
projected to continue, with China, the Republic
construction in the production of chemicals, fertiliser and in oil
of Korea and Japan all building multiple plants.
10 countries: refining, where demand for it is expected to
India (8), Eastern Europe – particularly Russia and Ukraine –
increase significantly as high quality oil stocks
China (6), are experiencing strong growth, though planned
Republic of diminish and cleaner fuels are mandated.
retirements of older plants in other countries will
Korea (4), offset these gains. The outlook in North America is Hydrogen also has a large potential as a “clean”
Ukraine (4), fuel in its own right. A great deal of research is
Japan (3), Islamic uncertain with a significant re-evaluation of
Republic of nuclear energy under way, the results of which currently taking place on the possibility of
Iran (2), remain unclear. hydrogen replacing carbon fuels used in motor
Russia (2), Slovak vehicles – currently the fastest expanding
Republic (2), For reasons discussed earlier in this book, the
component in world energy demand. If this were
Argentina (1) and future course of nuclear energy depends on factors
Romania (1). to prove successful, the demand for hydrogen
that are particularly hard to predict, including
● There are would expand dramatically. However, its
26 reactors firmly public attitudes. If the equation consisted only of
production currently involves the use of natural
committed or economic factors with no change in current
planned for
gas, itself a carbon-emitter. Before it can pass the
attitudes, nuclear energy’s characteristic high
construction in “sustainability” test, and notwithstanding its
construction and low generating costs could lead,
OECD countries, inexhaustible availability, more economic methods
24 of which are in in a deregulated and highly competitive market, to for producing hydrogen directly from water
Japan and the a situation where existing plants are run profitably without using carbon fuels are required.
Republic of to exhaustion and not replaced. However,
Korea. Nuclear energy could become an important
● When its
increasing world energy demand will continue to
require decisions on building new power plants source of “sustainable” hydrogen either through
parliament voted
on 24 May 2002, and this limiting scenario could, then, be shifted producing the necessary high-temperature heat, or
Finland became positively or negatively, by other factors such as: through electricity. The NEA report on Nuclear
the first country Production of Hydrogen (2001) concluded that:
in Western Europe ● environmental considerations, depending on
in over ten years the extent that nuclear energy is seen to be Nuclear production of hydrogen holds the
to authorise the beneficial in meeting greenhouse gas reduction potential to significantly contribute to
construction of targets; the global energy supply of the 21st century.
a new nuclear Production of hydrogen through water-
reactor. ● concerns about security of fuel supplies;
cracking and through nuclear-assisted
● Though not
● concerns about the proliferation of nuclear conversion of fossil feedstock is technically
yet formally weapons;
committed, the feasible and could provide energy in a way
United States ● the cost-competitiveness of new nuclear power that would diminish global greenhouse gas
government is plants with other fuel sources, including production.
working with “renewable” energy sources; Several types of high-temperature reactor could
utilities to plan
for new nuclear ● public attitudes towards the safety of nuclear provide the near-1 000 °C temperatures necessary
power plants, energy and proposed waste disposal plans; for the direct production of hydrogen, such as
with construction ● the extent that advanced technologies can alter high-temperature gas reactors or molten metal
beginning before
2005.
the relative competitiveness of the various reactors. Research and development into the use
● Conversely,
energy sources. of nuclear energy to produce hydrogen is being
Belgium and conducted in a number of countries and through
Germany have several international agencies, including the NEA
committed to Alternative uses of nuclear and the IAEA, which are tracking and supporting
phasing out
nuclear power energy this potentially important future role for nuclear
over the next energy.
several years. So far, nuclear energy has been applied almost
exclusively to the production of electricity. There
are other potential uses and the extent to which
Seawater desalination
these other uses become important will also Fresh water of the requisite quality is essential
influence the future of nuclear energy. to life. In many parts of the world, particularly in
82
Africa, Asia and the Middle East, there is increasing possibility is being pursued in China and the
difficulty in meeting growing demands from Russian Federation.
agriculture, industry, urban development and
growing population. Isotope production
The purification of seawater requires Both radioactive and stable isotopes are very At the beginning of
considerable heat, and nuclear-powered widely used, particularly in medicine, industry, the 21st century
desalination plants are already operating in Japan over 1.2 billion
agriculture, food processing and research. In 2000, people do not have
and the United States. These mainly provide pure isotopes were produced by more than 70 research access to safe
water for onsite uses rather than large-scale and power reactors in over 60 countries. drinking water.
consumption. They have nevertheless successfully Ministerial
In many applications, isotopes have no Declaration,
demonstrated that, as the demand for desalination substitute and in most, they are more effective International
grows, nuclear energy is a viable alternative to and cheaper than alternatives. So far they have Conference on
fossil fuels as the heat source. Argentina, China, principally been produced as by-products of Fresh Water, Bonn,
India, Morocco, Pakistan, the Republic of Korea, December 2001.
research activity, but a number of purpose-built
and the Russian Federation have shown interest in isotope production reactors are now planned or
this possibility. under construction. A brief look at representative
uses will illustrate their importance and diversity.
Process and district heating
Medical applications
One application of nuclear energy that has Isotopes have been routinely used in medicine
existed from the outset and has the potential to for over thirty years, and are now applied in over
grow in future is to use reactor heat to produce 30 million critical medical procedures annually
hot water or steam for industrial or residential worldwide. They are used extensively in the
heating purposes – usually, but not necessarily, in detection of tumours and a wide variety of other
conjunction with the generation of electricity. ailments (e.g. cardiological diseases) through
Significant experience in this use of nuclear energy diagnostic gamma-imaging cameras. The primary
has been gained in Bulgaria, Canada, China, isotope for these purposes is reactor-produced
Germany, Hungary, Japan, Kazakhstan, the Russian technetium-99.
Federation, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, In therapy, the implantation in the body of
Ukraine and the United States. About 1% of the sealed radioactive sources (brachytherapy) has
heat generated in nuclear reactors worldwide is been used to treat cancers of the cervix, uterus,
applied in this way, and the development of small breasts, lung, pancreas, prostate and oesophagus.
or medium-sized reactors especially for heat The important isotopes for this purpose are
production could stimulate further growth. This reactor-produced iodine (125I) and palladium (103Pd).
A positron emission
tomography (PET)
imaging device
used in medical
applications.
83
Figure 10.2: Various uses of reactor-produced isotopes
Diagnostic imaging Instrumentation

Over 20 000 gamma cameras are in use Reactor-produced americium (241Am) is
worldwide with about 70% using the widely used in smoke detectors worldwide.
reactor-produced isotope technetium (99Tc). Reactor-produced californium (252Cf) is used
in instruments to detect explosives and/or
illegal drugs at airports, harbours
and railway stations.
Sealed-source radiotherapy
Globally, brachytherapy is used for cancer Food irradiation
treatment in about 3 000 specialised Reactor-produced cobalt (60Co) is the main
oncology centres in hundreds of thousands isotope in use for food irradiation. Its high
of procedures annually. intensity radiation significantly reduces
bacteriological contamination and
retards spoilage.
Agriculture and industry field, as a whole, isotopes are increasingly used in

Industry is a large user of isotopes, principally an ever-widening range of applications. Trends
in instrumentation and process equipment. The vary, however, for each specific application. For
applications include analytical and security example, remotely controlled cobalt therapy is
instrumentation, pollution measurement, physical projected to progressively decrease while the use
measurement, food irradiation and non-destructive of isotopes in brachytherapy is projected to sharply
testing. Food irradiation has been successfully increase. The development of new applications,
applied to spices, fruit, grains, meat, fish and such as palliative care, create additional demand
poultry-meat. Among others, the World Health for isotopes already in use as well as demand for
Organisation, the UN Food and Agriculture new isotopes.
Organisation and the US Food and Drug For industrial applications as a whole, the
Administration have endorsed it; the number of demand for isotopes is relatively stable. However,
countries allowing it as a means to improve the if food irradiation becomes widespread it would
safety and nutritional value of food is increasing. create a demand for large volumes of radioactive
cobalt.
Trends in isotope uses Given that many of these isotopes are capable
Trends in isotope uses are not easily defined as of being produced in accelerators, it is difficult to
they vary from sector to sector as well as from predict how changes in isotope demand will be
region to region, with some isotopes declining in reflected as a need for new reactor-based
importance while others increase. In the medical production capability.
84
Research and development in Japan, plus the BWR 90+ and the simplified
water reactor (SWR) 1000;
Research and development (R&D), which has ● advanced pressurised water reactors, such as
throughout its existence been central to all the AP600, already approved by regulatory
applications of nuclear energy, has been the cause authorities in the United States, with its upsized
of many important advances in human knowledge. 1 000 MWe version now under regulatory
Among many areas of R&D interest, three review, plus the European pressurised water
dominant themes are now apparent: advanced reactor (EPR) and the “international reactor,
reactors and fuel cycles; advanced treatments for innovative and secure” (IRIS);
waste; and support for safe operation. Research is ● gas-cooled designs, including the pebble bed
conducted by academics, governments (including modular reactor (PBMR) and the gas turbine,
regulatory authorities) and industries, either singly modular helium reactor.
or in combination, and with a growing emphasis For the long term, the focus is on more
on international collaboration in nuclear R&D. innovative nuclear energy technologies and fuel
cycles. Concepts under investigation include liquid-
Advanced reactors and fuel cycles metal reactors, high-temperature reactors, reactors
Light water reactors (LWR) are now essentially that use thorium as fuel, and improved recycling
mature technologies. Consequently, in the near technologies to better utilise the uranium and
term, new reactor designs under development plutonium resources. These advanced technologies
represent an evolution of existing concepts, in offer the promise to greatly improve the
order to improve safety, operational economy and sustainability of nuclear energy. For example, fast
flexibility. Several improved designs likely to be breeder reactors can, in principle, improve the
ready for commercial development by or before effectiveness of using uranium resources by about
2015 include: 50-fold (see table 10.1).
● new boiling water reactor (BWR) designs, Two important international projects, described
including the advanced boiling water reactor hereafter, are seeking to make advancements in
(ABWR), two of which have already been built nuclear energy systems and fuel cycles.
Table 10.1: Effect of technology advances on resource availability1
Reactor/fuel cycle Years of electricity production
Conventional Total
uranium & thorium uranium & thorium
resources only resources
Current fuel cycle
(LWR, once-through) 326 8 350
Recycling fuel cycle
(plutonium only, one recycle) 366 9 410
Light water and fast reactor
mixed with recycling 488 12 500
Pure fast reactor fuel cycle
with recycling 10 000 250 000
Advanced thorium/uranium
fuel cycle with recycling 17 000 35 500
1. Assumes 1999 world electricity generation from Key World Energy Statistics (Paris: IEA, 2001).
Source: “Nuclear Fuel Resources: Enough to Last?”, NEA News, No. 20.2 (2002).
85
Generation IV International Forum International Project on Innovative Nuclear

This effort was started at the end of 2000 as a Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO)
collaboration of interested governments, industry This international collaboration, initiated and
and the research community in an attempt to supported by the IAEA, was launched in 2001 with
develop and demonstrate one or more advanced the stated objective of supporting the safe,
nuclear systems that could be commercially sustainable, economic and proliferation-resistant
deployed by 2030 (“fourth generation” nuclear use of nuclear technology to meet the global
systems). The objective is to make advances over energy needs of the 21st century. At the beginning
NEA Nuclear Safety existing systems in the areas of economy; safety of 2002 the members of the initiative included the
R&D Projects (as of
January 2003): and reliability; sustainability; and proliferation European Commission, Argentina, Canada, China,
The CABRI Water resistance and physical protection. At the Germany, India, the Netherlands, the Russian
Loop Project beginning of 2003, the members of the group Federation, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey.
investigates the were Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France, Japan,
ability of high- Advanced treatment of waste
burnup fuel to
the Republic of Korea, South Africa, Switzerland,
withstand sharp the United Kingdom and the United States. A fairly new approach that has the potential to
power peaks. In October 2002, six nuclear energy system change the nature of the wastes that will require
The FIRE Project concepts were selected to be the focus for geological disposal is partitioning and
aims to improve
knowledge relating collaborative R&D. The concepts include: a sodium- transmutation (P&T). This process involves the
to fire events in cooled fast reactor, a very-high-temperature transmutation of long-lived radionuclides into
nuclear reactor, a supercritical-water-cooled reactor, shorter-lived ones through neutron capture or
environments. a lead-cooled fast reactor, a gas-cooled fast fission, thereby eliminating those parts of high-
The Halden Reactor reactor and a molten salt reactor. All but one of level waste that contribute most to its heat
Project conducts
experiments related these concepts involve recycling spent nuclear fuel. generation and radioactivity. Partitioning and
to improving fuels
and operational
safety.
The International
Common Cause
Failure Data
Exchange seeks to
improve knowledge
on important
safety system
components.
The MASCA Project
investigates reactor
vessel phenomena
during a severe
accident.
The Melt Coolability
and Concrete
Interaction (MCCI)
Project addresses
phenomena related
to a hypothetical
molten core.
The OECD Pipe
Failure Data
Exchange (OPDE)
Project investigates
the root causes of
pipe failures.
View of the RASPLAV
The SETH Project
involves cylindrical wall facility
experiments related during the preparation
to nuclear accident for the MASCA
management. experimental programme.
86
transmutation therefore has the potential to Measurements (IRMM) at Geel, Belgium, conducts
reduce the time that waste needs to be kept measurements of neutron interactions with
isolated from several thousand to several hundreds materials, including high resolution cross-section
of years – i.e. to periods that are within human measurements. The Institute for Transuranium
experience, thereby reducing the uncertainties Elements (ITU) at Karlsruhe, Germany, conducts
associated with predicting repository performance. research related to alpha-immunotherapy, basic Partitioning is the
However, sufficient conversion of the longer-lived actinide research, safety of nuclear fuel, spent separation of
undesirable
isotopes to achieve these aims would require many fuel characterisation, and partitioning and elements, i.e. minor
stages of P&T and a fully developed reprocessing transmutation. The Institute for Energy (IE) at actinides and long-
fuel cycle. Therefore, solutions along these lines Petten, the Netherlands, conducts research related lived fission
seem a long way off. to nuclear safety, development of new nuclear products, from
spent nuclear fuel.
The approaches to P&T that are being energy systems and nuclear medicine. Finally, the Transmutation is
researched vary according to each country’s fuel Institute for the Protection and Security of the the changing of
Citizen (IPSC) at Ispra, Italy, conducts research one element into
cycle practices and policies, but are similar enough another through
to encourage collaboration. The main lines of the related to non-proliferation and nuclear
neutron capture or
safeguards. fission. It can be
research are advanced separation technologies, to
better remove the fission products and transuranic The IAEA also sponsors other nuclear R&D used to transform
through its Co-ordinated Research Programme in these undesirable
elements from spent fuel, and the use of elements into
accelerator-driven and reactor systems for nuclear energy, radioactive waste safety, waste short-lived or stable
transmutation. technology and safeguards. elements.
Numerous countries including Belgium, China,
France, Italy, Russia and the United States are
investigating these research areas. Small-scale
collaborative efforts currently involve France,
Japan, the Republic of Korea, the United States
and the European Commission.
Nuclear safety R&D

In addition to the R&D aimed at making
advances in nuclear technologies, there have
always been and continue to be both national
and international programmes to support the
safe operation of nuclear power plants. At the
international level, the NEA manages a number
of research projects, for example the Halden
Reactor Project in Norway. This project has been in For further information
operation for over 40 years and is supported by See the references listed below provided in the “For Further
approximately 100 organisations in 20 countries. Information” section for more in-depth information on:
Research is conducted on, among other things, ● Projections of future nuclear energy capacities and related
fuels and materials, the improvement of plant uranium resources and demand, see 1.1 and 9.3.
performance and operational safety. ● Hydrogen as an energy carrier and nuclear energy as a
source of hydrogen, see 10.1 through 10.4.
Other international R&D ● Alternative uses of nuclear energy including desalination
The European Union, through the European and process heat, see 10.4.
Commission and its Joint Research Centre (JRC), ● Production and uses of isotopes, see 10.5.
sponsors and conducts numerous research projects ● Advanced reactor types, see 10.6 through 10.8.
in support of its member states’ programmes. ● Several international nuclear energy research programmes
Research related to nuclear energy is conducted including the Generation IV International Forum and INPRO
at four of the seven JRC centres. Thus, the as well as other interesting links, see 10.9 and 10.10.
Institute for Reference Materials and ● Advanced treatments of high-level waste, see 10.11.
87
88
Conclusions
Nuclear energy is a technically complex source of energy that remains unique among
energy sources as a result of a number of factors. In relation to nuclear energy in its current
form, it has been shown that:
● Nuclear energy is a major source of energy in the world, producing about 17% of the
world’s electricity.
● The large majority of reactors use ordinary water as coolant and moderator, uranium as
fuel and a once-through fuel cycle.

● The disposal of low-level waste and intermediate-level waste is a mature practice, but
the disposal of high-level waste is not yet carried out; public opposition is the main
constraint although progress towards implementing solutions is beginning to be made.
● Very high levels of safety are essential to nuclear energy deployment, though some degree
of risk remains.
● An effective system of radiological protection has been developed based on three
principles: justification, optimisation and limitation.

● Existing power plants are generally economically competitive, even in deregulated markets,
but decisions to build new power plants may depend on public policy factors.
● A framework of national laws and international agreements governs virtually all aspects of
the use of nuclear energy, indicating larger governmental involvement than for other
energy sources.
● Nuclear energy has certain advantages over other energy sources: carbon-free and
air-pollution-free generation of electricity as well as security of supply.

● Evolutionary and revolutionary advances in technology are being pursued to develop new
applications of nuclear energy and to improve the performance of nuclear energy systems.
In light of these characteristics, nuclear energy is at something of a crossroad at the
beginning of the second nuclear century as it undergoes a thorough review by governments,
the public and industry. Decision makers are faced with the difficulty of how to meet the
continued growth in world energy demand while minimising the environmental impacts of
energy production. They must do so while accounting for public attitudes, the cost and
competitiveness of the various energy sources and public policy objectives such as security of
supply and non-proliferation. How they resolve the tension between these sometimes-
conflicting factors will ultimately define the extent of nuclear energy’s use worldwide. How
soon promising advances in the state of the art can influence these decisions will also play a
significant role.
If a case cannot be satisfactorily made that nuclear energy is economically competitive,
safe and that there are acceptable solutions for its waste, then nuclear energy is likely to
decline, at first slowly, in importance. Yet, if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the
public that nuclear energy does address these concerns, it is likely that there will be strong
new growth in nuclear power.
89
Glossary
Glossary
A
ALARA
Acronym for “as low as reasonably achievable”. Making every reasonable effort to minimise exposure to
ionising radiation as far below regulatory or legal dose limits with economic and social considerations
taken into account.
Alpha particle
A positively charged particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay. Alpha
particles consist of two protons and two neutrons.
B
Becquerel
The SI unit of measure of radioactivity equal to one disintegration of an atom per second. Because it is
a very small unit, in practice, Gigabecquerel (GBq) or Terabecquerel (TBq) are the more common units.
Beta particle
A particle emitted from an atom during radioactive decay. Beta particles may be either electrons,
negatively charged, or positrons, positively charged.
Boiling water reactor (BWR)
A very common type of light water reactor in use worldwide. Ordinary water, used as both coolant and
moderator, is allowed to boil in the reactor core. The steam produced is then used to directly generate
electricity.
Breeder reactor
A nuclear reactor designed to produce more fuel than it consumes. Typically these have fertile material
placed in and around the reactor core in order to use neutrons produced during fission to transmute
the fertile material into fissile material. For example, uranium-238 can be placed around a fast reactor
and it will undergo transmutation to produce plutonium-239 which can then be recycled and used as
fuel in the reactor.
C
CANDU reactor
CANDU is an acronym meaning Canadian deuterium uranium reactor. This type of reactor uses “heavy”
water, i.e. deuterium oxide, as the coolant and moderator. The use of heavy water permits the use of
natural uranium as the reactor fuel eliminating the need for enrichment of the uranium.
Closed fuel cycle
A fuel cycle that reprocesses spent fuel to recycle the unused fissile material. Once removed from the
reactor the spent fuel is chemically processed to remove the uranium and plutonium which can then
91
be used to make new reactor fuel. As practised today, only the recovered plutonium is recycled, to make
mixed-oxide fuel (MOX). Because of the buildup of plutonium isotopes that are unable to fission in the
thermal neutron spectrum of a light water reactor and the buildup of undesirable isotopes, especially
curium, the plutonium can only be recycled two or three times before it must be managed as a waste
similar to the once-through cycle. Using recycled fissile materials in a fast reactor eliminates this limitation.
Control rods
Control rods are made of materials which absorb neutrons, for example boron, silver, indium, cadmium
and hafnium. They are introduced into the reactor to reduce the number of neutrons and thus stop the
fission process when required, or during operation to regulate the level and spatial distribution of
power in the reactor.
Conversion
The chemical process used to turn solid uranium oxide received from a uranium mill into volatile
uranium hexafluoride, which is a gas at certain temperatures and pressures, and therefore suitable for
the enrichment process.
Coolant
A coolant absorbs and removes the heat produced by nuclear fission and maintains the temperature of
the fuel within acceptable limits. The absorbed heat can then be applied so as to drive electricity-
generating turbines. If water is used as the coolant, the steam it produces when heated can be
transferred directly to the turbines; alternatively, it, or any other coolant, can be passed through a heat-
exchanger which will remove the heat and produce the necessary steam. Other possible coolants are
gases like helium, or liquefied metals such as sodium or lead. A coolant can also be a moderator; water
is used in this dual way in most reactors.
Cosmic radiation
Radiation that originates in space and is generated through various processes, including the birth and
death of stars. When cosmic radiation interacts with the nucleus of an atom it produces cosmogenic
radionuclides with half-lives that range from thousands to millions of years. They can exist in the
earth’s atmosphere, on the solid surface of the earth and can also be produced in meteorites and other
extraterrestrial materials, which then fall to earth. Examples include tritium (3H), hydrogen with
two extra neutrons, which forms part of all water on earth (12.3-year half-life) and carbon-14
(5730-year half-life), which exist in every living thing.
Criticality
The state of a nuclear reactor when enough neutrons are created by fission to make up for those lost
by leakage or absorption such that the number of neutrons produced in fission remains constant.
Critical mass
The amount of fissionable material needed to maintain a fission chain reaction for a given set of
conditions, e.g. shape of the fissionable material, amount and type of moderator or reflector.
D
Decommissioning
Administrative and technical actions taken to allow the removal of some or all of the regulatory
controls from a nuclear installation. Decommissioning typically involves several stages: closeout,
decontamination and dismantling, and demolition and site clearance.
Defence in depth
A design and operating philosophy used with regard to nuclear facilities that uses multiple layers of
protection to prevent and mitigate the consequences of accidents. It includes the use of physical and
administrative controls, physical barriers, redundant safety functions and emergency response
measures.
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Depleted uranium
Uranium having less than the natural occurring isotopic concentration of uranium-235 of about
0.711%. Depleted uranium is produced as a by-product of the enrichment process.
Design basis accidents
The range of conditions and events (e.g. rupture of piping, coolant pump failure) taken explicitly into
account in the design of a nuclear facility such that the facility can withstand them without exceeding
authorised safety limits. The ability to withstand design basis accidents presumes the functioning of
engineered safety systems.
Deterministic effects
Deterministic effects are those effects that are sure to occur (e.g. measurable changes in blood) should
a radiation exposure exceed the threshold for that effect. The magnitude of the effect is proportional
to the exposure above the threshold.
Deterministic safety approach
The deterministic safety approach is a method of assessing the safety of a nuclear power plant using a
defined set of initiating events, “design basis events”. The design basis events are chosen to encompass
a range of realistic possible initiating events that could challenge the safety of the plant. Examples
include loss-of-coolant accidents, control rod ejection (for a PWR), control rod drop (for a BWR) and
steam line break. Engineering analysis is used to predict the response of the plant and its safety systems
to the design basis events and to verify that this response remains within prescribed regulatory limits.
Deuterium
A stable isotope of hydrogen having one proton and one neutron in its nucleus compared with the one
proton in the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen.
Discount rate
The discount rate is an important element in economic analysis and the suitability of an economic
decision can change depending on the value of the discount rate. In simple terms, if money can earn
interest at a percentage rate per year (r) in real terms, then EUR 10 today will grow to 10(1+r)t in t years
time. Alternatively, an amount worth EUR 10 (t years in the future) can be discounted using the
discount rate (d) such that it would be equivalent to EUR 10(1+d)-t today.
Dry storage
Following an initial cooling period in a water-filled pool, spent fuel can be loaded into large, shielded
casks in which natural air circulation maintains it at the required temperatures.
E
Electron volt
A unit of energy often used in the nuclear sciences. It represents a very small amount of energy that is
equal to the amount of energy an electron would gain from the electric potential of one volt. Being so
small it is often expressed in terms of mega-electron volts (MeV), that is a million (1x106 electron volts).
An electron volt is equivalent to 1.602 x 10-19 joules.
Energy availability factor
The energy availability factor is a measure of operational performance of a nuclear reactor and is the
percentage of the energy delivered to the electricity grid compared with the maximum energy
generation that a reactor is capable of supplying.
Enriched uranium
Uranium in which the isotopic concentration of uranium-235 has been increased above the naturally
occurring level of 0.711%.
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Enrichment
The physical process of increasing the isotopic concentration of uranium-235 above the level found in
natural uranium. Two processes are commercially used, gaseous diffusion and gas centrifugation.
Estimated additional resources – category I (EAR-I)
Uranium that is inferred to occur, based on direct geological evidence, in extensions of well-explored
deposits, or in deposits in which geological continuity has been established but where specific data,
including measurements of the deposits, and knowledge of the deposits’ characteristics are considered
to be inadequate to classify the resource as a “reasonably assured resource” (RAR). Estimates of tonnage,
grade and cost of further delineation and recovery are based on such sampling as is available and on
knowledge of the deposit characteristics as determined in the best-known parts of the deposit or in
similar deposits.
Estimated additional resources – category II (EAR-II)
Uranium that is expected to occur in deposits for which the evidence is mainly indirect and which are
believed to exist in well-defined geological trends or areas of mineralisation with known deposits.
Estimates of tonnage, grade and cost of discovery, delineation and recovery are based primarily on
knowledge of deposit characteristics in known deposits within the respective trends or areas and on
such sampling, geological, geophysical or geochemical evidence as may be available. Less reliance can
be placed on the estimates in this category than on those for EAR-I.
External costs
External costs are costs that are imposed on society and the environment that are not accounted for in
the cost to producers and consumers of energy and omitted when calculating the market price. In energy
production these are typically waste disposal, environmental impact or population health effects.
F
Fast neutrons
Fast neutrons are defined as those with a high kinetic energy above about 0.1 eV but typically less than
1 000 000 eV (1 MeV). Fast neutrons can cause fission in fissile materials but the probabilities are less
than that for thermal neutrons. However, the number of isotopes that can fission increases as the
energy of the neutron increases.
Fertile materials
A fertile material in one that is capable of becoming fissile through the capture of a neutron(s), possibly
followed by radioactive decay. Important examples are uranium-238, which can transform into fissile
plutonium-239, and thorium-232, which can transform into fissile uranium-233.
Fissile materials
A fissile material is a material that is capable of fission after the capture of a thermal (slow) neutron.
In practice, the most important fissile materials are uranium-233, uranium-235 and plutonium-239.
Fission
The process through which an atomic nucleus splits into two or more fragments accompanied by
the release of neutrons and significant amounts of energy. It is possible for a heavy nucleus to
spontaneously fission though it is usually due to the nucleus absorbing a neutron.
Fissionable materials
A fissionable material is a material that is capable of undergoing fission, normally differentiated
from fissile in that it will fission if it captures a fast neutron. An example of a fissionable material is
uranium-238.
Fission products
When a nucleus undergoes fission, it splits into two fragments, releases neutrons and a great deal of
energy. The fragments are called fission products, which may be stable or unstable, i.e. radioactive.
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Important fission product isotopes (in terms of their relative abundance and high radioactivity) are
bromine, caesium, iodine, krypton, rubidium, strontium and xenon. They and their decay products form
a significant component of nuclear waste.
Fuel
The material in the reactor which, through fission, releases energy. Most reactors use uranium dioxide
as their fuel. Most fuel for commercial reactors contains 2-5% uranium-235 (235U) compared with
the 0.711% found in nature; they are said to be enriched in 235U. The remainder of the fuel, typically
uranium-238 (238U), can fission only when hit by fast neutrons; but when neutron capture occurs, it
decays and gradually transforms into plutonium-239 (239Pu). This fissile material is able to fission under
the impact of thermal or fast neutrons, and its contribution to the energy output of the fuel gradually
grows until it represents almost 30% of the power that is generated. Typically uranium dioxide powder
is heated and pressed to produce dice-sized cylindrical pellets. These are loaded into hollow metal
tubes (fuel rods) that are then bundled as fuel assemblies. Over 730 fuel assemblies, containing about
46 000 fuel rods would fuel a typical boiling water reactor. About 10% of reactors worldwide have been
licensed to use mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel – a mixture of uranium dioxide and plutonium dioxide. The
plutonium dioxide mainly results from the commercial recycling of spent fuel, though the Russian
Federation and the United States are planning to use plutonium from surplus nuclear warheads. The
production process for MOX is similar to that for uranium dioxide fuels. Other possible reactor fuels are
thorium, which is a fertile material that produces fissile 233U after neutron absorption and trans-
mutation; uranium salts which can be used in liquid metal reactors; and other forms of uranium like
uranium nitrides or uranium carbides.
Fuel cycle
The series of steps involved in creating, using and disposing of fuel for nuclear reactors. It can include
mining and milling of uranium, conversion, enrichment, fabrication of fuel elements, use in a reactor,
reprocessing and waste disposal. The precise steps defining a fuel cycle are dependent on a number of
technological, economic and social factors. Early in the nuclear age, it was anticipated that fast breeder
reactors would become the dominant design and a plutonium-based fuel cycle would exist. Thus the
processes to produce and manage the nuclear fuel would be cyclical in the sense that the fuel would
be recycled indefinitely. The term survives as the nomenclature for the processes used to produce and
manage nuclear fuel even though the “once-through” fuel cycle does not recycle at all and the current
“closed” fuel cycle does so only partially.
Fusion
Fusion is a nuclear reaction where light nuclei combine to form more massive nuclei with the release
of energy. This process takes place continuously in the universe. In the core of the sun, at temperatures
of 10-15 million degrees celsius, hydrogen is converted to helium, providing the energy that sustains
life on earth.
G
Gamma rays
High-energy electromagnetic radiation, similar to X-rays, the difference being that they originate in the
nucleus of an atom.
Gray
The SI unit of absorbed radiation dose equal to one joule per kilogram of absorbing medium.
H
Half-life
The time required for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive isotope to decay.
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Heavy water
Water that contains significantly more deuterium atoms than normal water. Deuterium is an isotope of
hydrogen that has one neutron and one proton compared with the one proton of ordinary hydrogen.
Heavy water is used as a coolant and moderator in pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) because
its properties allow natural uranium to be used as fuel. Heavy water makes up less than 1% of water in
nature and so must be separated and concentrated in dedicated plants for use in nuclear reactors.
Highly enriched uranium
Uranium enriched to at least 20% uranium-235.
High-level waste (HLW)
Radioactive waste is normally classified into a small number of categories to facilitate regulation of
handling, storage and disposal based on the concentration of radioactive material it contains and the
time for which it remains radioactive. The definitions of categories differ from country to country.
However, in general, HLW contains long-lived radionuclides with high activity, which may also produce
heat. It typically is concentrated as part of the process of reprocessing and solidified using vitrification
to produce a glass-like substance suitable for interim storage and ultimately, disposal. Spent nuclear
fuel that will not be reprocessed is included in this category. Geological disposal is foreseen for this type
of waste.
I
Intermediate-level waste (ILW)
However, in general, ILW needs specific shielding during handling and, depending on the specific
content of long-lived radionuclides, it may need geological disposal or it may be suitable for surface or
near-surface disposal.
Ion exchange
A chemical process that, in relation to nuclear energy, is often used in water purification or radioactive
waste treatment. A waste solution containing ions (an atom or group of atoms with an electrical charge
resulting from one or more electrons being added or removed) of waste is passed over an ion exchange
medium where the waste ions are exchanged with acidic (H+) or basic (OH-) ions in the medium,
thereby trapping the waste ions in the medium. Typically, the ion exchange medium is a granular resin.
After a period of use the resin becomes saturated with waste ions and must be replaced. A saturated
resin can either be recycled or disposed of. An ion exchange resin, in effect, concentrates the radioactive
waste and thus the resins can become highly radioactive and be remotely handled.
Ionising radiation
When radiation, either particles or electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to remove the electrons
of atoms with which it interacts from their orbits, causing the atoms to become charged, or ionised, it
is called ionising radiation. The ions resulting from the interaction are capable of causing chemical
changes damaging to human cells. Examples of ionising radiation include alpha particles, beta particles
and gamma rays. If radiation, either particles or electromagnetic waves, has insufficient energy to ionise
atoms, it is known as non-ionising radiation. Examples of non-ionising radiation include radio waves,
light and microwaves.
Isotope
Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
For example, uranium-235 (235U) and uranium-238 (238U) are both isotopes of uranium with 235U
having 143 neutrons and 238U, 146.
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J
Justification
In the context of the nuclear industry, no public or worker exposure is allowed unless it is the result of
an activity that has been “justified”. Broadly, this means that risk incurred from the radiation exposure
resulting from the activity is outweighed by the social benefit that the performance of the activity
brings. The decision as to whether a particular activity is justified or not is principally a subjective value
judgement, which uses as input scientific information regarding the absolute and relative values of the
radiological risks involved. The decision regarding the justification of an activity will most likely be
case-specific, and will be made by different levels of public official or public process, depending upon
the situation and the national context.
K
Known conventional resources
The most readily accessible uranium resources; resources that are known to exist and are inexpensive to
exploit using conventional mining techniques are classed as known conventional resources. These
resources are categorised into two sub-groups: reasonably assured resources (RAR) and estimated
additional resources – category I (EAR-I). Known conventional resources are reported in terms of the
amount of uranium recoverable taking into account mining and milling process losses and are typically
reported in cost categories of resources recoverable at less than USD 40/kilogram of uranium (kgU),
USD 40-80/kgU and USD 80-130/kgU.
L
Light water reactor
A nuclear reactor type that is cooled and/or moderated by ordinary water, as opposed to heavy water.
Limitation
In the context of the nuclear industry, limitation is the process of assuring that planned, justified
activities do not result in any individuals exceeding a pre-established regulatory level of exposure. The
numerical level selected for the regulatory limit is a subjective value judgement that takes science and
social judgement into account. The limit is fixed at a level above which regulatory authorities deem it
to be socially justified to spend resources to reduce exposures.
Linear no-threshold hypothesis
There has been much scientific study of radiation exposures and their associated risks. However, at low
exposure levels, biological science and the statistics of exposed populations have yet to conclusively
identify whether there is or is not a risk. In the absence of scientific certainty as to the shape of the
curve that relates the level of individual exposure to the probability of occurrence of a particular
stochastic effect, it has been assumed that a linear curve, passing through zero, will not result in risks
being underestimated. For this reason, it is standard practice to assume that any exposure, no matter
how small, carries some risk, and to optimise radiological protection approaches accordingly.
Low enriched uranium
Uranium in which the isotopic concentration of uranium-235 has been increased above naturally
occurring levels while remaining less than 20%. Typically, nuclear power reactors use low enriched
uranium with 3-5% uranium-235.
Low-level waste (LLW)
However, in general, LLW is a type of waste that does not need significant shielding for handling and,
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because of the absence of long-lived radionuclides, is suitable for surface or near-surface disposal.
About 90% of the radioactive waste volume produced in the world each year is LLW.
M
Megawatt (MW)
The international unit of power that is equal to 1x106 watts. A megawatt electric (MWe) refers to the
electrical output from a generator. A megawatt thermal (MWth) refers to the heat output from a
nuclear reactor. The difference is a measure of the efficiency of the power generation process. Typically,
the heat output of a nuclear reactor is three times its electrical output, thus a reactor with a thermal
output of 2 700 MW may produce about 900 MW of electricity.
Milling
The process through which mined uranium ore is chemically treated to extract and purify the uranium.
It also reduces the volume of material to be transported and handled in fuel manufacture. Reflecting
its colour and consistency, the solid product (U3O8) of milling is known as yellowcake.
Mill tailings
The remnant of a metal-bearing ore consisting of finely ground rock and process liquid after some or
all of the metal, such as uranium, has been extracted.
Mixed-oxide fuel (MOX)
MOX is the abbreviation for mixed-oxide fuel, a fuel for nuclear power plants that consists of a mixture
of depleted uranium oxide and plutonium oxide.
Moderator
A moderator slows neutrons down to the thermal energy range so as to increase their efficiency in
causing fission. The moderator must be a light material that will allow the neutrons to slow down
efficiently without there being a high probability of them being absorbed. Usually, ordinary water is
used; an alternative in use is graphite, a form of carbon.
N
Natural uranium
Uranium that has the same isotopic composition as found in nature, 99.2745% uranium-238 (238U),
0.711% 235U, and 0.0055% 234U.
Neutron
An elementary particle with no electric charge and a mass slightly greater than a proton found in the
nucleus of all atoms except hydrogen-1.
Nuclear reactor
A device that uses the nuclear fission process to produce energy. Though there are many types of
reactors, certain features are inherent to all, including fuel, coolant, moderator (unless the reactor uses
fast neutrons) and control rods. Other common features include a reflector to conserve escaping
neutrons, shielding to protect personnel from radiation exposure, instrumentation to measure and
control the reactor, and devices to protect the reactor.
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
The Nuclear Suppliers Group is a group of nuclear supplier countries, 39 as of October 2002, which
work together to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons. These countries pursue the aims of the
NSG through adherence to consensus guidelines concerning nuclear and nuclear-related exports and
through the exchange of information.
Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines
The Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines are a set of principles and lists of materials, equipment and products
that could be used for designing, manufacturing and testing nuclear weapons that have been
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developed by the Nuclear Suppliers Group. Two sets of guidelines have been developed: the Guidelines
for the Export of Nuclear Material, Equipment and Technology and the Guidelines for Transfers of
Nuclear-related Dual-use Equipment, Material and Related Technology.
Principles governing the use of the guidelines are:
● Suppliers should authorise transfers of identified items or related technology only upon formal
governmental assurances from recipients explicitly excluding uses that would result in any nuclear
explosive device.
● Suppliers should authorise transfers of identified items or related technology only when they are
satisfied that the transfers would not contribute to the proliferation of nuclear weapons or other
nuclear explosive devices.
● Suppliers should not be satisfied with an assurance from recipients if they have information or
evidence, which leads them to believe that there is a risk that a transfer will contribute to nuclear
weapons proliferation.
O
Once-through fuel cycle
A fuel cycle that does not recycle the spent fuel. Once removed from the reactor the spent fuel is
conditioned and stored until a disposal repository becomes available.
Optimisation
In the context of radiation protection, optimisation is the process of assuring that the exposures of the
public and/or workers resulting from the operation of a justified activity are as low as reasonably
achievable, social and economic factors being taken into account. Both qualitative (e.g. stakeholder
consensus discussions, common sense good work practice, best industrial practice) and quantitative (e.g.
differential cost-benefit analysis, multi-attribute analysis) approaches are used to arrive at optimised
solutions.
P
Partitioning and transmutation (P&T)
Partitioning is the separation of undesirable long-lived radioactive elements such as minor actinides
(e.g. americium-243) and fission products from spent fuel. Transmutation is the transformation of these
undesirable elements into short-lived or stable elements using nuclear reactions. Together these
processes would, at least partly, eliminate those parts of high-level waste that contribute most to its
heat generation and long-lived radioactivity. P&T therefore has the potential to reduce the time that
waste needs to be kept isolated from several thousand to several hundreds of years.
Plasma
A state of matter (others are solid, liquid and gas) where all the electrons have been stripped from
atoms leaving only the nuclei.
Pressurised water reactor (PWR)
A nuclear reactor maintained under a high pressure to keep its coolant water from boiling at the high
operating temperature. The heat generated by the reactor is transferred from the core to a large heat
exchanger that heats water in a secondary circuit to produce the steam needed to generate electricity.
Probabilistic safety assessment (PSA)
A PSA is a type of safety analysis that uses probabilistic risk assessment techniques during both the
design and operation of a nuclear power plant to analyse the overall risk. Considering an entire set of
potential events with their respective probabilities and consequences, the overall risk of a nuclear
incident or accident can be assessed. For a power plant this risk is given in terms of a core melt
frequency or the frequency of a large radioactive release. For existing power plants a value below about
1 x 10 -4 per year for a core damage probability is generally accepted, while new designs should be even
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less than 1 x 10-5 per year. The current practice is that the computed results are generally viewed as
targets rather than absolute values that would serve for regulatory acceptance or refusal.
Proton
An elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge located in the nucleus of an atom.
R
Radiation
Energy travelling in the form of high-speed particles or electromagnetic waves. We encounter
electromagnetic waves everywhere. They make up our visible light, radio and television waves, ultra
violet (UV), and microwaves. These examples of electromagnetic waves do not cause ionisation of atoms
because they do not carry enough energy to separate molecules or to remove electrons from atoms.
“Ionising radiation” is radiation with enough energy so that it can, during an interaction with an atom,
remove tightly bound electrons from their orbits, causing the atom to become charged or ionised.
Examples are gamma rays and neutrons.
Radioactivity
The spontaneous change of an unstable atom, often resulting in the emission of radiation. This process
is referred to as a transformation, a decay, or a disintegration of an atom. Radioactive atoms are often
called radioactive isotopes or radionuclides.
Reasonably assured resources (RAR)
Uranium that occurs in known mineral deposits of delineated size, grade and configuration such that
the quantities which could be recovered within the given production cost ranges with currently proven
mining and processing technology can be specified. Estimates of tonnage and grade are based on
specific sample data and measurements of the deposits and on knowledge of deposit characteristics.
Reprocessing
The process of treating used reactor fuel to recover the uranium and plutonium and to separate them
from the fission products and other elements. In this way a larger percentage of the potential energy
value of the uranium can be utilised and the volume of waste can be reduced.
S
Safeguards
The methods used to verify that the “peaceful use” commitments of non-proliferation agreements are
honoured. Safeguards involve a country defining (i.e. declaring) what its inventory of nuclear materials
is and where it is located. Safeguards consist of the verification of a nuclear installation’s control of
and accounting for nuclear materials within all the nuclear facilities that a signatory State has formally
declared as subject to safeguards. Verification is performed using IAEA-installed monitoring
instruments, some of which are sealed to prevent tampering. Physical inspection of nuclear installations
on a random, yet pre-announced, basis is conducted at least annually to verify the operator’s accounts
and to ensure that all installed instruments are performing satisfactorily and that security seals have
not been tampered with. Since 1997, IAEA inspections can also be carried out on a surprise or challenge
basis once a State has ratified an additional safeguards protocol. The intended result of all inspections
is that by verifying the inventories of nuclear material declared by a signatory government, the IAEA
can announce that all nuclear material is being used for peaceful purposes.
Scram
A term used to describe the sudden shutting down of a nuclear reactor. It was originally an acronym
meaning “safety control rod axe man” used with the first operating reactor in the United States, the
Chicago pile.
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Sievert (Sv)
The international unit indicating the biological effects caused by an exposure to radiation. The
biological effects of radiation exposure vary depending on the type of radiation involved. For example,
1 joule of beta or gamma radiation per kilogram of tissue has 1 Sv of biological effect; 1 joule/kg of
alpha radiation has 20 Sv effect; and 1 joule/kg of neutron radiation will cause 10 Sv of biological
effect.
Speculative resources (SR)
Uranium that is thought to exist, mostly on the basis of indirect evidence and geological
extrapolations, in deposits discoverable using existing exploration techniques. The location of deposits
envisaged in this category could generally be specified only as being somewhere within a given region
or geological trend. As the term implies, the existence and size of such resources are speculative.
Spent nuclear fuel (SNF)
Fuel that has been irradiated in and then permanently removed from a nuclear reactor.
Stochastic effects
Stochastic effects are those effects (e.g. cancer or leukaemia) whose probability of occurring is
proportional to the radiation exposure received.
SWU
An acronym for separative work unit that is the standard measure of enrichment services. This is a
complex unit used to measure the effort or energy required to separate uranium into two parts of
unequal isotopic weight. Typically, about 100 000-120 000 SWU are required to provide the enriched
uranium needed to fuel a 1 000 MWe light water reactor for one year.
T
Terrestrial radiation
Radiation that comes from the earth itself and is produced by the decay of primordial and cosmogenic
radionuclides. Most terrestrial radiation ultimately comes from uranium and thorium, common
elements found in the earth’s crust, as they decay gradually over millions of years eventually becoming
lead, which is stable, does not decay and thus emits no radiation. The result is that the earth’s crust is
naturally full of not only uranium and thorium but also their radioactive decay products, such that the
earth itself emits radiation. Additionally, the air we breathe also emits radiation naturally since one of
the members of the uranium decay chain is radon. Radon is a gas, and if it is “born” near the surface
of the earth, it enters into the atmosphere.
Technetium-99
A radioactive isotope of technetium, of which a particular form known as technetium-99m ( 99mTc) is
extensively used in nuclear medicine for cancer diagnosis. Technetium-99m is normally formed from
the radioactive decay of molybdenum-99 (99Mo) which is produced by irradiating highly enriched
uranium foil in a reactor. One of the fission products formed from the fission of the uranium in the
foil is 99Mo, which is then chemically separated for use as a generator of 99mTc.
Thermal neutrons
Thermal neutrons are those with a low kinetic energy, less than 0.1 electron volt (eV). Thermal neutrons
have the greatest probability of causing fission in uranium-235 and plutonium-239.
Torus
A donut-shaped geometrical shape created by rotating a circle about a line. Fusion reactor research
has focused on two types of containment of the plasma (fuel): magnetic and inertial. Magnetic
containment can be spherical or torus-shaped. In a torus-type fusion reactor, torus-shaped magnetic
fields are used to contain the plasma (fuel).
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Transmutation
When a nucleus absorbs a neutron and changes the nucleus from one element into another. This
process occurs in fission reactors and is the process by which some long-lived elements of radioactive
waste are created. It is also a process being investigated as a means to transform long-lived elements
of high-level radioactive waste into shorter-lived elements.
Tritium
A radioactive isotope of hydrogen having two neutrons and one proton. Tritium is being investigated
for use as a fuel for fusion reactions. Because tritium is radioactive and can readily form water it has
particular radiation protection concerns.
U
Undiscovered conventional resources
Uranium resources believed to exist and to be exploitable using conventional mining techniques but
not yet physically confirmed are classed as undiscovered conventional resources. They include
estimated additional resources – category II (EAR-II) and speculative resources (SR).
V
Vitrification
The process of producing glass. It is a technology commonly used to immobilise the high-level waste
produced from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel. Typically this glass is of high durability, able to
withstand the intense radiation and high heat associated with high-level waste and stable so as to be
able to contain the radioactive isotopes over long periods of time.
X
X-ray
X-rays are electromagnetic waves emitted by energy changes in an atom’s electrons. They are a form
of high-energy electromagnetic radiation that interacts lightly with matter. Thick layers of lead or
other dense materials stop them best.
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For Further
Information
For Further Information
Chapter 1: Overview of Nuclear Energy Today

1.1 NEA, Nuclear Energy Data “Brown Book”. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), 2002 (annual publication).
1.2 Nuclear power reactors in the world, Reference Data Series 2. Vienna: International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA), 2002 (annual publication). See also the online Power Reactor Information System
(PRIS) at www.iaea.org/programmes/a2.
1.3 International Energy Agency (IEA), Key World Energy Statistics. Paris: OECD/IEA, 2002.
Annual publication providing details on energy supply and demand.
1.4 IEA, World Energy Outlook. Paris: OECD/IEA, 2000.
1.5 IEA, Nuclear Power in the OECD. Paris: OECD/IEA, 2001.
Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Nuclear Energy

2.1 NEA, “JANIS – A New Java-based Nuclear Data Display Program”. Paris: OECD/NEA, 2001.
A program designed to facilitate the visualisation and manipulation of nuclear data. Available
online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
2.2 Rhodes, Richard, The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.
2.3 Lamarsh, John R. and Baratta, Anthony J., Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3rd Edition.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 2001.
2.4 Murray, Raymond L., Nuclear Energy, 5th Edition. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
2.5 The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) website www.itereu.de provides
information on the basics of nuclear fusion and information on the ITER.
Chapter 3: The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

3.1 The Uranium Information Centre provides good information on the basics of the uranium fuel cycle.
See www.uic.com.au.
3.2 NEA, Trends in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Economic, Environmental and Social Aspects. Paris: OECD,
2002.
3.3 NEA, Accelerator-driven Systems and Fast Reactors in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles:
A Comparative Study. Paris: OECD, 2002.
NEA Issue Brief available online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
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3.4 NEA, Management of Depleted Uranium. Paris: OECD, 2001.

3.5 NEA, The Decommissioning and Dismantling of Nuclear Facilities: Status, Approaches, Challenges.
Paris: OECD, 2002.
3.6 NEA, Decontamination Techniques Used In Decommissioning Activities. Paris: OECD, 1999.
Available online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
3.7 NEA, Environmental Remediation of Uranium Production Facilities. Paris: OECD, 2002.
Chapter 4: Management of Radioactive Waste

4.1 NEA, The Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Waste. Paris: OECD, 1989.
4.2 NEA, The Management of Low and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Waste. Paris: OECD, 1989.
4.3 NEA, Radioactive Waste Management in Perspective. Paris: OECD, 1996.
4.4 IAEA, The Principles of Radioactive Waste Management. Vienna: IAEA, 1995.
4.5 “Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste
Management”. Available at www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal/jointconv.shtml.
4.6 League of Women Voters, The Nuclear Waste Primer. Washington DC: Office of Civilian Radioactive
Waste Management Information Center, 1993.
4.7 Murray, Raymond L., Understanding Radioactive Waste. Columbus, Ohio: Battelle Press, 1994.
4.8 NEA, Nuclear Waste Bulletin: Update on Waste Management Policies and Programmes.
Paris: OECD, 2001 (published biennially). Available online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
4.9 NEA, Progress Towards Geologic Disposal of Radioactive Waste: Where Do We Stand?
Paris: OECD, 1999. Available online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
4.10 NEA, The Role of Underground Laboratories in Nuclear Waste Disposal Programmes.
Paris: OECD, 2001.
4.11 NEA, Radionuclide Retention in Geologic Media, Workshop Proceedings, Oskarshamn, Sweden,
7-9 May 2001. Paris, OECD, 2002.
4.12 NEA, Disposal of Radioactive Waste: Can Long-term Safety Be Evaluated? An International
Collective Opinion. Paris, OECD, 1991.
4.13 NEA, Establishing and Communicating Confidence in the Safety of Deep Geologic Disposal.
Paris: OECD, 2002.
4.14 NEA, Stakeholder Confidence and Radioactive Waste Disposal, Workshop Proceedings, Paris, France,
28-31 August 2000. Paris: OECD, 2001. Available online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
4.15 NEA, Reversibility and Retrievability in Geologic Disposal of Radioactive Waste. Paris: OECD, 2001.
4.16 Cowan, G.A., “A Natural Fission Reactor”. Scientific American, 235:36, 1976.
4.17 ”Special Series on Natural Analogues”. Radwaste Magazine, March 1995.
4.18 IAEA, Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, ST-1. Vienna: IAEA, 1996.
4.19 “Sandia National Laboratory Transportation Program”.
Available at www.sandia.gov/tp/SAFE_RAM/SEVERITY.HTM.
104
Chapter 5: Nuclear Safety

5.1 NEA, The Safety of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. Paris: OECD, 1993.
5.2 IAEA, Basic Safety Principles for Nuclear Power Plants (75-INSAG-3 Rev.1), A Report by the
International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG-12). Vienna: IAEA, 1999.
5.3 Nuclear Safety Convention (IAEA INFCIRC/449).
Available online at www.iaea.org/worldatom/documents/legal/nukesafety.shtml.
5.4 IAEA, Safety Culture (75-INSAG-4), A Report by the International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group.
Vienna: IAEA, 1991.
5.5 NEA, The Role of the Nuclear Regulator in Promoting and Evaluating Safety Culture.
Paris: OECD, 2001.
5.6 “International Nuclear Events Scale”.
Available online at www.iaea.or.at/worldatom/inforesource/factsheets/ines.html.
5.7 NEA, Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts. Paris: OECD, 2002.
Available online at www.nea.fr/html/rp/chernobyl/welcome.html.
5.8 NEA, Nuclear Power Plant Operating Experiences from the IAEA/NEA Incident Reporting System
(1996-1999). Paris: OECD, 2000. Available online at www.nea.fr/html/pub/webpubs.
5.9 NEA, Improving Nuclear Regulatory Effectiveness. Paris: OECD, 2002.
5.10 NEA, Nuclear Regulatory Challenges Arising from Competition in Electricity Markets.
5.11 NEA, Advanced Nuclear Reactor Safety Issues and Research Needs, Workshop Proceedings,
Paris, France, 18-20 February 2002. Paris: OECD, 2002.
Chapter 6: Radiological Protection

6.1 UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation), “Report on
sources of radiation along with average exposures”. It also has a special section on Chernobyl.
New York: UNSCEAR, 2000 (issued approximately every four years).
Available online at www.unscear.org.
6.2 ICRP, International Commission on Radiation Protection, Publication 60. Stockholm: ICRP, 1991.
6.3 NEA, Radiation Protection Overview: International Aspects and Perspective. Paris: OECD, 1994.
6.4 NRPB (National Radiological Protection Board), Living With Radiation. Chilton: NRPB, 1998.
6.5 AEA, The Radiochemical Manual. Harwell: AEA Technology, plc., 1998.
6.6 NEA, A Critical Review of the System of Radiation Protection: First Reflections of the OECD/NEA
Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health (CRPPH). Paris: OECD, 2002.
6.7 NEA, Developments in Radiation Health Sciences and Their Impact on Radiation Protection.
6.8 NEA, Better Integration of Radiation Protection in Modern Society, Workshop Proceedings, Villigen,
Switzerland, 23-25 January 2001. Paris: OECD, 2002.
6.9 NEA, Experience from the International Nuclear Emergency Exercises: The INEX 2 Series.
105
Chapter 7: The Economics of Nuclear Energy

7.1 NEA, The Economics of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. Paris: OECD, 1994.
7.2 NEA, Projected Costs of Generating Electricity: 1998 Update. Paris: OECD, 1998.
7.3 NEA, Reduction of Capital Costs of Nuclear Power Plants. Paris: OECD, 2000.
7.4 NEA, Nuclear Power in Competitive Electricity Markets. Paris: OECD, 2000.
7.5 NEA, Nuclear Power Plant Life Management in a Changing Business World, Workshop Proceedings,
Washington DC, United States, 26-27 June 2000. Paris: OECD, 2001.
7.6 European Commission, ExternE Externalities of Energy. Brussels: European Commission, 1995.
7.7 European Commission, ExternE Externalities of Energy – National Implementation.
Brussels: European Commission, 1998.
7.8 NEA, Externalities and Energy Policy: The Life-cycle Analysis Approach, Workshop Proceedings,
Paris, France, 15-16 November 2001. Paris: OECD, 2002.
Chapter 8: International Nuclear Law and Non-proliferation

8.1 Tromans, Stephen and Fitzgerald, James, The Law of Nuclear Installations and Radioactive
Substances. London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1996.
8.2 The OECD/NEA Nuclear Law Bulletin is a periodical published twice yearly in English and French.
This is the standard reference work in the nuclear law field providing up-to-date information on
legislative developments, relevant jurisprudence and administrative decisions in almost 60 countries,
as well as on bilateral and international agreements and the regulatory activities of international
organisations.
8.3 NEA, Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear Activities. Paris: OECD, 2002.
A comprehensive description of the legislation and institutions governing the peaceful uses of
nuclear energy in each of the OECD member countries. Published in both English and French and
updated regularly.
8.4 ElBaradei, Mohamed; Nwogugu, Edwin; and Rames, John, The International Law of Nuclear Energy –
Basic Documents (Parts 1 & 2). The Hague: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993.
A comprehensive two-volume reference work on the international law of nuclear energy.
8.5 NEA, Nuclear Legislation in Central and Eastern Europe and the NIS: 2000 Overview.
Paris: OECD, 2000 (updated regularly).
An overview of current legislation governing peaceful nuclear activities in Central and Eastern
European countries as well as in the New Independent States.
8.6 NEA, Nuclear Legislation: Analytical Study – Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear
Activities – 2001 Update. Paris: OECD, 2002.
8.7 NEA, International Third Party Liability. Paris: OECD, 1993.
8.8 For legal instruments and documents governing third party liability in the field of nuclear energy,
see www.nea.fr/html/law/legal-documents.html.
106
8.9 NEA, Liability and Compensation for Nuclear Damage: An International Overview.
Paris: OECD, 1994.
8.10 “Conventions and Agreements under IAEA Auspices”.
Available online at www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Legal.
8.11 IAEA, “The International Atomic Energy Agency Safeguards Programme”.
See www.iaea.org/worldatom/Programmes/Safeguards.
8.12 Sanders, Ben, “A Short History of Nuclear Non-Proliferation”, Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 62,
December 1998. See www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-62/sandslov.pdf.
8.13 Rockwood, Laura, “The Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty: A Permanent Commitment to Disarmament
and Non-proliferation”, Nuclear Law Bulletin No. 56, December 1995.
See www.nea.fr/html/law/nlb/Nlb-56-en.pdf.
8.14 IAEA, The Structure and Content of Agreements Between the Agency and States Required in
Connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (IAEA INFCIRC/153).
Vienna: IAEA, 1972.
Available online at www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf153.shtml.
8.15 IAEA, Model Protocol Additional to the Agreements Between State(s) and the International Atomic
Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards (IAEA INFCIRC/540). Vienna: IAEA, 1998.
Available online at www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc540corrected.pdf.
8.16 IAEA, The Agency’s Safeguards System (IAEA INFCIRC/66/Rev. 2). Vienna: IAEA, 1968.
Available online at www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf66r2.shtml.
8.17 The Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines are available online at www.nsg-online.org/guide.htm.
8.18 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. Available online at www.ctbto.org.
Chapter 9: Nuclear Energy and Sustainable Development

9.1 Royal Academy of Engineering, Nuclear Energy: The Future Climate. London: The Royal Society, 1999.
Available online at www.royalsoc.ac.uk/policy/nuclearreport.htm.
9.2 Nakicenovic, Nebojsa; Grübler, Arnulf; and McDonald, Alan, eds., Global Energy Perspectives.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
9.3 NEA, Uranium 2001: Resources, Production and Demand. Paris: OECD, 2002.
9.4 NEA, Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective. Paris: OECD, 2000.
9.5 IAEA, “Sustainable Energy Development”. IAEA Bulletin Vol. 42, No. 2, 2000.
9.6 NEA, Nuclear Power and Climate Change. Paris: OECD, 1998.
9.7 NEA, Nuclear Energy and the Kyoto Protocol. Paris: OECD, 2002.
9.8 NEA, Broad Impact of Nuclear Power. Paris: OECD, 1993.
9.9 NEA, Spin-off Technologies Developed Through Nuclear Activities. Paris: OECD, 1993.
9.10 NEA, Nuclear Education and Training: Cause for Concern? Paris: OECD, 2000.
107
Chapter 10: The Future of Nuclear Energy

10.1 NEA, Nuclear Production of Hydrogen, First Information Exchange Meeting, Paris, France,
2-3 October 2000. Paris: OECD, 2001.
10.2 USDOE (U.S. Department of Energy), “Hydrogen Program”. Basic and advanced information on all
aspects on the production, storage, and uses of hydrogen. Available at www.eren.doe.gov/hydrogen.
10.3 IAEA, Hydrogen As an Energy Carrier and its Production by Nuclear Power, IAEA TECDOC-1085.
Vienna: IAEA, 1999.
10.4 IAEA, Nuclear Heat Applications: Design Aspects and Operating Experience, IAEA TECDOC-1056.
Vienna: IAEA, 1998.
10.5 NEA, Beneficial Uses and Production of Isotopes: 2000 Update. Paris: OECD, 2001.
10.6 NEA, Small and Medium Reactors. Paris: OECD, 1990.
10.7 NEA, Advanced Water Reactor Technology. Paris: OECD, 1989.
10.8 IEA, Innovative Nuclear Reactor Development: Opportunities for International Co-operation.
Paris: OECD/IEA, 2002.
10.9 For information concerning US government nuclear energy initiatives including links to
Generation IV and the Isotopes for Medicine and Science Program, see www.nuclear.gov.
10.10 The IAEA Nuclear Power Technology Development Section provides information on various uses
of nuclear reactors including information and links to the INPRO project and desalination.
See www.iaea.org/programmes/ne/nenp/nptds/NPTDSHome.htm.
10.11 NEA, Actinide and Fission Product Partitioning and Transmutation, Sixth International Information
Exchange Meeting, Madrid, Spain, 11-13 December 2000. Paris: OECD, 2001.
Internet Resources
In addition to the resources cited above, below is a list of websites that have or host information related
to nuclear energy:
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency www.nea.fr
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) www.iaea.org/worldatom
International Commission on Radiological Protection www.icrp.org
Euratom Supply Agency http://europa.eu.int/comm.euratom/index_en.html
International Nuclear Law Association www.aidn-inla.be
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation www.ctbto.org
United Nations First Committee
(Disarmament and International Security) http://disarmament.un.org
United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation www.unscear.org
World Association of Nuclear Operators www.wano.org.uk
IAEA Glossary of Nuclear Safety Terms www.iaea.or.at/ns/CoordiNet/
documents/safetyglossary.pdf
108
List of figures
1.1 Historical growth of nuclear energy 5.3 Worldwide unplanned automatic
(1965-2002) shutdown rate (number per
7 000 hours)
1.2 World primary energy supply by fuel,
2000 (in percentage) 5.4 The international nuclear event scale
(INES)
1.3 World electricity generation by fuel,
2000 (in percentage) 6.1 Penetrating distances for different
radiation types
1.4 Worldwide nuclear power plant
energy availability factor (1990- 6.2 Typical sources of public radiation
2001) exposure (in mSv per year)
2.1 A typical fission reaction 6.3 Potential biological results after
radiation damages a cell
2.2 Fission product yield for thermal
fission of 235U 6.4 Deterministic effects of radiation at
high doses
2.3 Basic components of a nuclear
reactor (pressurised) 7.1 Illustrative life cycle cash flow for
a nuclear power plant
2.4 Reactor types in use worldwide
(as of 1 January 2003) 7.2 Typical nuclear electricity generation
cost breakdown
2.5 A pressurised water reactor (PWR)
7.3 Breakdown of representative
2.6 A boiling water reactor (BWR)
generation costs (10% discount rate)
2.7 Typical fusion reaction
7.4 Effect of carbon tax on levelised
2.8 Simple diagram of a Tokamak fusion generation cost in different
reactor countries (10% discount rate)
3.1 The nuclear fuel cycle 8.1 The elements of non-proliferation
3.2 Composition and reprocessing of 9.1 Projected energy demand to 2100
spent fuel
9.2 Elements of sustainable development
4.1 Decay of a radioactive element with applicable to nuclear energy
a half-life of five days
9.3 Historical price fluctuation in fossil
4.2 Waste generation comparison – fuels
yearly production of waste in the
9.4 Greenhouse gas emissions from
European Union
electricity generation by different
4.3 Disposal concept at Eurajoki, Finland sources
4.4 Engineered barrier design features 9.5 Overall waste generation by fuel
for the proposed repository in the source
United States at Yucca Mountain
9.6 Comparison of health risks for
4.5 A typical HLW transport cask energy systems
5.1 Elements of nuclear safety 10.1 Projected installed nuclear
generating capacity to 2020 (low
5.2 Typical barriers confining radioactive and high projections)
materials
10.2 Various uses of reactor-produced
isotopes
109
List of tables
1.1 Operable reactors by country (as of 1 January 2003)
2.1 Important isotopes formed by neutron capture in a nuclear
reactor
2.2 Energy content of various fuels
3.1 Major uranium conversion facilities worldwide
3.2 Major uranium enrichment facilities worldwide
3.3 Commercial spent nuclear fuel reprocessing plants worldwide
3.4 Selected reactors undergoing or having completed
decommissioning
4.1 Selected HLW isotopes
4.2 Indicative volumes of radioactive waste generated by a LWR
of 1000 MWe (m3 per annum)
4.3 LLW and ILW disposal sites in OECD member countries
4.4 Examples of underground laboratories
7.1 Electricity production costs for 7 000 hours of production
(1990 Euro cents/kWh)
7.2 External costs for electricity production in the European
Union (Euro cents/kWh)
8.1 International liability and compensation conventions and
coverage for OECD member countries
10.1 Effect of technology advances on resource availability
Photo credits
Cover, from top to bottom: SCK●CEN, Belgium. EDF, France (2). USDOE, United States. Gonin, CEA, France. Ringhals AB, Sweden.
Page 1, from left to right: Cameco, Canada (2). ANDRA, France. TU Electric, United States. Posiva Oy, Finland. Duke Power
Company, United States. Cameco, Canada. Page 2, from left to right: Museum of Chicago, United States. Port Hope Facility,
Canada. NEI, United States. EDF-Eurodif S.A., France. Page 3, from left to right: NEI, United States. JNFL, Japan. AEA Windscale,
United Kingdom. SKB, Sweden. Page 4: Cofrentes NPP, Iberdrola S.A., Spain. Page 9: K. Niederau, KKB/NOK, Switzerland.
Page 10: The Nobel Foundation website. Page 11: USDOE website, United States. Page 13: Duke Power Company, United States.
Page 14: German Historical Museum website, Germany. Page 23: KAERI, Republic of Korea. Energy Resources of Australia Ltd.,
Australia. NEI, United States. Energy Resources of Australia Ltd., Australia. Port Hope Facility, Canada. JNFL, Japan.
EDF-Eurodif S.A., France. Cogema, France. GKN, Netherlands. Miklos Beregnyei, PAKS NPP, Hungary. Chugoku Electric Power Co.,
Inc., Japan. EDF, France. Wisconsin Electric Power Company, United States. Cogema, France. Department of the Environment,
United Kingdom. Blind River Facility, Canada. AEA Technology, United Kingdom. Page 24, from top to bottom: Cameco, Canada.
NEI, United States. Port Hope Facility, Canada. Page 25, from top to bottom: EDF-Eurodif S.A., France. JNFL, Japan. Page 26,
from top to bottom: NEI, United States. Posiva Oy, Finland. TU Electric, United States. Wisconsin Electric Power Company,
United States. Page 28: AEA Windscale, United Kingdom. Page 29: SCK●CEN, Belgium. Page 31: Posiva Oy, Finland. Page 33:
Covra, Netherlands. Page 34: UKAEA, United Kingdom. Page 38: NEI, United States. Page 39: SKB, Sweden. Page 41: Beznau
NPP, Switzerland. Page 45: CEA, France. Page 49: Cameco, Canada. Page 55: EDF, France. Page 59: Bohunice NPP, Slovakia.
Page 62: Tokyo Electric Power Co., Japan. Page 68: The National Assembly, France. Page 73: Henri Cazin, EDF, France.
Page 81: General Electric Company, United States. Page 83: USDOE, United States. Page 86: Kurchatov Institute, Russia.
Page 88: TVO, Finland. Page 103: USDOE, United States. Pages 109-110: Cofrentes NPP, Iberdrola S.A., Spain.
110
Acknowledgements
The NEA Secretariat wishes to express its gratitude to John Rimington for his valuable contribution to
this text as consulting editor.
The NEA drafting team included: Claes Nordborg (Ch. 2), Hans Riotte (Ch. 4), Miroslav Hrehor (Ch. 5),
Ted Lazo (Ch. 6), Stefan Mundigl (Ch. 6 Accident response), Peter Wilmer (Ch. 7), Julia Schwartz
(Ch. 8 International Law), Carol Kessler (Ch. 8 Non-proliferation), Jacques de la Ferté (Chs. 4 and 9 Social
aspects), Robert Price as managing editor and contributing author (Chs. 1, 3, 9 and 10) and Cynthia Picot
as editor.
Special thanks are extended to Annette Meunier for her dedication in preparing the design and layout
of this publication.
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

Le Seine Saint-Germain – 12, boulevard des Îles
F-92130 Issy-les-Moulineaux, France
Tel.: +33 (0)1 45 24 10 15 – Fax: +33 (0)1 45 24 11 10
E-mail: nea@nea.fr – Internet: www.nea.fr
111
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force on 30th September
1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote policies designed:
– to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in member countries,
while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy;
– to contribute to sound economic expansion in member as well as non-member countries in the process of economic
development; and
– to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international
obligations.
The original member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and
the United States. The following countries became members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter:
Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico
(18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996), Korea
(12th December 1996) and the Slovak Republic (14th December 2000). The Commission of the European Communities takes
part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the OECD Convention).
NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY

The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) was established on 1st February 1958 under the name of the OEEC European
Nuclear Energy Agency. It received its present designation on 20th April 1972, when Japan became its first non-European full
member. NEA membership today consists of 28 OECD member countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom
and the United States. The Commission of the European Communities also takes part in the work of the Agency.
The mission of the NEA is:
– to assist its member countries in maintaining and further developing, through international co-operation, the scientific,
technological and legal bases required for a safe, environmentally friendly and economical use of nuclear energy for
peaceful purposes, as well as
– to provide authoritative assessments and to forge common understandings on key issues, as input to government decisions
on nuclear energy policy and to broader OECD policy analyses in areas such as energy and sustainable development.
Specific areas of competence of the NEA include safety and regulation of nuclear activities, radioactive waste management,
radiological protection, nuclear science, economic and technical analyses of the nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear law and liability, and
public information. The NEA Data Bank provides nuclear data and computer program services for participating countries.
In these and related tasks, the NEA works in close collaboration with the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna,
with which it has a Co-operation Agreement, as well as with other international organisations in the nuclear field.
Publié en français sous le titre :

L’énergie nucléaire aujourd’hui
OECD PUBLICATIONS, 2 rue André-Pascal, 75775 Paris Cedex 16
OECD No. 53079 2003
ISBN 92-64-10328-7
© OECD 2003, 2005

Permission to reproduce a portion of this work for non-commercial purposes or classroom use should be obtained through the Centre français
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Eng-NucEnToday Rev25mai05 27/05/05 16:01 Page 1

NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY

1. Overview of Nuclear Energy Today 9

2. Basic Principles of Nuclear Energy 13

3. The Nuclear Fuel Cycle 23

4. Management of Radioactive Waste 31

7. The Economics of Nuclear Energy 59

8. International Nuclear Law and Non-proliferation 65

9. Nuclear Energy and Sustainable Development 73

10. The Future of Nuclear Energy 81

For Further Information 103

Lists of figures, tables and photo credits 109

Nuclear energy has grown continuously since its inception – demonstrating

Figure 1.1: Historical growth of nuclear energy (1965-2002)

Total: 9 963 Mtoe were 356 nuclear reactors in commercial operation

For further information

Basic Principles of Nuclear Energy

Figure 2.1: A typical fission reaction

Basic components of nature, typically 2-5% compared with the 0.711%

Figure 2.3: Basic components of a nuclear reactor (pressurised)

Warm water out to cooling tower

Moderator into the core and support systems to permit the

Containment structure Pressurised heavy water reactors

Nuclear fusion a major challenge in the development of fusion

Figure 2.7: Typical fusion reaction

deuterium (D) neutron (n)

tritium (T) helium ( 4 He)

Source: Joint European Torus.

Figure 2.8: Simple diagram of a Tokamak fusion reactor

Toroidal field coils

Source: Joint European Torus.

For further information

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Figure 3.1: The nuclear fuel cycle

REPROCESSING INTERIM STORAGE

Recycled uranium SNF

Most uranium is The front end

of 10% to 0.1%). Thus, the volume of tailings that

Dry storage of spent fuel.

Typical spent nuclear fuel

Typical BWR fuel

Table 3.3: Commercial spent nuclear fuel reprocessing plants worldwide

Country Facility/location Year of Fuel type

Decommissioning waste Table 3.4: Selected reactors undergoing or having

For further information

● The technologies and processes involved with the existing

Management of Radioactive Waste

Radioactive waste results from any activity Intermediate-level waste (ILW) is

In broad summary, the tenor of this document Minimisation About 90% of

Waste management practice

● conditioning and packaging to permit safe

handling and protection during transport;

The amount of reprocessing are typically compacted, then Interim storage

Long-lived waste The geological barrier

surface environment. The main issue of this matrix material.

Figure 4.3: Disposal concept

Water drips Carbon steel sets (no

Gas (H2O, O2, CO2, N2) Basket materials (carbon

Transport probable at some stage, this principle works to Finland moving