DOK ALTERNATIBO RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION, INC.

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COOKERY
NCII

MODULE 1

CLEAN AND
MAINTAIN KITCHEN
PREMISES

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Introduction:

This unit deals with the skills and knowledge involve in cleaning, sanitizing and
maintaining kitchens, equipment and utensils for food preparation and storage in
commercial/institutional kitchens.

Nominal Duration:

Learning Outcomes:

1. Clean, sanitize and store equipment

2. Clean and sanitize premises
3. Dispose of waste

Assessment Criteria:

1. Chemicals and clean potable water are selected and used for cleaning and/or
sanitizing kitchen equipment utensils, and working surfaces
2. Equipment and/or utensils are cleaned and/or sanitized safely using
clean/potable water and according to manufacturer’s instructions
3. Clean equipment and utensils are stored or stacked safely in the designated
place
4. Cleaning equipment and supplies are used safely in accordance with
manufacturer’s instructions
5. Cleaning equipment are assembled and disassembled safely
6. Cleaning equipment are stored safely in the designated position and area

Assessment Method:

1. Direct observation of the candidate while cleaning a kitchen

2. Written or oral questions to test knowledge of candidate’s on cleaning materials and
equipment and issues
3. Review of portfolios of evidence and third party workplace report of on-the-job
performance of the candidate

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Culinary art
 

(Culinary profession)

Culinary Arts is the art of preparing

and cooking foods. The word "culinary" is
defined as something related to, or connected
with, cooking. A culinarian is a person working in the culinary arts. A culinarian working
in restaurants is commonly known as a cook or a chef. Culinary artists are responsible
for skilfully preparing meals that are as pleasing to the palate as to the eye. They are
required to have a knowledge of the science of food and an understanding of diet and
nutrition. They work primarily in restaurants, delis, hospitals and other institutions.
Kitchen conditions vary depending on the type of business, restaurant, nursing home,
etc. The Table arts or the art of having food can also be called as "Culinary arts".

Careers in Culinary Arts

Variety of culinary arts occupations

 Consulting and Design Specialists – Work with restaurant owners in developing

menus, the layout and design of dining rooms, and service protocols.
 Restaurant management – Manage a restaurant, cafeteria, hotel dining area, etc.

 Food and Beverage Controller – Purchase and source ingredients in

large hotels as well as manage the stores and stock control.
 Entrepreneurship – Deepen and invest in businesses, such as bakeries,
restaurants, or specialty foods (such as chocolates, cheese, etc.).
 Food and Beverage Managers – Manage all food and beverage outlets
in hotels and other large establishments.

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 Food Stylists and Photographers – Work with magazines, books, catalogs and
other media to make food visually appealing.
 Food Writers and Food Critics – Communicate with the public on food trends,
chefs and restaurants though newspapers, magazines, blogs, and books. Notables
in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne and James Beard.
 Research and Development Kitchens – Develop new products for
commercial manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications,
restaurant chains, grocery chains, or others.
 Sales – Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment
relevant to food production and service.
 Instructors – Teach aspects of culinary arts in high school, vocational schools,
colleges, recreational programs, and for specialty businesses (for example, the
professional and recreational courses in baking)

Chef
A chef is a person who cooks professionally for other people. Traditionally it refers to a
highly skilled professional cook who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation.

The word "chef" is adopted (and shortened) from the term chef de cuisine, the director
or head of a kitchen. (The French word comes from Latin caput and is
a doublet with English "chief".) In English, the title "chef" in the culinary
profession originated in the haute cuisine of the 19th century. Today it is often used to
refer to any professional cook, regardless of rank, though in most classically defined
kitchens, it refers to the head chef; others, in North American parlance, are "cooks.

The various titles given to those working in a professional kitchen and each can be
considered a title for a type of chef. Many of the titles are based on the  brigade de

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cuisine (or brigade system), while others have a more general meaning depending on
the individual kitchen.

Chef de cuisine, executive chef, chef manager, head chef, and master chef

Master Executive Chef

This person is in charge of all things related to the

kitchen, which usually includes menu creation,
management of kitchen staff, ordering and purchasing
of inventory, and plating design. Chef de cuisine is the
traditional French term from which the English word
chef is derived. Head chef is often used to designate
someone with the same duties as an executive chef,
but there is usually someone in charge of a head chef,
possibly making the larger executive decisions such
as direction of menu, final authority in staff
management decisions, etc. This is often the case for
executive chefs with multiple restaurants. There is also
another name for this type of chef called the Masterchef.
Sous-chef
The Sous-Chef de Cuisine (under-chef of the kitchen) is the second-in-command and
direct assistant of the Chef de Cuisine. This person may be responsible for scheduling
the kitchen staff, and substituting when the head chef is off-duty; he or she will also fill in
for or assist the Chef de Partie (line cook) when needed. This person is accountable for
the kitchen's inventory, cleanliness, organization, and the ongoing training of its entire
staff. A sous-chef's duties can also include carrying out the head chef's directives,
conducting line checks, and overseeing the timely rotation of all food product. Smaller
operations may not have a sous-chef, while larger operations may have more than one
Chef de partie
A chef de partie, also known as a "station chef" or "line cook,"is in charge of a particular
area of production. In large kitchens, each Chef de partie might have several cooks
and/or assistants. In most kitchens, however, the Chef de partie is the only worker in

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that department. Line cooks are often divided into a hierarchy of their own, starting with
"first cook," then "second cook," and so on as needed.

Station-chef titles which are part of the brigade system include:

English French Description

Responsible for all sautéed items and their sauce. This is usually the highest

Sauté Chef saucier
stratified position of all the stations.

Prepares fish dishes and often does all fish butchering as well as appropriate

Fish Chef poissonnier
sauces. This station may be combined with the saucier position.

Roast Chef rôtisseur Prepares roasted and braised meats and their appropriate sauce.

Grill Chef grillardin Prepares all grilled foods; this position may be combined with the rotisseur.

Prepares all fried items; this position may be combined with

Fry Chef friturier
the rotisseur position.

Prepares hot appetizers and often prepares the soups, vegetables, pastas

Vegetable
entremetier and starches. In smaller establishments, this station may also cover those
Chef
tasks performed by the potagerand legumier.

Prepares soups in a full brigade system. In smaller establishments, this station

Potager
may be handled by the entremetier.

Prepares vegetables in a full brigade system. In smaller establishments, this

Legumier
station may be handled by the entremetier.

Roundsman tournant Also referred to as a swing cook, fills in as needed on stations in the kitchen.

garde Responsible for preparing cold foods including salads,

Pantry Chef
manger cold appetizers, pâtés and othercharcuterie items.

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 Butchers meats, poultry, and sometimes fish. May also be responsible for
Butcher boucher
breading meats and fish.

Pastry Chef pâtissier Makes baked goods such as pastries, cakes, breads and desserts. In larger
establishments, the pastry chef often supervises a separate team in their own
kitchen.

Commis (Chef)
A commis is a basic chef in larger kitchens who works under a chef de partie to learn
the station's responsibilities and operation. This may be a chef who has recently
completed formal culinary training or is still undergoing training.
Kitchen assistants

Kitchen assistants are of two types, kitchen-hands and stewards. Kitchen-hands assist
with basic food preparation tasks under the chef's direction. They carry out relatively
unskilled tasks such as peeling potatoes and washing salad. Stewards are involved in
the scullery, washing up and general cleaning duties. In a smaller kitchen, these duties
may be incorporated.

A communard is in charge of preparing the meal for the staff during a shift. This meal is
often referred to as the staff or family meal.

The escuelerie (from 15th century French and a cognate of the English "scullery, or the
more modern plongeur or dishwasher, is the keeper of dishes, having charge of dishes
and keeping the kitchen clean. A common humorous title for this role in some modern
kitchens is "chef de plonge" or "head dishwasher".
Culinary education
Culinary education is available from many institutions offering diploma, associate, and
bachelor degree programs in culinary arts. Depending on the level of education, this can
take one to four years. An internship is often part of the curriculum. Regardless of the
education received, most professional kitchens follow the apprenticeship system, and
most new cooks will start at a lower-level 2nd or 1st cook position and work their way
up.

The training period for a chef is generally four years as an apprentice. A newly qualified
chef is advanced or more commonly a torquecommis-chef, consisting of first-

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yearcommis, second-year commis, and so on. The rate of pay is usually in accordance
with the training status. Commis chefs, like all other chefs except the executive-chef,
are placed in sections of the kitchen (e.g., the starter (appetizer) or entrée sections)
under the guidance of a demi-chef de partie and are given relatively basic tasks. Ideally,
over time, a commis will spend a certain period in each section of the kitchen to learn
the basics. Unaided, a commis may work on the vegetable station of a kitchen.

The usual formal training period for a chef is two to four years in catering college. They
often spend the summer in work placements. In some cases this is modified to 'day-
release' courses; a chef will work full-time in a kitchen as an apprentice and then would
have allocated days off to attend catering college. These courses can last between one
to three years.
Uniform

A chef

The standard uniform for a chef includes a hat called a

touge, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron and
shoes with steel or plastic toe-caps. A chef's hat was
originally designed as a tall rippled hat called a Dodin
Bouffant or more commonly a toque. The Dodin
Bouffant had 101 ripples that represent the 101 ways
that the chef could prepare eggs. The modern chef's
hat is tall to allow for the circulation of air above the
head and also provides an outlet for heat. The hat
helps to prevent sweat from dripping down the face.
Neckties were originally worn to allow for the mopping
of sweat from the face, but as this is now against health regulations, they are largely
decorative. The chef's neck tie was originally worn on the inside of the jacket to stop
sweat running from the face and neck down the body.The jacket is usually white to
show off the chef's cleanliness and repel heat, and is double-breasted to prevent
serious injuries from burns and scalds. The double breast also serves to conceal stains
on the jacket as one side can be rebuttoned over the other.

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 An apron is worn to just below knee-length, also to
assist in the prevention of burns because of spillage. If
hot liquid is spilled onto it, the apron can be quickly
removed to minimize burns and scalds. Shoes and
clogs are hard-wearing and with a steel-top cap to
prevent injury from falling objects or knives. According
to some hygiene regulations, jewelry is not allowed
apart from wedding bands and religious jewelry. If
wound dressings are required they should be blue—an
unusual color for foodstuffs—so that they are
noticeable if they fall into food. Facial hair and longer
hair are often required to be netted, or trimmed, for food safety. Bandages on the hands
are usually covered with latex gloves.

Brigade de cuisine
Brigade de cuisine (French: kitchen brigade) is a system of hierarchy found in
restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, commonly referred to as "kitchen
staff" in English speaking countries.

The concept was developed by Georges AugusteEscoffier This structured team system
delegates responsibilities to different individuals who specialize in certain tasks.

List of positions
This is an exhaustive list of the different members of the kitchen brigade system. Only
the largest of establishments would have an extensive staff of this size. As noted under
some titles, certain positions are combined into other positions when such a large staff
is unnecessary. Note: Despite the use of chef in English as the title for a cook, the word
actually means "chief" or "head" in French. Similarly, cuisine means "kitchen," rather
than referring to food or cooking generally, or a type of food or cooking.

Chef de cuisine (kitchen chef; literally "chief of kitchen")

Is responsible for overall management of kitchen; supervises staff, creates menus and
new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, makes purchases of raw

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food items, trains apprentices, and maintains a sanitary and hygienic environment for
the preparation of food.
Sous-chef de cuisine (deputy kitchen chef; literally "sub-chief")
Receives orders directly from the chef de cuisine for the management of the kitchen,
and often serves as the representative when the chef de cuisine is not present.
Chef de partie (senior chef; literally "chief of party"; party used here as a group,
in the sense of a military detail)
Is responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen, specializing in preparing
particular dishes there. Those who work in a lesser station are commonly referred to as
a demi-chef.
Cuisinier (cook)
Is an independent position, usually preparing specific dishes in a station; may also be
referred to as a cuisinier de partie.
Commis (junior cook)
Also works in a specific station, but reports directly to the chef de partie and takes care
of the tools for the station.
Apprenti(e) (apprentice)
Are often students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work
experience in the kitchen. They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work.
Plongeur (dishwasher)
Cleans dishes and utensils, and may be entrusted with basic preparatory jobs.

Marmiton (pot and pan washer)

In larger restaurants, takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the plongeur.
Saucier (saucemaker/sauté cook)
Prepares sauces and warm hors d'oeuvres, completes meat dishes, and in smaller
restaurants, may work on fish dishes and prepare sautéed items. This is one of the
most respected positions in the kitchen brigade, usually ranking just below the chef and
sous-chef
Rôtisseur (roast cook)
Manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils, and deep fries dishes.

Grillardin (grill cook)
In larger kitchens, prepares grilled foods instead of the rôtisseur.

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Friturier (fry cook)
In larger kitchens, prepares fried foods instead of the rôtisseur.
Poissonnier (fish cook)
Prepares fish and seafood dishes.
Entremetier (entrée preparer)
Prepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish, including vegetable dishes
and egg dishes.

Potager (soup cook)
In larger kitchens, reports to the entremetier and prepares the soups.
Legumier (vegetable cook)
In larger kitchen, also reports to the entremetier and prepares the vegetable dishes.
Garde manger (pantry supervisor; literally "food keeper")
is responsible for preparation of cold hors d'oeuvres, pâtés, terrines and aspics;
prepares salads; organizes large buffet displays; and prepares charcuterie items.
Tournant (spare hand/roundsman)
Moves throughout the kitchen, assisting other positions in kitchen.
Pâtissier (pastry cook)
Prepares desserts and other meal-end sweets, and for locations without a boulanger,
also prepares breads and other baked items; may also prepare pasta for the restaurant.

Confiseur
In larger restaurants, prepares candies and petits fours instead of the pâtissier.
Glacier
In larger restaurants, prepares frozen and cold desserts instead of the pâtissier.
Décorateur
In larger restaurants, prepares show pieces and specialty cakes instead of the pâtissier.
Boulanger (baker)
In larger restaurants, prepares bread, cakes, and breakfast pastries instead of
the pâtissier.
Boucher (butcher)
Butchers meats, poultry, and sometimes fish; may also be in charge of breading meat
and fish items.

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Aboyeur (announcer/expediter)
Takes orders from the dining room and distributes them to the various stations; may
also be performed by the sous-chef de partie.
Communard
Prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.
Garçon de cuisine (literally "kitchen boy")
In larger restaurants, performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support.

Development chef
A development chef is a trained chef specialising in the development of new dishes or
food products.

With food companies, this type of chef is often responsible for the creating of new pre-
prepared meals and food products. Within the health care, the chef is often responsible
for the development of variations of the mainstream meals, to fit in the different types of
diets while still having an appetizing meal. Individual restaurant seldom have a
development chef but restaurant chains often do. Here the chef is typically responsible
for designing the dish and ensuring that the local kitchen staff can create/prepare the
dish to an exact standard.

Training
Development chefs need sufficient training in Culinary arts, experimental food methods
and food science plus sufficient experience in actual preparing of dishes. This makes
that a development chef in most cases has a background as a professional chef.

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Cuisine

Part of a series on

Meals

Common meals

Breakfast, Brunch, Lunch, Tea, Dinner, Supper

Components and courses

Amuse-bouche, Full course dinner, Hors d'oeuvre, Dessert, Entrée,

Entremet, Main course, Side dish

Related concepts

À la carte, Banquet, Buffet,

Cuisine (from French cuisine, "cooking; culinary art; kitchen"; ultimately

from Latincoquere, "to cook") is a characteristic style of cooking practices and
traditions,often associated with a specific culture. Cuisines are often named after the
geographic areas or regions from which they originate. A cuisine is primarily influenced
by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws, such
as Islamic dietary laws and Jewish dietary laws, can also exercise a strong influence on
cuisine. Regionalfood preparation traditions, customs and ingredients often combine to
create dishes unique to a particular region.

History

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Cuisine can be stated as the foods and methods of food preparation traditional to a
region or population. The major factors shaping a cuisine are climate, which in large
measure determines the native raw materials that are available, economic conditions,
which affecttrade and can affect food distribution, imports and exports, and
religiousness or sumptuary laws, under which certain foods are required or proscribed.

Climate also affects the supply of fuel for cooking; a common Chinese food preparation
method was cutting food into small pieces to cook foods quickly and conserve scarce
firewood and charcoal. Foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing,
and pickling have remained significant in world cuisines for their altered gustatory
properties even when these preserving techniques are no longer strictly necessary to
the maintenance of an adequate food supply.

New cuisines continue to evolve in contemporary times. An example is fusion cuisine,

which combines elements of variousculinary traditions while not being categorized per
any one cuisine style, and generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary
restaurant cuisines since the 1970s.
Regional cuisines

Global cuisines can be categorized by

various regions according to the
common use of major foodstuffs,
including grains, produce and
cooking fats. Regional cuisines may vary
based upon food availability and trade,
cooking traditions and practices,
andcultural differences. For example, in
Central and South America, corn
(maize), both fresh and dried, is a staple
food. In northern Europe, wheat, rye,
and fats of animal origin predominate,
while in southern Europe olive oil is
ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In
Italy the cuisine of the north,
featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta and

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olive oil. China likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle & bread regions.
Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the
use of lamb, olive oil, lemons,peppers, and rice. The vegetarianism practiced in much of
India has made pulses(crops harvested solely for the dry seed) such
as chickpeas and lentils as significant as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the use
of spices is characteristic; coconutsand seafood are used throughout the region both as
foodstuffs and as seasonings.

Kitchen
A kitchen is a room or part of a room used
for cooking and preparation. In the West, a modern
residential kitchen is typically equipped with
a stove, a sink with hot and cold running water,
a refrigerator and kitchen cabinets arranged
according to a modular. Many households have
a microwave oven, a dishwasher and other electric
appliances. The main function of a kitchen is
cooking or preparing food but it may also be used for dining, food
storage, entertaining, dishwashing and laundry.

History
The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the cooking range or stove and
the development of water infrastructure capable of supplying water to private homes.
Until the 18th century, food was cooked over an open fire. Technical advances in
heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries, changed the architecture of the kitchen.
Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from an outdoor source such
as wells, pumps or springs.
Antiquity
The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type: the rooms were
arranged around a central courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but
otherwise open patio served as the kitchen. Homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a
separate room, usually next to a bathroom (so that both rooms could be heated by the
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kitchen fire), both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was
often a separate small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food
andkitchen utensils.

Kitchen with stove and oven of a Roman inn (Mansio) at the Roman villa of
Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Germany.

In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had

no kitchen of their own; they did their cooking in large
public kitchens. Some had small mobile bronze stoves,
on which a fire could be lit for cooking.
Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens. In a Roman villa, the kitchen
was typically integrated into the main building as a separate room, set apart for practical
reasons of smoke and sociological reasons of the kitchen being operated by slaves.
The fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—
such that one had to kneel to cook. There were nochimneys.
Middle Ages

The roasting spit in this EuropeanRenaissance kitchen

was driven automatically by a propeller—the black
cloverleaf-like structure in the upper left.

Early medieval
European longhouses had an open
fire under the highest point of the
building. The "kitchen area" was
between the entrance and the
fireplace. In wealthy homes there was
typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens.
The kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. [1] In place of a
chimney, these early buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke
could escape. Besides cooking, the fire also served as a source of heat and light to the
single-room building. A similar design can be found in the Iroquois longhouses of North
America.

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In the larger homesteads of European nobles, the kitchen was sometimes in a separate
sunken floor building to keep the main building, which served social and official
purposes, free from indoor smoke.

The first known stoves in Japan date from about the same time. The earliest findings
are from the Kofun period (3rd to 6th century). These stoves, called kamado, were
typically made of clay and mortar; they were fired with wood or charcoal through a hole
in the front and had a hole in the top, into which a pot could be hanged by its rim. This
type of stove remained in use for centuries to come, with only minor modifications. Like
in Europe, the wealthier homes had a separate building which served for cooking. A
kind of open fire pit fired with charcoal, called irori, remained in use as the secondary
stove in most homes until the Edo period (17th to 19th century). A kamado was used to
cook the staple food, for instance rice, while irori served both to cook side dishes and as
a heat source.

18th century cooks tended a fire and endured smoke in

this Swiss farmhouse smoke kitchen.

The kitchen remained largely unaffected by

architectural advances throughout the Middle Ages;
open fire remained the only method of heating food.
European medieval kitchens were dark, smoky, and
sooty places, whence their name "smoke kitchen". In
European medieval cities around the 10th to 12th
centuries, the kitchen still used an open fire hearth in
the middle of the room. In wealthy homes, the ground
floor was often used as a stable while the kitchen was
located on the floor above, like the bedroom and the
hall. In castles and monasteries, the living and working
areas were separated; the kitchen was sometimes
moved to a separate building, and thus could not serve
anymore to heat the living rooms. In some castles the kitchen was retained in the same
structure, but servants were strictly separated from nobles, by constructing separate
spiral stone staircases for use of servants to bring food to upper levels. An extant
example of such a medieval kitchen with servants' staircase is

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at MuchallsCastle in Scotland. In Japanese homes, the kitchen started to become a
separate room within the main building at that time.

With the advent of the chimney, the hearth moved from the center of the room to one
wall, and the first brick-and-mortar hearths were built. The fire was lit on top of the
construction; a vault underneath served to store wood. Pots made of iron, bronze,
orcopper started to replace the pottery used earlier. The temperature was controlled by
hanging the pot higher or lower over the fire, or placing it on a trivet or directly on the
hot ashes. Using open fire for cooking (and heating) was risky; fires devastating whole
cities occurred frequently.

Leonardo da Vinci invented an automated system for a rotating spit for spit-roasting: a

propeller in the chimney made the spit turn all by itself. This kind of system was widely
used in wealthier homes. Beginning in the late Middle Ages, kitchens in Europe lost
their home-heating function even more and were increasingly moved from the living
area into a separate room. The living room was now heated by tiled stoves, operated
from the kitchen, which offered the huge advantage of not filling the room with smoke.

Freed from smoke and dirt, the living room thus began to serve as an area for social
functions and increasingly became a showcase for the owner's wealth. In the upper
classes, cooking and the kitchen were the domain of the servants, and the kitchen was
set apart from the living rooms, sometimes even far from the dining room. Poorer
homes often did not have a separate kitchen yet; they kept the one-room arrangement
where all activities took place, or at the most had the kitchen in the entrance hall.

The medieval smoke kitchen (or Farmhouse kitchen) remained common, especially in

rural farmhouses and generally in poorer homes, until much later. In a few European
farmhouses, the smoke kitchen was in regular use until the middle of the 20th century.
These houses often had no chimney, but only a smoke hood above the fireplace, made
of wood and covered with clay, used to smoke meat. The smoke rose more or less
freely, warming the upstairs rooms and protecting the woodwork from vermin.
Colonial America
In the Colony of Connecticut, as in other states of New England during Colonial
America, kitchens were often built as separate rooms and were located behind
the parlor and keeping room or dining room. One early record of a kitchen is found in
the 1648 inventory of the estate of a John Porter of Windsor, Connecticut. The inventory
lists goods in the house over the kittchin and in the kittchin. The items listed in the

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kitchen were; silver spoons, pewter, brass, iron, arms,
ammunition, hemp, flax and other implements about the room.

In the southern states, where the climate and sociological conditions differed from the

north, the kitchen was often relegated to an outbuilding, separate from the big house,
the mansion, for much of the same reasons as in the feudal kitchen in medieval Europe:
the kitchen was operated by slaves, and their working place had to be separated from
the living area of the masters by the social standards of the time. Separate  summer
kitchens were also common on large farms in the north. These were used to prepare
meals for harvest workers and tasks such as canning during the warm summer months.
Technological advances

A typical rural American kitchen of 1918 at The Sauer-Beckmann

Farmstead, Texas

Technological advances
during industrialization brought major changes to the
kitchen. Iron stoves, which enclosed the fire
completely and were more efficient, appeared. Early
models included the Franklin stove around 1740,
which was a furnace stove intended for heating, not for cooking. Benjamin Thompson in
England designed his "Rumford stove" around 1800. This stove was much more energy
efficient than earlier stoves; it used one fire to heat several pots, which were hung into
holes on top of the stove and were thus heated from all sides instead of just from the
bottom. However, his stove was designed for large kitchens; it was too big for domestic
use. The "Oberlin stove" was a refinement of the technique that resulted in a size
reduction; it was patented in the U.S. in 1834 and became a commercial success with
some 90,000 units sold over the next 30 years. These stoves were still fired
with wood or coal. Although the first gas street lamps were installed in Paris, London,
and Berlin at the beginning of the 1820s and the first U.S. patent on a gas stove was
granted in 1825, it was not until the late 19th century that using gas for lighting and
cooking became commonplace in urban areas.

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 A typical Hoosier cabinet of the 1920s.

Before and after the beginning of the 20th century,

kitchens were frequently not equipped with built-in
cabinetry, and the lack of storage space in the kitchen
became a real problem. The Hoosier Manufacturing
Co. of Indiana adapted an existing furniture piece, the
baker's cabinet, which had a similar structure of a table
top with some cabinets above it (and frequently flour
bins beneath) to solve the storage problem. By
rearranging the parts and taking advantage of (then)
modern metal working, they were able to produce a
well-organized, compact cabinet which answered the
home cook's needs for storage and working space. A distinctive feature of the Hoosier
cabinet is its accessories. As originally supplied, they were equipped with various racks
and other hardware to hold and organize spices and various staples. One useful feature
was the combination flour-bin/sifter, a tin hopper that could be used without having to
remove it from the cabinet. A similar sugar bin was also common.

The urbanization in the second half of the 19th century induced other significant
changes that would ultimately change the kitchen. Out of sheer necessity, cities began
planning and building water distribution pipes into homes, and built sewers to deal with
the waste water. Gas pipes were laid; gas was used first for lighting purposes, but once
the network had grown sufficiently, it also became available for heating and cooking on
gas stoves. At the turn of the 20th century, electricity had been mastered well enough to
become a commercially viable alternative to gas and slowly started replacing the latter.
But like the gas stove, the stove had a slow start. The first electrical stove had been
presented in 1893 at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, but it was not until
the 1930s that the technology was stable enough and began to take off.

Industrialization
Industrialization also caused social changes. The new factory working class in the cities
was housed under generally poor conditions. Whole families lived in small one or two-
room apartments in tenement buildings up to six stories high, badly aired and with
insufficient lighting. Sometimes, they shared apartments with "night sleepers",
unmarried men who paid for a bed at night. The kitchen in such an apartment was often
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used as a living and sleeping room, and even as a bathroom. Water had to be fetched
from wells and heated on the stove. Water pipes were laid only towards the end of the
19th century, and then often only with one tap per building or per story. Brick-and-
mortar stoves fired with coal remained the norm until well into the second half of the
century. Pots and kitchenware were typically stored on open shelves, and parts of the
room could be separated from the rest using simple curtains.

In contrast, there were no dramatic changes for the upper classes. The kitchen, located
in the basement or the ground floor, continued to be operated by servants. In some
houses, water pumps were installed, and some even had kitchen sinks and drains (but
no water on tap yet, except for some feudal kitchens in castles). The kitchen became a
much cleaner space with the advent of "cooking machines", closed stoves made of iron
plates and fired by wood and increasingly charcoal or coal, and that had flue
pipes connected to the chimney. For the servants the kitchen continued to also serve as
a sleeping room; they slept either on the floor, or later in narrow spaces above a
lowered ceiling, for the new stoves with their smoke outlet no longer required a high
ceiling in the kitchen. The kitchen floors were tiled; kitchenware was neatly stored
in cupboards to protect them from dust and steam. A large table served as a
workbench; there were at least as many chairs as there were servants, for the table in
the kitchen also doubled as the eating place for the servants.

World War II cooking and dining trends

The urban middle class imitated the luxurious dining styles of the upper class as best as
they could. Living in smaller apartments, the kitchen was the main room—here, the
family lived. The study or living room was saved for special occasions such as an
occasional dinner invitation. Because of this, these middle-class kitchens were often
more homely than those of the upper class, where the kitchen was a work-only room
occupied only by the servants. Besides a cupboard to store the kitchenware, there were
a table and chairs, where the family would dine, and sometimes—if space allowed—
even a fauteuil or a couch.

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 Gas stove, 1940s

Gas pipes were first laid in the late 19th century, and
gas stoves started to replace the older coal-fired
stoves. Gas was more expensive than coal, though,
and thus the new technology was first installed in the
wealthier homes. Where workers' apartments were
equipped with a gas stove, gas distribution would go
through a coin meter.

In rural areas, the older technology using coal or wood

stoves or even brick-and-mortar open fireplaces
remained common throughout. Gas and water pipes
were first installed in the big cities; small villages were connected only much later.

Rationalization

The Frankfurt kitchen using Taylorist principles

The trend to increasing gasification

andelectrification continued at the turn of the 20th
century. In industry, it was the phase of work process
optimization. Taylorism was born, and time-motion
studies were used to optimize processes. These ideas
also spilled over into domestic kitchen architecture
because of a growing trend that called for a
professionalization of household work, started in the
mid-19th century byCatharine Beecher and amplified
by Christine Frederick's publications in the 1910s.

A stepstone was the kitchen designed in Frankfurt by

MargaretheSchütte-Lihotzky. Working class women
frequently worked in factories to ensure the family's survival, as the men's wages often
did not suffice. Social housing projects led to the next milestone: the Frankfurt Kitchen.
Developed in 1926, this kitchen measured 1.9 m by 3.4 m (approximately 6 ft 2 inby
11 ft 2 in, with a standard layout. It was built for two purposes: to optimize kitchen work
to reduce cooking time and lower the cost of building decently equipped kitchens. The
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design, created by MargareteSchütte-Lihotzky, was the result of detailed time-motion
studies and interviews with future tenants to identify what they needed from their
kitchens. Schütte-Lihotzky's fitted kitchen was built in some 10,000 apartments in the
housing projects erected in Frankfurt in the 1930s.

The initial reception was critical: it was so small that only one person could work in it;
some storage spaces intended for raw loose food ingredients such as flour were
reachable by children. But the Frankfurt kitchen embodied a standard for the rest of the
20th century in rental apartments: the "work kitchen". It was criticized as "exiling the
women in the kitchen", but post-World War IIeconomic reasons prevailed. The kitchen
once more was seen as a work place that needed to be separated from the living areas.
Practical reasons also played a role in this development: just as in the bourgeois homes
of the past, one reason for separating the kitchen was to keep the steam and smells of
cooking out of the living room.
Unit/fitted

A kitchen produced by the German company Poggenpohl in 1892

The idea of standardized was first introduced locally

with the Frankfurt kitchen, but later defined new in the
"Swedish kitchen" (Svenskköksstandard, Swedish
kitchen standard). The equipment used remained a
standard for years to come: hot and cold water on tap
and a kitchen sink and an electrical or gas stove and
oven. Not much later, the refrigerator was added as a standard item. The concept was
refined in the "Swedish kitchen" using unit furniture with wooden fronts for the kitchen
cabinets. Soon, the concept was amended by the use of smooth synthetic door and
drawer fronts, first in white, recalling a sense of cleanliness and alluding to sterile lab or
hospital settings, but soon after in more lively colors, too. Some years after the Frankfurt
Kitchen Poggenpohl presented the "reform kitchen" in 1928 with interconnecting
cabinets and functional interiors. The reform kitchen was a forerunner to the later unit
kitchen and fitted kitchen. Poggenpohl presented the form 1000, declared as "the
world's first unit kitchen", at the imm Cologne furniture fair in 1950

Unit construction since its introduction has defined the development of the modern
kitchen. Pre-manufactured modules using mass manufacturing techniques developed

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during World War II greatly brought down the cost of a kitchen. Units which are kept on
the floor are called "floor units", "floor cabinets", or "base cabinets" on which a
kitchen worktop, originally often formica and often now made of granite, marble, tile or
wood is placed. The units which are held on the wall for storage purposes are termed as
"wall units" or "wall cabinets". In small areas of kitchen in an apartment, even a "tall
storage unit" is available for effective storage. In cheaper brands, all cabinets are kept a
uniform color, normally white, with interchangeable doors and accessories chosen by
the customer to give a varied look. In more expensive brands, the cabinets are
produced matching the doors' colors and finishes, for an older more bespoke look.
Technicalization

Stainless steel home appliances popular in modern western kitchens

A trend began in the 1940s in the United States to

equip the kitchen with electrifiedsmall and large kitchen
appliances such as blenders, toasters, and later
alsomicrowave ovens. Following the end of World War
II, massive demand in Europe for low-price, high-tech
consumer goods led to Western European kitchens
being designed to accommodate new appliances such
as refrigerators and electric/gas cookers.

Parallel to this development in tenement buildings was

the evolution of the kitchen in homeowner's houses.
There, the kitchens usually were somewhat larger,
suitable for everyday use as a dining room, but
otherwise the ongoing technicalization was the same,
and the use of unit furniture also became a standard in this market sector.

General technocentric enthusiasm even led some designers to take the "work kitchen"
approach even further, culminating in futuristic designs like Luigi Colani's "kitchen
satellite" (1969, commissioned by the German high-end kitchen
manufacturerPoggenpohl for an exhibit), in which the room was reduced to a ball with a
chair in the middle and all appliances at arm's length, an optimal arrangement maybe
for "applying heat to food", but not necessarily for actual cooking. Such extravaganzas
remained outside the norm, though.

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In the former Eastern bloc countries, the official doctrine viewed cooking as a mere
necessity, and women should work "for the society" in factories, not at home. Also,
housing had to be built at low costs and quickly, which led directly to the standardized
apartment block using prefabricated slabs. The kitchen was reduced to its minimums
and the "work kitchen" paradigm taken to its extremes: in East Germany for instance,
the standard tenement block of the model "P2" had tiny 4 m² kitchens in the inside of
the building (no windows), connected to the dining and living room of the 55 m²
apartment and separated from the latter by a pass-through or a window.
Open kitchens
Starting in the 1980s, the perfection of the extractor hood allowed an open kitchen
again, integrated more or less with the living room without causing the whole apartment
or house to smell. Before that, only a few earlier experiments, typically in newly built
upper-middle-class family homes, had open kitchens. Examples are Frank Lloyd
Wright's House Willey (1934) and House Jacobs(1936). Both had open kitchens, with
high ceilings (up to the roof) and were aired by skylights. The extractor hood made it
possible to build open kitchens in apartments, too, where both high ceilings and
skylights were not possible.

The re-integration of the kitchen and the living area went hand in hand with a change in
the perception of cooking: increasingly, cooking was seen as a creative and sometimes
social act instead of work. And there was a rejection by younger home-owners of the
standard suburban model of separate kitchens and dining rooms found in most 1900-
1950 houses. Many families also appreciated the trend towards open kitchens, as it
made it easier for the parents to supervise the children while cooking and to clean up
spills. The enhanced status of cooking also made the kitchen a prestige object for
showing off one's wealth or cooking professionalism. Some architects have capitalized
on this "object" aspect of the kitchen by designing freestanding "kitchen objects".
However, like their precursor, Colani's "kitchen satellite", such futuristic designs are
exceptions.

Another reason for the trend back to open kitchens (and a foundation of the "kitchen
object" philosophy) is changes in how food is prepared. Whereas prior to the 1950s
most cooking started out with raw ingredients and a meal had to be prepared from
scratch, the advent of frozen meals and pre-prepared convenience food changed the
cooking habits of many people, who consequently used the kitchen less and less. For
others, who followed the "cooking as a social act" trend, the open kitchen had the
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advantage that they could be with their guests while cooking, and for the "creative
cooks" it might even become a stage for their cooking performance.

The "Trophy Kitchen" is equipped with very expensive and sophisticated appliances
which are used primarily to impress visitors and to project social status, rather than for
actual cooking.
Ventilation
The ventilation of a kitchen, in particular a large restaurant kitchen, poses certain
difficulties that are not present in the ventilation of other kinds of spaces. In particular,
the air in a kitchen differs from that of other rooms in that it typically contains grease,
smoke and odours.
Materials
The Frankfurt Kitchen of 1926 was made of several materials depending on the
application. The built-in kitchens of today use particle boards or MDF, decorated with
veneers, in some cases also wood. Very few manufacturers produce home built-in
kitchens from stainless-steel. Until the 1950s, steel kitchens were used by architects,
but this material was displaced by the cheaper particle board panels sometimes
decorated with a steel surface.
Domestic kitchen planning

Kitchen in Vietnam before a lunch.

Domestic (or residential) kitchen design per

se is a relatively recent discipline. The first
ideas to optimize the work in the kitchen go
back to Catharine Beecher's A Treatise on
Domestic Economy (1843, revised and
republished together with her sister Harriet
Beecher Stowe as The American Woman's
Home in 1869). Beecher's "model kitchen"
propagated for the first time a systematic
design based on early ergonomics. The design included regular shelves on the walls,
ample work space, and dedicated storage areas for various food items. Beecher even

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separated the functions of preparing food and cooking it altogether by moving the stove
into a compartment adjacent to the kitchen.

Christine Frederick published from 1913 a series of articles on "New Household

Management" in which she analyzed the kitchen following Taylorist principles,
presented detailed time-motion studies, and derived a kitchen design from them. Her
ideas were taken up in the 1920s by architects in Germany and Austria, most
notablyBrunoTaut,Erna Meyer, and MargareteSchütte-Lihotzky. A social housing project
in Frankfurt (the Römerstadt of architect Ernst May) realized in 1927/8 was the
breakthrough for her Frankfurt kitchen, which embodied this new notion of efficiency in
the kitchen.

While this "work kitchen" and variants derived from it were a great success for tenement
buildings, home owners had different demands and did not want to be constrained by a
6.4 m² kitchen. Nevertheless, kitchen design was mostly ad-hoc following the whims of
the architect. In theU.S., the "Small Homes Council", since 1993 the "Building Research
Council", of the School of Architecture of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign was founded in 1944 with the goal to improve the state of the art in home
building, originally with an emphasis on standardization for cost reduction. It was there
that the notion of thekitchen work triangle was formalized: the three main functions in a
kitchen are storage, preparation, and cooking (which Catharine Beecher had already
recognized), and the places for these functions should be arranged in the kitchen in
such a way that work at one place does not interfere with work at another place, the
distance between these places is not unnecessarily large, and no obstacles are in the
way. A natural arrangement is a triangle, with the refrigerator, the sink, and the stove at
a vertex each.

This observation led to a few common kitchen forms, commonly characterized by the
arrangement of the kitchen cabinets and sink, stove, and refrigerator:

 A single-file kitchen (or one-way galley) has all of these along one wall; the
work triangle degenerates to a line. This is not optimal, but often the only solution if
space is restricted. This may be common in an attic space that is being converted
into a living space, or a studio apartment.
 The double-file kitchen (or two-way galley) has two rows of cabinets at opposite
walls, one containing the stove and the sink, the other the refrigerator. This is the
classical work kitchen.

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 In the L-kitchen, the cabinets occupy two adjacent walls. Again, the work
triangle is preserved, and there may even be space for an additional table at a third
wall, provided it does not intersect the triangle.
 A U-kitchen has cabinets along three walls, typically with the sink at the base of
the "U". This is a typical work kitchen, too, unless the two other cabinet rows are
short enough to place a table at the fourth wall.
 A G-kitchen has cabinets along three walls, like the U-kitchen, and also a partial
fourth wall, often with a double basin sink at the corner of the G shape. The G-
kitchen provides additional work and storage space, and can support two work
triangles. A modified version of the G-kitchen is the double-L, which splits the G into
two L-shaped components, essentially adding a smaller L-shaped island or
peninsula to the L-kitchen.
 The block kitchen (or island) is a more recent development, typically found in
open kitchens. Here, the stove or both the stove and the sink are placed where an L
or U kitchen would have a table, in a free-standing "island", separated from the other
cabinets. In a closed room, this does not make much sense, but in an open kitchen,
it makes the stove accessible from all sides such that two persons can cook
together, and allows for contact with guests or the rest of the family, since the cook
does not face the wall any more. Additionally, the kitchen island's counter-top can
function as an overflow-surface for serving buffet style meals or sitting down to eat
breakfast and snacks.
In the 1980s, there was a backlash against industrial kitchen planning and cabinets with
people installing a mix of work surfaces and free standing furniture, led by kitchen
designer Johnny Grey and his concept of the "Unfitted Kitchen".

Modern kitchens often have enough informal space to allow for people to eat in it
without having to use the formal dining room. Such areas are called "breakfast areas",
"breakfast nooks" or "breakfast bars" if the space is integrated into a kitchen counter.
Kitchens with enough space to eat in are sometimes called "eat-in kitchens".

Other kitchen types

A canteen kitchen
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Restaurant and canteen kitchens found in hotels, hospitals, educational and work place
facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments are generally (in developed
countries) subject to public health laws. They are inspected periodically by public-health
officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by
law.

Canteen kitchens (and castle kitchens) were often the places where new technology
was used first. For instance, Benjamin Thompson's "energy saving stove", an early-19th
century fully closed iron stove using one fire to heat several pots, was designed for
large kitchens; another thirty years passed before they were adapted for domestic use.

Today's western restaurant kitchens typically have tiled walls and floors and use
stainless steel for other surfaces (workbench, but also door and drawer fronts) because
these materials are durable and easy to clean. Professional kitchens are often equipped
with gas stoves, as these allowcooks to regulate the heat more quickly and more finely
than electrical stoves. Some special appliances are typical for professional kitchens,
such as large installed deep fryers, steamers, or a bain-marie. (As of 2004, steamers —
not to be confused with a pressure cooker — are beginning to find their way into
domestic households, sometimes as a combined appliance of oven and steamer.)

The Food Technology room at Marling School in Stroud,

Gloucestershire.

The fast food and convenience food trends have also

changed the way restaurant kitchens operate. There's
a trend for restaurants to only "finish" delivered
convenience food or even just re-heat completely
prepared meals, maybe at the utmost grilling, ahamburger, or a steak.

The kitchens in railway dining cars present special challenges: space is constrained,

and, nevertheless, the personnel must be able to serve a great number of meals
quickly. Especially in the early history of railways this required flawless organization of
processes; in modern times, the microwave oven and prepared meals have made this
task much easier. Galleys are kitchens aboard ships or aircraft (although the
termgalley is also often used to refer to a railroad dining car's kitchen). On yachts,
galleys are often cramped, with one or two burners fueled by an LP gas bottle, but
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kitchens oncruise ships or large warships are comparable in every respect with
restaurants or canteen kitchens. On passenger airliners, the kitchen is reduced to a
mere pantry, the only function reminiscent of a kitchen is the heating of in-flight meals
delivered by a catering company. An extreme form of the kitchen occurs in space, e.g.,
aboard aSpace Shuttle (where it is also called the "galley") or the International Space
Station. The astronauts' food is generally completely prepared, dehydrated, and sealed
in plastic pouches, and the kitchen is reduced to a rehydration and heating module.

Outdoor areas in which food is prepared are generally not considered to be kitchens,
even though an outdoor area set up for regular food preparation, for instance
when camping, might be called an "outdoor kitchen". Military camps and similar
temporary settlements of nomads may have dedicated kitchen tents.

In schools where home economics (HE) or food technology (previously known as

"domestic science") are taught, there will be a series of kitchens with multiple equipment
(similar in some respects to laboratories) solely for the purpose of teaching. These will
consist of six to twelve workstations, each with their own oven, sink, and kitchen
utensils.
Kitchen types by region

A Tibetan kitchen

Japan
Kitchens in Japan are called Daidokoro ( 台 所 ; lit.
"kitchen"). Daidokoro is the place where food is
prepared in a Japanese house. Until the Meiji era, a
kitchen was also called kamado (かまど; lit. stove) and
there are many sayings in the Japanese language that involve kamado as it was
considered the symbol of a house and the term could even be used to mean "family" or
"household" (similar to the English word "hearth"). When separating a family, it was
called Kamadowowakeru, which means "divide the stove". Kamadowoyaburu (lit. "break
the stove") means that the family was bankrupt.

Kitchen utensil

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 An exhibit of a batterie de cuisine, from the beginning of the 20th century, at the MuséeCernuschi in Paris.

Biodegradable plastic utensils made frombioplastic

A kitchen utensil is a hand-held, typically

small tool or utensil that is used in the kitchen, for
food-related functions. A cooking utensil is a
utensil used in the kitchen for cooking. Other
names for the same thing, or subsets thereof,
derive from the word "ware", and describe kitchen
utensils from a merchandising (and functional)
point of view: kitchenware, wares for the kitchen; ovenware andbakeware, kitchen
utensils that are for use inside ovens and for baking;cookware, merchandise used for
cooking; and so forth.

A partially overlapping category of tools is that of eating utensils, which are tools used
for eating (c.f. the more general category of tableware). Some utensils are both kitchen
utensils and eating utensils. Cutlery (i.e. knives and other cutting implements) can be
used for both food preparation in a kitchen and as eating utensils when dining.
Other cutlery such as forks and spoons are both kitchen and eating utensils.

Other names used for various types of kitchen utensils, although not strictly denoting a
utensil that is specific to the kitchen, are according to the materials they are made of,
again using the "-ware" suffix, rather than their functions:earthenware, utensils made of
clay; silverware, utensils (both kitchen and dining) made of silver; glassware, utensils
(both kitchen and dining) made of glass; and so forth. These latter categorizations
include utensils — made of glass, silver, clay, and so forth — that are not necessarily
kitchen utensils.
Materials science
Benjamin Thompson noted at the start of the 18th century that kitchen utensils were
commonly made of copper, with various efforts made to prevent the copper from
reacting with food (particularly its acidic contents) at the temperatures used for cooking,

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including tinning, enamelling, and varnishing. He observed that iron had been used as a
substitute, and that some utensils were made of earthenware. By the turn of the 20th
century, Maria Parloa noted that kitchen utensils were made of (tinned or enamelled)
iron and steel, copper, nickel, silver, tin, clay, earthenware, and aluminum.The latter,
aluminium, became a popular material for kitchen utensils in the 20th century.
Copper
Copper has good thermal conductivity and copper utensils are both durable and
attractive in appearance. However, they are also comparatively heavier than utensils
made of other materials, require scrupulous cleaning to remove
poisonous tarnish compounds, and are not suitable for acidic foods
Iron
Iron is more prone to rusting than (tinned) copper. Cast iron kitchen utensils, in
particular, are however less prone to rust if, instead of being scoured to a shine after
use, they are simply washed with detergent and water and wiped clean with a cloth,
allowing the utensil to form a coat of (already corroded iron and other) material that then
acts to prevent further corrosion (a process known asseasoning). Furthermore, if an iron
utensil is solely used for frying or cooking with fat or oil, corrosion can be reduced by
never heating water with it, never using it to cook with water, and when washing it with
water to dry it immediately afterwards, removing all water. Since oil and water are
immiscible, since oils and fats are more covalent compounds, and since it is compounds
such as water that promote corrosion, eliminating as much contact with water reduces
corrosion. For some iron kitchen utensils, water is a particular problem, since it is very
difficult to dry them fully. In particular, iron egg-beaters or ice cream freezers are tricky
to dry, and the consequent rust if left wet will roughen them and possibly clog them
completely. When storing iron utensils for long periods, van Rensselaer recommended
coating them in non-salted (since salt is also an ionic compound) fat or paraffin.

Iron utensils have little problem with high cooking temperatures, are simple to clean as
they become smooth with long use, are durable and comparatively strong (i.e. not as
prone to breaking as, say, earthenware), and hold heat well. However, as noted, they
rust comparatively easily.
Earthenware and enamelware
Earthenware utensils suffer from brittleness when subjected to rapid large changes in
temperature, as commonly occur in cooking, and the glazing of earthenware often
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contains lead, which is poisonous. Thompson noted that as a consequence of this the
use of such glazed earthenware was prohibited by law in some countries from use in
cooking, or even from use for storing acidic foods. Van Rensselaer proposed in 1919
that one test for lead content in earthenware was to let a beaten egg stand in the utensil
for a few minutes and watch to see whether it became discolored, which is a sign that
lead might be present

In addition to their problems with thermal shock, enamelware utensils require careful

handling, as careful as for glassware, because they are prone to chipping. But enamel
utensils are not affected by acidic foods, are durable, and are easily cleaned. However,
they cannot be used with strong alkalis.

Earthenware, porcelain, and pottery utensils can be used for both cooking and serving
food, and so thereby save on washing-up of two separate sets of utensils. They are
durable, and (van Rensselaer notes) "excellent for slow, even cooking in even heat,
such as slow baking". However, they are comparatively unsuitable for cooking using a
direct heat, such as a cooking over a flame.
Aluminium
James Frank Breazeale in 1918 opined that aluminum "is without doubt the best
material for kitchen utensils", noting that it is "as far superior to enameled ware as
enameled ware is to the old-time iron or tin". He qualified his recommendation for
replacing worn out tin or enameled utensils with aluminum ones by noting that "old-
fashioned black iron frying pans and muffin rings, polished on the inside or worn smooth
by long usage, are, however, superior to aluminum ones".
Aluminum’s advantages over other materials for kitchen utensils is its good thermal
conductivity (which is approximately an order of magnitude greater than that of steel),
the fact that it is largely non-reactive with foodstuffs at low and high temperatures, its
lowtoxicity, and the fact that its corrosion products are white and so (unlike the dark
corrosion products of, say, iron) do not discolour food
that they happen to be mixed into during cooking.
However, its disadvantages are that it is easily
discoloured, can be dissolved by acidic foods (to a
comparatively small extent), and reacts to alkaline
soaps if they are used for cleaning a utensil.

33 Module 1
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 An exhibit of Israeli DefenceForceskitchen utensils at the Batey ha-Osef Museum in Tel Aviv.

In the European Union, the construction of kitchen utensils made of aluminium is

determined by two European standards: EN 601 (Aluminium and aluminium alloys —
Castings — Chemical composition of castings for use in contact with foodstuffs ) and EN
602 (Aluminium and aluminium alloys — Wrought products — Chemical composition of
semi-finished products used for the fabrication of articles for use in contact with
foodstuffs). These define maxima for the percentages (by mass) of impurities or added
elements present, other than aluminium, in such products, as follows:

Unalloyed aluminum

 iron and silicon: less than 1%

 chromium, manganese, nickel, zinc, titanium, tin: less than 0.1% each
 copper: less than 0.1% (or less than 0.2% if the proportions of chromium and
manganese both do not exceed 0.05%)
 other elements: less than 0.05%
Alloyed aluminium

 silicon: less than 13.5%

 iron: less than 2%
 copper: less than 0.6%
 manganese: less than 4%
 magnesium: less than 11% (less than 5% in pressure cooking utensils)
 chromium:less than 0.35%
 nickel: less than 3%
 zinc: less than 0.25%
 antimony: less than 0.2%
 tin: less than 0.1%
 strontium: less than 0.3%
 zirconium: less than 0.3%
 titanium: less than 0.3%
 other elements: less than 0.05% each, and less than 0.15% in total

Diversity and utility

34 Module 1
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 Various kitchen utensils. At top: a spice rack with jars
of mint, caraway, thyme, andsage. Lower: hanging from hooks; a small
pan, a meat fork, an icing spatula, a whole spoon, a slotted spoon, and a
perforated spatula.

Before the 19th century

"Of the culinary utensils of the ancients",
wrote MrsBeeton, "our knowledge is very limited; but
as the art of living, in every civilized country, is pretty
much the same, the instruments for cooking must, in a
great degree, bear a striking resemblance to one
another".

Archaeologists and historians have studied the kitchen utensils used in centuries past.
For example: In the Middle Eastern villages and towns of the middle first millennium AD,
historical and archaeological sources record that Jewish households generally had
stone measuring cups, a meyḥam (an wide-necked vessel for heating water),
a kederah(an unlidded pot-bellied cooking pot), a ilpas (a lidded stewpot/casserole pot
type of vessel used for stewing and steaming), yorah and kumkum (pots for heating
water), two types of teganon (frying pan) for deep and shallow frying, an iskutla (a glass
serving platter), a tamḥui (ceramic serving bowl), a keara (a bowl for bread), a kiton (a
canteen of cold water used to dilute wine), and a lagin (a wine decanter).

Ownership and types of kitchen utensils varied from household to household. Records
survive of inventories of kitchen utensils from London in the 14th century, in particular
the records of possessions given in the coroner's rolls. Very few such people owned any
kitchen utensils at all. In fact only seven convicted felons are recorded as having any.
One such, a murderer from 1339, is recorded as possessing only the one kitchen
utensil: a brass pot (one of the commonest such kitchen utensils listed in the records)
valued at three shillings. Similarly, in Minnesota in the second half of the 19th century,
John North is recorded as having himself made "a real nice rolling pin, and a pudding
stick" for his wife; one soldier is recorded as having a Civil War bayonet refashioned, by
a blacksmith, into a bread knife; whereas an immigrant Swedish family is recorded as
having brought with them "solid silver knives, forks, and spoons [...] Quantities of copper
and brass utensils burnished until they were like mirrors hung in rows"

35 Module 1
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19th century growth

The up-to-date kitchen fireproof ware in 1894

The 19th century, particularly in the United States, saw

an explosion in the number of kitchen utensils available
on the market, with many labour-saving devices being
invented and patented throughout the century. Maria
Parloa's Cook Book and Marketing Guide listed
a minimum of 139 kitchen utensils without which a
contemporary kitchen would not be considered
properly furnished. Parloa wrote that "the homemaker
will find [that] there is continually something new to be
bought".

A growth in the range of kitchen utensils available can

be traced through the growth in the range of utensils
recommended to the aspiring householder in cookbooks as the century progressed.
Earlier in the century, in 1828, Frances ByerleyParkes (Parkes 1828) had
recommended a smaller array of utensils. By 1858, Elizabeth H. Putnam, inMrs
Putnam's Receipt Book and Young Housekeeper's Assistant, wrote with the assumption
that her readers would have the "usual quantity of utensils", to which she added a list of
necessary items:

Copper saucepans, well lined, with covers, from three to six different sizes; a flat-
bottomed soup-pot; an upright gridiron; sheet-iron breadpans instead of tin; agriddle; a
tin kitchen; Hector's double boiler; a tin coffee-pot for boiling coffee, or a filter — either
being equally good; a tin canister to keep roasted and ground coffee in; a canister for
tea; a covered tin box for bread; one likewise for cake, or a drawer in your store-closet,
lined with zinc or tin; a bread-knife; a board to cut bread upon; a covered jar for pieces
of bread, and one for fine crumbs; a knife-tray; a spoon-tray; — the yellow ware is much
the stringest, or tin pans of different sizes are economical; — a stout tin pan for mixing
bread; a large earthen bowl for beating cake; a stone jug for yeast; a stone jar for soup
stock; a meat-saw; a cleaver; iron and wooden spoons; a wire sieve for sifting flour and
meal; a small hair sieve; a bread-board; a meat-board; a lignum vitae mortar,
and rolling-pin, &c.— Putnam 1858, p. 318

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MrsBeeton, in her Book of Household Management, wrote:

The following list, supplied by Messrs Richard & John Slack, 336, Strand, will show the
articles required for the kitchen of a family in the middle class of life, although it does not
contain all the things that may be deemed necessary for some families, and may
contain more than are required for others. As Messrs Slack themselves, however,
publish a useful illustrated catalogue, which may be had at their establishment gratis,
and which it will be found advantageous to consult by those about to furnish, it
supersedes the necessity of our enlarging that which we give:

1 Tea-kettle 6s. 6d. 1 Colander 1s. 6d. 1 Flour-box 1s. 0d.

1 Toasting-fork 1s. 0d. 3 Block-tin saucepans 3 Flat-irons 3s. 6d.

1 Bread-grater 1s. 0d. 5s. 9d. 2 Frying-pans 4s. 0d.

1 Pair of Brass 5 Iron Saucepans 12s. 0d. 1 Gridiron 2s. 0d.

  Candlesticks 3s. 6d. 1 Ditto and Steamer 1 Mustard-pot 1s. 0d.

1 Teapot and Tra
6s. 6d. 6s. 6d. 1 Salt-cellar 8d.
y

1 Bottle-jack 9s. 9d. 1 Large Boiling-pot 1 Pepper-box 6d.

6 Spoons 1s. 6d. 10s. 0d. 1 Pair of Bellows 2s. 0d.

2 Candlesticks 2s. 6d. 4 Iron Stewpans 8s. 9d. 3 Jelly-moulds 8s. 0d.

1 Candle-box 1s. 4d. 1 Dripping-pan and 1 Plate-basket 5s. 6d.

6 Knives & Forks 5s. 3d.   Stand 6s. 6d. 1 Cheese-toaster 1s. 10d.

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 2 Sets of Skewers 1s. 0s. 1 Dustpan 1s. 0d. 1 Coal-shovel 2s. 6d.

1 Meat-chopper 1s. 9d. 1 Fish and Egg-slice 1 Wood Meat-screen

1 Cinder-sifter 1s. 3d. 1s. 9d. 30s. 0d.

1 Coffee-pot 2s. 3d. 2 Fish-kettles 10s. 0d.

The Set £8 11s. 1d.

— Isabella Mary Beeton, The Book of Household Management

Parloa, in her 1880 cookbook, took two pages to list all of the essential kitchen utensils
for a well-furnished kitchen, a list running to 93 distinct sorts of item. [19] The 1882 edition
ran to 20 pages illustrating and describing the various utensils for a well-furnished
kitchen. Sarah Tyson Rorer's 1886 Philadelphia Cook Book (Rorer 1886) listed more
than 200 kitchen utensils that a well-furnished kitchen should have.
"Labour-saving" utensils generating more labour
However, many of these utensils were expensive and not affordable by the majority of
householders.[17] Some people considered them unnecessary, too. James Frank
Breazeale decried the explosion in patented "labour-saving" devices for the modern
kitchen—promoted in exhibitions and advertised in "Household Guides" at the start of
the 20th century—, saying that "the best way for the housewife to peel a potato, for
example, is in the old-fashioned way, with a knife, and not with a patented potato
peeler". Breazeale advocated simplicity over dishwashing machines "that would have
done credit to a moderate sized hotel", and noted that the most useful kitchen utensils
were "the simple little inexpensive conveniences that work themselves into every day
use", giving examples, of utensils that were simple and cheap but indispensable once
obtained and used, of a stiff brush for cleaning saucepans, a sink strainer to prevent
drains from clogging, and an ordinary wooden spoon.

The "labour-saving" devices didn't necessarily save labour, either. While the advent of
mass-produced standardized measuring instruments permitted even householders with
little to no cooking skills to follow recipes and end up with the desired result and the
advent of many utensils enabled "modern" cooking, on a stove or range rather than at

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floor level with a hearth, they also operated to raise expectations of what families would
eat. So while food was easier to prepare and to cook, ordinary householders at the
same time were expected to prepare and to cook more complex and harder-to-prepare
meals on a regular basis. The labour-saving effect of the tools was cancelled out by the
increased labour required for what came to be expected as the culinary norm in the
average household.

List of food preparation utensils

An assortment of utensils

A kitchen utensil is a hand-held, typically small tool that

is designed for food-related functions. Food
preparation utensils are a specific type of kitchen
utensil, designed for use in the preparation of food.
Some utensils are both food preparation utensils
andeating utensils; for instance some implements
of cutlery – especially knives – can be used for both food preparation in a kitchen and
as eating utensils when dining.

In the Western world, utensil invention accelerated in the 19th and 20th centuries. It was
fuelled in part by the emergence of technologies such as the kitchen
stove andrefrigerator, but also by a desire to save time in the kitchen, in response to the
demands of modern lifestyles.

List of food preparation utensils

Purpose in food
Name Alternative names Design Image
preparation

39 Module 1
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 To remove the core and
Apple corer pips from apples and
similar fruits

To cut apple and similar

Apple fruits easily while
Cf. peeler
Cutter simultaneously removing
the core and pips.

An implement
resembling a
simplepipette,
consisting of a
tube to hold the
liquid, and a
rubber top
which makes use
of a
partial vacuum t
Used during cooking to
o control the
Baster — cover meat in its own
liquid's intake
juices or with a sauce.
and release. The
process of
drizzling the
liquid over meat
is calledbasting –
when a pastry
brush is used in
place of a baster,
it is known as
abasting brush.

Biscuit Biscuit mould, Shaping biscuit dough Generally made

cutter Cookie  cutter, of metal or
Cookie  mould plastic, with
fairly sharp
edges to cut
through dough.
Some biscuit
cutters simply
cut through
dough that has
been rolled flat,

40 Module 1
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 others also
imprint or mould
the dough's
surface.

It consists of a
cylinder with a
plunger on one
end which is
used
to extrude cooki
e dough through
a small hole at
the other end.
A device for making Typically the
Biscuit
Cookie press pressedcookies such cookie press has
press
asspritzgebäck. interchangeable
perforated
plates with holes
in different
shapes, such as a
star shape or a
narrow slit to
extrude the
dough in
ribbons.

Commonly used to create

a hard layer of
Blow torch Blowtorch, blowlamp
caramelized sugar in
a crème brûlée.[2]

Boil over Milk watcher, Preventing liquids from A disc with a

preventer Milk  guard, Pot minder boiling over outside of the raised rim,
pot designed to
ensure an even
distribution of
temperature
throughout the

41 Module 1
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 pot. This
preventing
bubbles from
forming in
liquids such as
milk, or water
which contains
starch (for
instance if used
to cook pasta).
Can be made of
metal, glass or
ceramic
materials.

Bottle Twists the metal cap off of

opener a bottle

A round, open
topped
container,
capable of
holding liquid.
To hold food, including Materials used
Bowl — food that is ready to be to make bowls
served vary
considerably,
and include
wood, glass and
ceramic
materials.

Bread knife — To cut soft bread A serrated blade

made of metal,
and long enough
to slice across a
large loaf of
bread. Using a
sawing motion,
instead of
pushing force as
with most
knives, it is
possible to slice
the loaf without

42 Module 1
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 squashing it.

Generally made
of glass or
porcelain to
absorb heat,
Browning Browning plate, Used in a microwave oven
which helps —
tray Browning  bowl to help turn food brown
colour the layer
of food in
contact with its
surface.

Butter Used to produce

curler decorativebutter shapes.

This utensil
typically features
a thin edge to
assist with
To cut slices in pies or slicing, and a
Cake and
Cake  shovel, pie  cutter cakes, and then transfer to large face, to
pie server
a plate or container hold the slice
whilst
transferring to a
plate, bowl or
other container.

Cheese
Used to cut cheese.
knife

A gauzed cotton
cloth, used to
remove whey
from cheese
Cheeseclot To assist in the formation
curds, and to
h of cheese
help hold the
curds together
as the cheese is
formed.

43 Module 1
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 Originally used to slice
large cuts of beef, it is now
Chef's knife
the general utility knife for
most Western cooks.

Used for the removal of

Cherry
Olive stoner pits (stones) from cherries
pitter
or olives.

Straining substances such

as custards, soups and
Chinoise Chinois A conical sieve
sauces, or to dust food
with powder

A bowl-shaped
container with
holes, typically
made from
plastic or metal.
Used for draining It differs from a
Colander substances cooked in sieve due to its
water larger holes,
allowing larger
pieces of food,
such as pasta, to
be drained
quickly.

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 Pierces and removes a
Corkscrew
cork from a bottle.

A clamping
device, similar in
design to a
Crab Used to crack the shell of a nutcracker but
Lobster cracker —
cracker crab or lobster larger, with
ridges on the
inside to grip the
shell.[2]

Usually smaller
and lighter than
Cutting A portable board on which butcher's blocks,
Cutting board
board food can be cut. generally made
from wood or
plastic.

Most dough
scrapers consist
of handle wide
To shape or cut dough,
Dough enough to be
Bench  scraper, Scraper and remove dough from a
scraper held in one or
worksurface
two hands, and
an equally wide,
flat, steel face.

Egg piercer Pierces the air pocket of

an eggshell with a small
needle to keep the shell
from cracking during hard-
boiling. If both ends of the
shell are pierced, the egg
can be blown out while

45 Module 1
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 preserving the shell (for
crafts).

Holds a raw egg, and is

Egg placed inside a pot of
poacher boiling water to poach an
egg.

A slotted spoon-like
Egg utensil used to separate
separator the yolk of an egg from
the egg white.

Consists of a
slotted dish for
holding the egg
Slicing peeled, hard-boiled and a hinged
Egg slicer —
eggs quickly and evenly. plate of wires or
blades that can
be closed to
slice.[3]

46 Module 1
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 Historical
designs range
considerably,
from hourglasse
s, to mechanical
or electronic
Used to correctly time the
Egg timer timers, to
process of boiling eggs.
electronic
devices which
sense the water
temperature and
calculate the
boiling rate.

A long, narrow knife with a

finely serrated blade, used
Fillet knife
to slice fine filet cuts of
fish or other meat.

Used to remove the scales

Fish Scaler Urokotori from the skin of fish
before cooking

Used for lifting or turning

Fish slice Spatula, turner
food during cooking

Blends flour with other

Flour sifter ingredients and aerates it
in the process.[4]

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 Typically consists
of a bowl, a
plate with holes
like a colander,
and a crank with
Used to mash or sieve soft
Food mill a bent metal
foods.
blade which
crushes the food
and forces it
through the
holes.

Used to channel liquid or A pipe with a

fine-grained substances wide, conical
Funnel
into containers with a mouth and a
small opening.[2] narrow stem.

Presses garlic cloves to

create a puree,
Garlic press
functioning like a
specialized ricer.

Finely serrated knife for

Grapefruit separating segments of
knife grapefruit or other citrus
fruit.[5]

Grater Cheese grater, Shredder

Gravy Gravy separator A small pouring jug that

strainer separates roast

48 Module 1
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 meatdrippings from
melted fat, for making
gravy.[2]

Herb Chops or minces raw

—
chopper herbs.

A ladle is a type of serving

Ladle spoon used for soup, stew,
or other foods.

Used to slash the tops of

Lame bread loaves
in artisanbaking.

A juicer with a fluted peak

at the end of a short
Lemon
handle, where a half a
reamer
lemon is pressed to
release the juice.

Operated by
pressing the fruit
A juicer, similar in function
Lemon against a fluted
to a lemon reamer, with
squeezer peak to release
an attached bowl.
the juice into the
bowl.

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 A long-handled, narrow
Lobster pick, used to pull meat out
Lobster fork
pick of narrow legs and other
parts of a lobster or crab.[2]

Mandoline

Mated
colander
pot

Traditionally
comes in an 8
fluid ounce size,
Measuring Measuring cup,Measurin
it is used to
jug g jar
measure either
dry or liquid
ingredients.[6]

Typically sold in a set that

measures dry or wet
Measuring ingredients in amounts
spoon from 1/4 teaspoon (1.25
ml) up to 1 tablespoon (15
ml).[7]

50 Module 1
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 Operated with a hand-
Meat crank, this presses meat
Mincer
grinder through a chopping
or pureeingattachment.

Meat
tenderiser

Meat
thermomet
er

Small scoop used to make

Melon
smooth balls of melon or
baller
other fruit, or potatoes.[5]

To finely and consistently

Mezzaluna chop/mince foods,
especially herbs.

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 Generally made
from either
porcelain or
wood, the
mortar is shaped
as a bowl. The
pestle, generally
Mortar and To crush food, releasing
Molcajete shaped like a
pestle flavours and aromas
small club, is
used to
forcefully
squeeze
ingredients such
as herbs against
the mortar.[8]

To crack open the hard

Nutcracker
outer shell of various nuts.

Nutmeg A small, specialized grating

grater blade for nutmeg.

To protect hands from

Oven glove Oven mitt burning when handling
hot pots or trays.

To evenly dispense soft

Pastry bag substances (doughs, icings,
fillings, etc.).

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 Cuts into pastry
ingredients, such as flour
and butter, for blending
Pastry and mixing while they are
blender in a bowl. It is made of
wires curved into a
crescent shape and held
by a rigid handle.[4]

Some brushes
have wooden
handles and
natural or
Pastry To spread oil, juices, sauce plastic bristles,
Basting brush
brush or glaze on food. whilst others
have metal or
plastic handles
andsilicone bristl
es.

Cuts straight or crimped

Pastry
lines through dough for
wheel
pastry or pasta.

Peel Pizza shovel

Peeler Potato  peeler

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 Burr  mill, burr  grinder,
Pepper mill
pepper grinder

Pie bird Pie  vent, pie funnel

Pizza cutter Pizza slicer

Potato
masher

Potato
ricer

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Pot-holder

Used for dejointing and

cutting uncooked poultry;
Poultry
reinforced with a spring,
shears
they have one serrated
blade and pointed tips.

Presses very smooth

vegetable mashes
Ricer
orpurees, operates similar
to a meat grinder/mincer.

Roller
docker

A long, rounded wooden

Rolling pin or marble tool rolled
across dough to flatten it.

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Salt shaker

Kitchen scales,
Scales
Weighing  scales

Scissors Kitchen scissors

Scoop Ice  cream scoop

Shellfish
—
scraper

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 Sieve Sifter, strainer

Slotted
Skimmer
spoon

Spatula

For removing hot food A wide shallow

sieves, spoon sieves,
from a liquid or skimming wire-mesh
Spider spoon skimmers, or
foam off when making basket with a
basket skimmers
broths long handle

Sugar Measuring the

thermomet Candy thermometer temperature, or stage, of
er sugar

Tamis Drum sieve Used as a strainer, grater, A tamis has a

or food mill. cylindrical edge,
made
ofmetal or wood
, that supports a
disc of
fine metal, nylon
,
or horsehair mes
h. Ingredients
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 are pushed
through the
mesh.

Designs vary
considerably;
the earliest tin
openers were
Tin opener Can opener To open tins or cans
knives, adapted
to open a tin as
easily as
possible.

Tomato Used to slice through A small serrated

knife tomatoes. knife.

For gripping and lifting.

Usually used to move
items on hot surfaces, Two long arms
Tongs such as barbecues, or to with a pivot near
select small or grouped the handle.
items, such as sugar cubes
or salad portions.

Trussing For pinning, or sewing up,

needle poultry and other meat.[9]

Most whisks
consist of a long,
To
narrow handle
Balloon whisk, gravy blend ingredientssmooth,
with a series of
whisk, flat whisk, flat coil or to incorporate air into a
Whisk wire loops
whisk, bell whisk, and mixture, in a process
joined at the
other types. known
end. Whisks are
as whisking orwhipping
also made
frombamboo.

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 Wooden For mixing and stirring
spoon during cooking and baking.

A handle and a
curved metal
end, the top of
For
which is
Zester obtaining zest fromlemons 
perforated with
and other citrus fruit.[5]
a row of round
holes with
.
sharpened rims

Cookware and Bakeware

Various baking pans

Cookware and bakeware are types of food

preparation containers commonly found in a kitchen.
Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as
saucepans and frying pans, intended for use on
a stove or range cooktop. Bakeware comprises
cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven.
Some utensils are both cookware and bakeware.

The choice of material for cookware and bakeware

items has a significant effect on the item's
performance (and cost), particularly in terms of
thermal conductivity and how much food sticks to the

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item when in use. Some choices of material also require special pre-preparation of the
surface - known as seasoning - before they are used for food preparation.

Both the cooking pot and lid handles can be made of the same material but will mean
that when picking up or touching either of these parts oven gloves will need to be worn.
In order to avoid this, handles can be made of non heat conducting materials for
example Bakelite, plastic or wood. It is best to avoid hollow handles because they are
difficult to clean or to dry. A good cooking pot design has an 'overcook edge' this is
where the lid lays on (that way the lid is laying somewhat inside the cooking pot and not
on top of it). The lid has a dripping edge that avoids condensation fluid from dripping off
when handling the lid (taking it off and holding it 45°) or putting it down.

History
Ancient Greek casserole and brazier, 6th/4th century BC,
exhibited in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in
theStoa of Attalus.

Two cooking pots (Grapen) from medieval Hamburg circa 1200-

1400 AD

Kitchen in the Uphagen House in Long Market,Gdańsk, Poland

The history of cooking vessels before the

development of pottery is minimal due to the

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limited archaeological evidence. The earliest pottery vessels, dating from 19,2000–
20,000 BP, were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, China. The pottery may
have been used as cookware, manufactured by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University
archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that "When you look at the pots, you can see that
they were in a fire." It is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on
methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used
by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. In addition to exposing
food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers it is possible to cover the food
with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result.
Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines.

Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to
natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, heated stones could be placed in a
water-filled vessel to raise its temperature (for example, a leaf-lined pit or
the stomachfrom animals killed by hunters). In many locations the shells of turtles or
largemollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed
at the end with clay provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of
theTehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a
hearth as early as 7000 BC.

According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, native American cooking basketsused by

the Zuni (Zuñi) developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels.
He reported witnessing cooking basket use byHavasupai in 1881. Roasting baskets
covered with clay would be filled withwood coals and the product to be roasted. When
the thus hardened clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay
roasting pan in itself. This indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd
casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in many other cultures,
native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking
baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals. Native Americans,
both in the East and in the West, would form a basket from large leaves to boil water,
according to historian and novelistLouisL'Amour. As long as the flames did not reach
above the level of water in the basket, the leaves would not burn through.

The development of pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a

variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and
later ceramic glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The
earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or
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other apparatus, or even be placed directly into a low fire or coal bed as in the case of
the pipkin. Ceramics (including stoneware and glass) conduct poorly, however, so
ceramic pots must cook over relatively low heats and over long periods of time (most
modern ceramic pots will crack if used on the stovetop, and are only intended for the
oven). Even after metal pots have come into widespread use, earthenware pots are still
preferred among the less well-off, globally, due to their low production cost.

The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made

from metal to be manufactured, although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to
the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new
development in cookware, with the standard Medieval kitchen utilizing a cauldron and a
shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks, with a spitemployed for roasting.

By the 17th century, it was common for a Western kitchen to contain a number of
skillets, baking pans, a kettle and several pots, along with a variety of pot hooks and
trivets. In the American colonies, these items would commonly be produced by a
localblacksmith from iron while brass or copper vessels were common
in Europe and Asia. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries
allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminum to be
economically produced.
Cookware materials
Metal
Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need
to conduct heat well, but also need to bechemically unreactive so that they do not alter
the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too
reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot
may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another.

Aluminium

An anodized aluminium sauté pan

Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal

conductivity. It is resistant to many forms of corrosion.

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Aluminium is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms, and may be
physically combined with other metals (see below).

Sheet aluminium is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal it may
be alloyed with magnesium, copper, or bronze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminium
is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plates, and cake or muffin pans. Deep or
shallow pots may be formed from sheet aluminium.

Cast aluminium can produce a thicker product than sheet aluminium, and is appropriate
for irregular shapes and thicknesses. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the
casting process, cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminium.
It is also more expensive. Accordingly, cast aluminium cookware has become less
common. It is used for Dutch ovens, heavyweight baking pans such as bundt pans, and
wares such as ladles or handles where low thermal conductivity is desired.

Anodized aluminium has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened

by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for
sauté pans, stockpots, roasters, and Dutch ovens.

Uncoated and un-anodized aluminium can react with acidic foods to change the taste of
the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes
may cause oxidation of non-anodized aluminium.

Aluminium exposure has been suggested as a risk factor for neurodegenerative

diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. The Rondeau, Commenges et al. article cited
below states "These findings support the hypothesis that aluminium in drinking water is
a risk factor for AD." (Alzheimer's disease)" The Alzheimer's Association states that
"studies have failed to confirm any role for aluminium in causing Alzheimer's. [Today]
few [experts] believe that everyday sources of aluminium pose any threat.

Copper saucepans, Vaux-le-Vicomtecastle.

Copper
In classical Western cooking, pots are formed with
thick copper sheets with a thin inner layer of tin. The
copper provides the best thermal conductivity of
common metals and therefore results in
even heating (see: Copper in heat exchangers). 

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Copper is reactive with acidic foods, which can result in copper toxicity. This was
discovered in the new world when tomatoes were cooked in old world copper pots. A tin
lining prevents copper from reacting with acidic foods. Lead-free and cadmium-free tin
linings are susceptible to tin pest. In some cases unlined copper is desirable, for
instance in the preparation of meringues and foams. Copper pots are expensive, require
re-tinning and, when made with thick copper plates, are heavy. With modern
metallurgical techniques, such as cladding, copper is incorporated into the constructions
of cookware, often as an enclosed heat spreading disk (see below).

Cast iron
Cast iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at
temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also
withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron
pans ideal forsearing. Being a reactive material, cast
iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods
such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods
(such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black.

Cast iron is a porous material that rusts easily. As a result, it typically

requiresseasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of oxidized fat over the
iron that coats and protects the surface, and prevents sticking.

Enameled cast iron cookware was developed in the 1920s. In 1934, the French
company Cousances designed the enameled cast iron Doufeu to reduce excessive
evaporation and scorching in cast iron Dutch ovens. Modeled on old braising pans in
which glowing charcoal was heaped on the lids (to mimic two-fire ovens), the Doufeu
has a deep recess in its lid which instead is filled with ice cubes. This keeps the lid at a
lower temperature than the pot bottom. Further, little notches on the inside of the lid
allow the moisture to collect and drop back into the food during the cooking. Although
the Doufeu (literally, "gentlefire") can be used in an oven (without the ice, as a
casserole), it is chiefly designed for stove top use.

Stainless steel

Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of

11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium
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with either 8% nickel, called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used
for kitchen equipment. Stainless steel's virtues are resistance to corrosion, non-
reactivity with either alkaline or acidic foods, and resistance to scratching and denting.
Stainless steel's drawbacks for cooking use is that it is a relatively poor heat conductor
and contains chromium; a toxic metal considered unsafe when ingested as metal
particles. Since the material does not adequately spread the heat itself, stainless steel
cookware is generally made as a cladding of stainless steel on both sides of an
aluminum core or an aluminum/copper/aluminum core to conduct the heat across all
sides, thereby reducing "hot spots", or with a disk of copper or aluminum on just the
base to conduct the heat across the base, with possible "hot spots" at the sides.

Carbon steel

Carbon steel cookware can be rolled or hammered into

very thin sheets of material, while still maintaining high
strength and heat resistance. This allows for rapid and
high heating. Carbon steel does not conduct heat as
well as other materials, but this may be an advantage
for woks and paella pans, where one portion of the pan
is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the
rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use. Rub a fat on the cooking
surface only and heat the cookware over the stovetop. The process can be repeated if
needed. Over time, the cooking surface will become dark and nonstick. Carbon steel will
easily rust if not seasoned and should be stored seasoned to avoid rusting. Carbon
steel is often used for woks and crêpe pans.

Non-stick

Teflon coated frying pan

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Steel or aluminum cooking pans can be coated with a substance such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) in order to minimize food sticking to the pan surface.

There are advantages and disadvantages to such a coating. Coated pans are easier to
clean than most non-coated pans, and require little or no additional oil or fat to prevent
sticking.

On the other hand, some sticking is needed to cause sucs to form, so a non-stick pan
cannot be used where a pan sauce is desired. And non-stick pans must not be
overheated (see below). Nonstick coatings tend to degrade over time. In order to
preserve the coating, it is important never to use metal implements or harsh scouring
pads or chemical abrasives when cleaning.

There is a potential danger in the use of PTFE-based coatings: while decomposition of

the coating does not occur at normal cooking temperatures (below about 465 °F/240
°C),overheating, particularly likely when heating an empty pan,can produce
decomposition products that are toxic to humansand fatal to birds.

The main difference in coating quality is due to the formulas of the liquid coating, the
thickness of each layer and the number of layers usedHigher-quality non-stick cookware
use powdered ceramic or titanium mixed with the non-stick material to strengthen them
and to make them more resistant to abrasion and deterioration. Some non-stick
coatings contain hardening agents. Some coatings are high enough in quality that they
pass the strict standards of the National Sanitation Foundation for approval for
restaurant use.
Coated and composite cookware
Enameled cast iron cooking vessels are made of cast iron covered with a porcelain
surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of
cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface.

Enamel over steel

The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon
steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other
pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the
rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel.Enamel over steel is ideal for large
stockpots and for other large pans used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its

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light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used
while camping.

Clad aluminum or copper

Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material,
such as copper or aluminum, covered by a non-reactive material, such as stainless
steel. Some pans feature a copper or aluminum layer that extends over the entire pan
rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base.

Aluminum pans are typically clad on both their inside and the outside surfaces,
providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the
cooktop. Copper is typically clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive
copper exposed on the outside of the pan.

Some high-end cookware uses a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the
cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and heat diffusion, and a
thin layer of copper on the outside of the pot that provides additional diffusion and the
"look" of a copper pot. This provides much of the functionality of tinned-copper pots for
a fraction of the price.
Non-metallic cookware

Silicone food steamer to be placed in a pot of boiling water.

Silicone ladles.

Non-metallic cookware can be used in both

conventional and microwave ovens. Non-metallic
cookware typically can't be used on the stovetop, but
some kinds of ceramic cookware, for
example Corningware and Pyroflam, are an exception.

Ceramics

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Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Some
unglazed ceramics, such as terra cotta, have a porous surface that can hold water or
other liquids during the cooking process, adding moisture in the form of steam to the
food. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles have contained high levels
of lead, which can possess health risks. A lot of ceramic pottery can be placed on fire
directly.

Glass
Borosilicate glass is safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food
to be seen during the cooking process. However, it can't be used on a stovetop, as it
cannot cope with stovetop temperatures.

Glass-ceramic 
Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware in the USA and
Pyroflam in Europe, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic
cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too
rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their
near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion makes them almost entirely immune
to thermal shock.
Stone 
a natural stone, or a stone-like substitute can be used to diffuse heat for indirect
grilling or baking, as in a baking stone or pizza stone, or the French pierrade.
Silicone
Silicone bakeware is light, flexible, and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 675
°F (360°C). It melts around 930°F (500°C), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility
is advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material is not to
be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware,
which is not suitable for baking.
Types of cookware and bakeware
The size and shape of a cooking vessel is typically determined by how it will be used.
Cooking vessels are typically referred to as "pots" and "pans," but there is great
variation in their actual shapes. Most cooking vessels are roughly cylindrical.

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Cookware
"Saucepan" redirects here. For the unofficial Australian astronomic term, see Pavo (constellation).

"Caldero" redirects here. For the geological term, see Caldera.

A Pyrex chicken roaster

Römertopf

A Passover brownie cake baked in a Wonder

Pot.

Large and small skillets

Electric griddle with temperature control

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 A copper saucepot (stainless lined, with cast iron handles)

Angel Food Cake pan.

A springform pan with pizza

A gugelhupf from Alsace,Unterlinden Museum


Braising pans and roasting pans (also known
as braisers and roasters) are large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook
a roast (chicken, beef, or pork). They typically have two loop or tab handles, and
may have a cover. Roasters are usually made of heavy gauge metal so that they
may be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other
cooking vessels, roasters are usually oblong oroval. There is no sharp boundary
between braisers and roasters - the same pan, with or without a cover, can be
used for both functions. In Europe, a clay roaster

(Swedish:Lergryta, German: Römertopf, Slovene: Rimski lonec) is still popular

because it allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve
flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 minutes before use is
a notable drawback.

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 Casserole pans (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and Dutch ovens, and
many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their
material, casseroles can be used in the oven or on the stovetop. Casseroles are
commonly made of glazed ceramics or pyrex.

 Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with a heavy lid, designed to re-
create oven conditions on the stovetop (or campfire). They can be used
for stews, braised meats, soups, and a large variety of other dishes that benefit
from low heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron, and
are measured by volume.

 A Wonder Pot is an Israeli invention that acts as a dutch oven but is made of
aluminum. It consists of three parts: an aluminum pot shaped like a Bundt pan, a
hooded cover perforated with venting holes, and a thick, round, metal disc with a
center hole that is placed between the Wonder Pot and the flame to disperse
heat.

 Frying pans, frypans, or skillets provide a large flat heating surface and

shallow sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with a gentle, rolling slope are
sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let
fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally
measured by diameter (20–30 cm).

 Spiders are skillets with three thin legs to keep them above an open fire.
Ordinary flat-bottomed skillets are also sometimes called spiders, though the
term has fallen out of general use.

 Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling, and making pan breads
(such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis, and crepes). Traditional iron
griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate
and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover
two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area

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 that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves
enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like
frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (20–30 cm).

 In Scotland, griddles are referred to as girdles. In some Spanish speaking

countries, a similar pan is referred to as a comal. Crepe pans are similar to
griddles, but are usually smaller, and made of a thinner metal.

 Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be

permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate.

 Saucepans (or just "pots") are vessels with vertical sides about the same height
as their diameter, used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one
long handle. Larger pots of the same shape generally have two handles close to
the sides of the pot (so they can be lifted with both hands), and are called sauce-
pots or soup pots (3–12 liters). Saucepans and saucepots are measured by
volume (usually 1–8 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape,
they do not have the same heat capacity characteristics. Very small saucepans
used for heating milk are referred to as milk pans, such saucepans usually have
a lip for pouring the heated milk.
 Ironically, the saucepan is not the ideal vessel to use for making sauces. It is
more efficient to use saucepans with sloping sides, called Windsor pans, or
saucepans with rounded sides, called sauciers. These provide quicker
evaporation than straight sided pans, and make it easier to stir a sauce while
reducing.

 Sauté pans, used for sauteing, have a large surface area and low sides to permit
steam to escape and allow the cook to toss the food. The word "sauté" comes
from the French verb "sauter", meaning to jump. Saute pans often have straight
vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.

 Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameter. This
allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without reducing too much.

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 Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large
variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a
banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and an all-metal stockpot
usually called a caldero is used in Hispanic cultures to make rice.

 Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels with one or two handles at or near

the rim. This shape allows a small pool of cooking oil in the center of the wok to
be heated to a high heat using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the
wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western
world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can actually be used
for anything from steaming to deep frying.

Bake ware
Bake ware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of
different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and loaf pans.

 Cake pans (or cake tins in the UK) include square pans, round pans, and
speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and spring form pans often used
for baking cheesecake. Another type of cake pan is a muffin tin, which can hold
multiple smaller cakes.
 Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and jelly-roll pans are bake ware with large flat
bottoms.

 Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided pans specifically designed for baking pies.

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 Learning Outcome # 1
CLEAN SANITIZE AND STORE EQUIPMENT

Nominal Duration: 4 hours

Assessment Criteria:
1. Chemicals and clean potable water are selected and used for cleaning
and/or sanitizing kitchen equipment utensils, and working surfaces
2. Equipment and/or utensils are cleaned and/or sanitized safely using
clean/potable water and according to manufacturer’s instructions
3. Clean equipment and utensils are stored or stacked safely in the
designated place
4. Cleaning equipment and supplies are used safely in accordance with
manufacturer’s instructions
5. Cleaning equipment are assembled and disassembled safely
6. Cleaning equipment are stored safely in the designated position and area

Conditions/Resources

Equipment Surfaces Supplies

 Kitchen utensils  Walls Chemical dispensers

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  Pots, pans, dishes  Floors
 Food storage Containers  Shelves Supplies
 Chopping boards  Benches and working surfaces  Paper towels
 Garbage bins  Ovens, stoves, cooking  Cleaning agents
equipment and appliances  Sanitizers
 Cold storage equipment
 Store rooms and cupboards

Contents:
1. Various types and uses of chemicals and equipment for cleaning and sanitizing
2. Occupational health and safety requirements for bending, lifting, carrying and using equipment’s.
3. Logical and time-efficient work flow
4. Environmental-friendly products and practices in relation to kitchen cleaning Sanitation and
cross-contamination issues related to food handling and preparation

Actual Demonstration with Oral Questioning:

1. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and techniques
2. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
3. Waste management and disposal procedures and practices

Institutional Assessment:
1. Assessment may be done in the workplace or in a simulated workplace
setting (assessment centers)
2. Assessment activities are carried out through an accredited
assessment center

Information sheet 1.1-1

Cleaning and sanitizing all food preparation and presentation areas in

accordance with food safety and occupational health and safety regulations

Cleaning and Sanitizing

Since cleaning and sanitizing may be the most important aspects of a sanitation
program, sufficient time should be given to outline proper procedures and parameters.
Detailed procedures must be developed for all food-product contact surfaces
(equipment, utensils, etc.) as well as for non-product surfaces such as non-product
portions of equipment, overhead structures, shields, walls, ceilings, lighting devices,
refrigeration units and heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, and
anything else which could impact food safety.

Cleaning frequency must be clearly defined for each process line (i.e., daily, after
production runs, or more often if necessary). The type of cleaning required must also be
identified.

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The objective of cleaning and sanitizing food contact surfaces is to remove food
(nutrients) that bacteria need to grow, and to kill those bacteria that are present. It is
important that the clean, sanitized equipment and surfaces drain dry and are stored dry
so as to prevent bacteria growth. Necessary equipment (brushes, etc.) must also be
clean and stored in a clean, sanitary manner.

Cleaning/sanitizing procedures must be evaluated for adequacy through evaluation and

inspection procedures. Adherence to prescribed written procedures (inspection, swab
testing, direct observation of personnel) should be continuously monitored, and records
maintained to evaluate long-term compliance.

The correct order of events for cleaning/sanitizing of food product contact surfaces is as
follows:

1. Rinse
2. Clean
3. Rinse
4. Sanitize.

Cleaning

Cleaning is the complete removal of food soil using appropriate detergent chemicals
under recommended conditions. It is important that personnel involved have a working
understanding of the nature of the different types of food soil and the chemistry of its
removal.

Cleaning Methods

Equipment can be categorized with regard to cleaning method as follows:

 Mechanical Cleaning. Often referred to as clean-in-place (CIP). Requires no

disassembly or partial disassembly.
 Clean-out-of-Place (COP). Can be partially disassembled and cleaned in
specialized COP pressure tanks.
 Manual Cleaning. Requires total disassembly for cleaning and inspection.

Sanitization

It is important to differentiate and define certain terminology:

 Sterilize refers to the statistical destruction and removal of all living organisms.

 Disinfect refers to inanimate objects and the destruction of all vegetative cells
(not spores).
 Sanitize refers to the reduction of microorganisms to levels considered safe from
a public health viewpoint.
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Appropriate and approved sanitization procedures are processes, and, thus, the
duration or time as well as the chemical conditions must be described. The official
definition (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) of sanitizing for food product
contact surfaces is a process which reduces the contamination level by 99.999% (5
logs) in 30 sec.

The official definition for non-product contact surfaces requires a contamination

reduction of 99.9% (3 logs). The standard test organisms used are Staphylococcus
aureus and Escherichia coli.

General types of sanitization include the following:

 Thermal Sanitization involves the use of hot water or steam for a specified

temperature and contact time.
 Chemical Sanitization involves the use of an approved chemical sanitizer at a
specified concentration and contact time.

Water Chemistry and Quality

Water comprises approximately 95-99% of cleaning and sanitizing solutions. Water

functions to do the following:

 carry the detergent or the sanitizer to the surface

 carry soils or contamination from the surface.

The impurities in water can drastically alter the effectiveness of a detergent or a

sanitizer. Water hardness is the most important chemical property with a direct effect on
cleaning and sanitizing efficiency. (Other impurities can affect the food contact surface
or may affect the soil deposit properties or film formation.)

Water pH ranges generally from pH 5 to 8.5. This range is of no serious consequence to

most detergents and sanitizers. However, highly alkaline or highly acidic water may
require additional buffering agents.

Water can also contain significant numbers of microorganisms. Water used for cleaning
and sanitizing must be potable and pathogen-free. Treatments and sanitization of water
may be required prior to use in cleaning regimes. Water impurities that affect cleaning
functions are presented in Table 1.

Cleaning
Properties of Food Soils

Food soil is generally defined as unwanted matter on food-contact surfaces. Soil is

visible or invisible. The primary source of soil is from the food product being handled.
However, minerals from water residue and residues from cleaning compounds
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contribute to films left on surfaces. Microbiological biofilms also contribute to the soil
buildup on surfaces.

Since soils vary widely in composition, no one detergent is capable of removing all
types. Many complex films contain combinations of food components, surface oil or
dust, insoluble cleaner components, and insoluble hard-water salts. These films vary in
their solubility properties depending upon such factors as heat effect, age, dryness,
time, etc.

It is essential that personnel involved have an understanding of the nature of the soil to
be removed before selecting a detergent or cleaning regime. The rule of thumb is that
acid cleaners dissolve alkaline soils (minerals) and alkaline cleaners dissolve acid soils
and food wastes. Improper use of detergents can actually "set" soils, making them more
difficult to remove (e.g., acid cleaners can precipitate protein). Many films and biofilms
require more sophisticated cleaners that are amended with oxidizing agents (such as
chlorinated detergents) for removal.

Soils may be classified as the following:

 soluble in water (sugars, some starches, most salts);

 soluble in acid (limestone and most mineral deposits);
 soluble in alkali (protein, fat emulsions);
 soluble in water, alkali, or acid.

The physical condition of the soil deposits also affects its solubility. Freshly precipitated
soil in a cool or cold solution is usually more easily dissolved than an old, dried, or
baked-on deposit, or a complex film. Food soils are complex in that they contain
mixtures of several components.

Fat-based Soils

Fat usually is present as an emulsion and can generally be rinsed away with hot water
above the melting point. More difficult fat and oil residues can be removed with alkaline
detergents, which have good emulsifying or saponifying ingredients.

Protein-based Soils

In the food industry, proteins are by far the most difficult soils to remove. In fact, casein
(a major milk protein) is used for its adhesive properties in many glues and paints. Food
proteins range from more simple proteins, which are easy to remove, to more complex
proteins, which are very difficult to remove. Heat-denatured proteins can be extremely
difficult.

Generally, a highly alkaline detergent with peptizing or dissolving properties is required

to remove protein soils. Wetting agents can also be used to increase the wettability and
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suspendability of proteins. Protein films require alkaline cleaners that have hypochlorite
in addition to wetting agents.

Carbohydrate-based Soils

Simple sugars are readily soluble in warm water and are quite easily removed. Starch
residues, individually, are also easily removed with mild detergents. Starches
associated with proteins or fat scan usually be easily removed by highly alkaline
detergents.

Mineral Salt-based Soils

Mineral salts can be either relatively easy to remove or be highly troublesome deposits
or films. Calcium and magnesium are involved in some of the most difficult mineral
films. Under conditions involving heat and alkaline pH, calcium and magnesium can
combine with bicarbonates to form highly insoluble complexes. Other difficult deposits
contain iron or manganese. Salt films can also cause corrosion of some surfaces.
Difficult salt films require an acid cleaner (especially organic acids that form complexes
with these salts) for removal. Sequestering agents such as phosphates or chelating
agents are often used in detergents for salt film removal.

Microbiological Films

Under certain conditions, microorgranisms (bacteria, yeasts, and molds) can form
invisible films (biofilms) on surfaces. Biofilms can be difficult to remove and usually
require cleaners as well as sanitizers with strong oxidizing properties.

Lubricating Greases and Oils

These deposits (insoluble in water, alkali, or acid) can often be melted with hot water or
steam, but often leave a residue. Surfactants can be used to emulsify the residue to
make it suspendable in water and flushable.

Other Insoluble Soils

Inert soils such as sand, clay, or fine metal can be removed by surfactant-based
detergents. Charred or carbonized material may require organic solvents.

Quantity of Soil

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It is important to rinse food-contact surfaces prior to cleaning to remove most of the
soluble soil. Heavy deposits require more detergent to remove. Improper cleaning can
actually contribute to build-up of soil.

The Surface Characteristics

The cleanability of the surface is a primary consideration in evaluating cleaning

effectiveness. Included in surface characteristics are the following:

Surface Composition

Stainless steel is the preferred surface for food equipment and is specified in many
industry and regulatory design and construction standards. For example, 3-A Sanitary
Standards (equipment standards used for milk and milk products applications) specify
300 series stainless steel or equivalent. Other grades of stainless steel may be
appropriate for specific applications (i.e., 400 series) such as handling of high fat
products, meats, etc. For highly acidic, high salt, or other highly corrosive products,
more corrosion resistant materials (i.e., titanium) is often recommended.

Other "soft" metals (aluminum, brass, copper, or mild steel), or nonmetallic surfaces
(plastics or rubber) are also used on food contact surfaces. Surfaces of soft metals and
nonmetallic materials are generally less corrosion-resistant and care should be
exercised in their cleaning.

Aluminum is readily attacked by acids as well as highly alkaline cleaners, which can
render the surface non-cleanable. Plastics are subject to stress cracking and clouding
from prolonged exposure to corrosive food materials or cleaning agents.

Hard wood (maple or equivalent) or sealed wood surfaces should be used only in
limited applications such as cutting boards or cutting tables, provided the surface is
maintained in good repair. Avoid using porous wood surfaces.

Surface Finish

Equipment design and construction standards also specify finish and smoothness
requirements. 3-A standards specify a finish at least as smooth as a No. 4 ground finish
for most applications. With high-fat products, a less smooth surface is used to allow
product release from the surface.

Surface Condition

Misuse or mishandling can result in pitted, cracked, corroded, or roughened surfaces.

Such surfaces are more difficult to clean or sanitize, and may no longer be cleanable.
Thus, care should be exercised in using corrosive chemicals or corrosive food products.

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Various types and uses of chemicals and equipment for cleaning and sanitizing

Cleaning and Sanitizing Agents

1. Cleaning Solution- designed to remove dirt and soil to clean food contact
surfaces like the food preparation table.
Cleaning agents are substances, usually liquids, powders, sprays, granules that are used to
remove dirt, including dust, stains, bad smells, and clutter on surfaces. Purposes of cleaning
agents include health, beauty, absence of offensive odor, avoidance of shame, and avoidance of
spreading of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others. Some cleaning agents can
kill bacteria and clean at the same time.

Types
Cleaning agents normally water solutions that might be acidic, alkaline, or neutral, depending on
the use. Cleaning agents may also besolvent-based or solvent-containing and is then called
degreasers.

Acidic
Acidic washing agents are mainly used for removal of inorganic deposits like scaling. The active
ingredients are normally strong mineral acids and chelants. Often, there are added surfactants
and corrosion inhibitors. One common mineral acid is Hydrochloric Acid, (also called Muriatic
Acid), is typically used for cleaning swimming pools and concrete. Vinegar can also be used to
clean hard surfaces, and aid in the removal of calcium deposit buildup. Sulfuric acid is added into
domestic acidic drain cleaners to unblock clogged pipes by dissolving greases, proteins and even
carbohydrate-containing substances (like tissue paper).

Alkaline
Alkaline washing agents contain strong bases like sodium hydroxide and/or potassium hydroxide.
The alkali also dissolves grease, oils,fats, and protein-based deposits. Often there are
added dispersing agents to prevent redeposition of dissolved dirt and/or chelants to attack rust on
metal parts.

Bleach (pH 12) and Ammonia (pH 11) are also common Alkaline cleaning agents. While many
people believe that mixing cleaning agents together will create a compound that is more powerful,
this is false. Mixing cleaning agents such as bleach and ammonia together can be dangerous or
fatal .

Neutral
Neutral washing agents are pH-neutral and based on non-ionic surfactants that disperse different
types of dirt.

Degreaser
Cleaning agents specially made for removal of grease are called degreasers. These may
be solvent-based or solvent-containing and may also have surfactants as active ingredients. The
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solvents have a dissolving action on grease and similar dirt. The solvent-containing degreaser
may have an alkaline washing agent added to a solvent to promote further degreasing.
Degreasing agents may also be made solvent-free based on alkaline chemicals and/or
surfactants.

Common cleaning agents

1. The most common cleaning agent : water which is a very powerful polar solvent.

2. Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (the most notable being carbon tet in the
cleaning industry, and as Halon 104 or Freon 10 in HVAC; see Table for others), is the organic compound with
the formula CCl4. It was formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, as a precursor to refrigerants, and as
a cleaning agent. It is a colorless liquid with a "sweet" smell that can be detected at low levels.

Both carbon tetrachloride and tetrachloromethane are acceptable names under IUPAC nomenclature.

3. Ammonia or azane is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a

colorless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of
terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food andfertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is
also a building-block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning
products. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. The global industrial production of
ammonia for 2012 is anticipated to be 198 million tons, a 35% increase over the estimated 2006 global output of
146.5 million tons.

Ammonia, as used commercially, is often called anhydrous ammonia. This term emphasizes the absence of
water in the material.

4. Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an

important boron compound, a mineral, and a salt of boric acid. Powdered borax is white, consisting of soft
colorless crystals that dissolve easily in water.

Borax has a wide variety of uses. It is a component of many detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes. It is

also used to make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as afire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound
for fiberglass, as a flux in metallurgy, neutron-capture shields for radioactive sources, a texturing agent in
cooking, and as a precursor for other boron compounds.

5. Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the

formula NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It
has a slightly salty, alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). The natural mineral
form is nahcolite. It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many mineral springs. It is
among the food additives encoded by European Union, identified by the initials E 500. Since it has long been
known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda,bread soda, cooking
soda, and bicarbonate of soda. In colloquial usage, its name is shortened to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda,
or simply bicarb. The word saleratus, fromLatin salæratus meaning aerated salt, was widely used in the
19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of
common usage.
6. Carbon dioxide
7. Calcium hypochlorite
8. Cyanuric acid (former)
9. Chromic acid
10. Ethanol or methanol (only in solutions)
11. Various forms of alcohol

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 12. Various chlorine compounds
13. Acetic acid (vinegar)
14. Trisodium phosphate
15. Sodium percarbonate
16. Sodium perborate

2. Detergent- Penetrates quickly and softens soil so the soil can be scrubbed and
rinsed away.

3. Degreaser- Special type of detergent that contains a grease-dissolving agent.

Also known as solvent cleaners, degreasers are used on food contact surfaces
like the grill.

4. Acid cleaner- Used to remove mineral buildup in coffee makers, steam tables,
and dishwashing machines. Not for use on aluminum.

5. Abrasive cleaner- used to carefully scour dirt or grease that has baked or
burned onto pots and pans.

6. Dishwashing Detergent- removes food and grease; designed to be used in a

dish machine.
7. Sanitizer- Designed for sanitizing handwashed items such as knives, chemical
sanitizers kill micro- organisms.

8. Chlorine- Sanitizing agent that can be used on most items (except metal which
it corrodes. Because chlorine is an irritant, contact with skin should be avoided.

9. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds- Referred to as quats, this sanitzer kills

micro-organisms and is designed to sanitize food contact surfaces such as food
preparation tables.

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 Information sheet 1.1-2

Occupational health and safety requirements for bending, lifting, carrying and
using equipment’s.

Instructor:

The following script can be used to deliver a 10- to 15-minute training session to
employees. The text emphasizes important points related to back injury prevention.
Ideally, you should demonstrate proper lifting techniques as part of your presentation.

Points to Emphasize
 Bend to lift an object - don't stoop
 Keep your back straight by tucking in your chin
 Lift with the strong leg muscles, not the weaker back muscles

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Proper methods of lifting and handling protect against injury. Proper lifting makes work
easier. You need to "think" about what you are going to do before bending to pick up an
object. Over time, safe lifting technique should become a habit.

Following are the basics steps of safe lifting and handling.

1. Size up the load and check overall conditions. Don't attempt
the lift by yourself if the load appears to be too heavy or awkward. Check that
there is enough space for movement, and that the footing is good. "Good
housekeeping" ensures that you won't trip or stumble over an obstacle.
2. Make certain that your balance is good. Feet should be
shoulder width apart, with one foot beside and the other foot behind the
object that is to be lifted.
3. Bend (he knees; don't stoop. Keep the back straight, but not
vertical. (There is a difference. Tucking in the chin straightens the back.)
4. Grip the load with the palms of your hands and your fingers.
The palm grip is much more secure. Tuck in the chin again to make certain
your back is straight before starting to lift.
5. Use your body weight to start the load moving, and then lift
by pushing up with the legs. This makes full use of the strongest set of
muscles.
6. Keep the arms and elbows close to the body while lifting.
7. Carry the load close to the body. Don't twist your body while
carrying the load. To change direction, shift your foot position and turn your
whole body.
8. Watch where you are going!
9. To lower the object, bend the knees. Don't stoop. To deposit
the load on a bench or shelf, place it on the edge and push it into position.
Make sure your hands and feet are clear when placing the load.

Make it a habit to follow the above steps when lifting anything-even a relatively light
object.

Team lifting must be coordinated

 If the weight, shape, or size of an object makes the job too much for one person,
ask for help.
 Ideally, workers should be of approximately the same size for team lifting.
 One individual needs to be responsible for control of the action to ensure proper
coordination. If one worker lifts too soon, shifts the load, or lowers it improperly,
either they or the person working with them may be injured.
 Walk out of step

Lifting heavy objects

 Safe lifting of heavy items requires training and practice. For example, we've
probably all seen a small person move heavy feed sacks with apparent ease.
 The secret lies in taking the proper stance and grip.

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  When equipment is available, it should be used to lift and carry heavy objects.
 Loaders, forklifts, hoists, etc. are made for this purpose.

Do's" and "Don'ts" of Safe Lifting and Carrying

Do Don't

 Tuck in the chin to keep the back  Use your back muscles to do lifting.
as straight as possible while lifting.  Try to lift an item that is too heavy
 Lift with the strong leg muscles. of awkward.
 Ask for help with the heavy,  Twist your body while carrying an
awkward items. object.
 When possible, use mechanical  Attempt team lifting without proper
equipment to move heavy items. coordination.

Safe Manual Lifting and Carrying Overview

Steps Techniques

Planning  Size up the load and check overall conditions

 Check route for clearances and obstacles
 Use a handcart or dolly, etc. when possible
 Break down large and heavy loads
 Know your limits
 Seek help if necessary
 Take extra care with awkward tasks

Lifting Remember to use the “5” L’s of Back Safety

 Load
 Lungs
 Lever
 Legs
 Lordosis – keep your back straight

Carrying  Hold the load close to your body

 Look where your are walking
 Take extra care carrying up and down stairs
 Don’t twist your body, move your feet to turn

Lowering  Bend your knees to lower the load

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  Don’t trap your fingers and toes
 Pull it down first, then slide it into place
 Don’t over-reach or stretch

Information sheet 1.1-3

Logical and time-efficient work flow

Efficient Workflow in a Commercial Kitchen

Commercial kitchens are very busy areas, and each area

of the kitchen serves a specific purpose. The staff working
in the kitchen must be organized and develop routine
procedures that will enable them to make the most efficient
and effective use of their work time. You will learn about

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developing efficient workflow in a commercial cookery during your Certificate III in
Commercial Cookery.
The running of the kitchen is the responsibility of the head chef, but it is necessary for
all kitchen staff to organize their daily tasks so that productivity is maximized, and
wastage of food and labor is kept to a minimum.

Cooperation between all kitchen staff is essential in creating an effective team.  In this
way, confusion is eliminated, productivity is high and the working environment is better
for all.

Logical work lists and workflow plans enable kitchen staff to work effectively and
efficiently within specific timeframes and in the necessary order of importance. Work
plans act as a guide for staff to complete all required tasks. By planning you can check
that all tasks are included, understand how tasks relate to each other, and build in
efficiencies.

The objective of workflow planning is to make work easier.  Simplifying the operation,
eliminating unnecessary movements, combining two operations into one where
possible, or improving old methods can achieve this.  For instance, when peeling
carrots, if you let the peelings fall into a bowl, the need to clean the table is eliminated.

Likewise, before you start preparing a more involved recipe, it is important to select the
correct equipment and light the ovens, setting the desired temperature if necessary.

Workflow planning for the service of meal would take into consideration:

 The type of food to be prepared and served

 The number and size portions to be served

 The time the food should be served

 The method of service and the type of presentation

 The location of the food service, e.g. restaurant, function service

Apprentice chefs must understand that workflow planning makes work easier and
assists in teamwork; the cooperative aspect of a number of staff members working
together to achieve targets.

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WORKFLOW AND POINTS OF CARE

1. It is important in planning an event that

everything runs smoothly. This can only happen only happen with careful
organization and thoughtful planning. Workflow
2. When food is prepared in a commercial
setting, there must be logical workflow. Workers must not waste tie by getting stuck
in areas of the kitchen in which others are trying to work. Work does not flow and
food can easily be contaminated. Work areas in the kitchen.
3. Dividing the kitchen into different work
areas allows the preparation a plating f food to run smoothly. Work areas in the
kitchen.

Work flow

Banquet Analysis Sheets

 Menu breakdown
 Standard Recipe cards

Team Work

 Recipe breakdown
 Equipment needed
 Task delegation

Hygiene

 Logical Sequence of Tasks (mise en place)

 Timing Points of Care Start time (staff)
 Break Times (staff)
 Serving or presentation time
 Transportation storage

Workflow

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Workflows ensure we work methodically and hygienically logically sequence of events
you organized

 Menu breakdown analysis menu examine dishes, cookery methods, which take
longer to cook preparation time.
 Standard recipe cards SRC give the chef – guidance quantities of product
qualities of product how to cook the dish logical sequence specific temperatures
specific equipment can be the template for workflow plans.
 Banquet analysis sheet are used if you have a range of course or dishes to
calculate easier to work out amount of food needed for large functions can also
give you information for your work flow.
 Recipe breakdown analysis the recipe which items have to be prepared first can
we store these items of cookery cooking times assembly point service .
presentation time
 Equipment needed analysis of menu/recipes large equipment small equipment
utensils service ware location.
 Task delegation, team work menu, recipe analysis assess peoples strength,
weakness assign duties communicate menu, recipes communicate work flow,
plan identify work team goals jointly feedback
 Logical sequence of tasks starting times for staff presentation service time
preparation time cooking time freezing or chilling times, defrosting of frozen foods
if required delivery of food items transporting to venue storage.
 Logical sequence of tasks MENU Prawn Cocktail Grilled Sirloin Steak with
Parsley butter and baked potato vanilla ice cream
 Work flow for menu produce vanilla ice cream-boil milk, produce analogies, cool
and churn-have container and serving dishes in freezer prepare all the
vegetables salad and garnish for cocktail, potato, chopped parsley peel prawn
store in fridge.
 Work flow for menu prepare the sirloin prepare butter misture, pipe and
refrigerate place potato in oven prepare cocktail sauce assemble the cocktails-
chill whip cream for garnish off the basic mise en place.
 Timing service presentation 19.00 serve cocktail, 19.20 cook steak, serve with
potato and butter, 20.00 serve ice-cream.

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  Bouquet garni work flow example collect all ingredients wash vegetables. Trim to
desired size cut muslin cloth place vegetables on muslin add herbs roll and tie
store in the fridge.
 Work flow and team work clearly define tasks clearly allocate tasks to staff
decide on specific completion times specify standard recipe cards feedback from
staff communication.

Information sheet 1.1-4

Environmental-friendly products and practices in relation to kitchen cleaning

Sanitation and cross-contamination issues related to food handling and
preparation

How to use vinegar for household cleaning

In addition to having numerous cooking uses, 100-percent pure, distilled white vinegar can also
beused as an effective non-toxic, all-natural cleaning solution throughout your home. Vinegar has

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awide range of uses; such as removing odors from rooms, cleaning fixtures in your bathrooms
andkitchen, removing stains and spills from carpets, cleaning windows, and much more.
Continuereading this article to learn about the many ways in which you can use vinegar for
household cleaning.

Steps
Vinegar Preparation

Buy 100 percent pure white

vinegar. Distilled white vinegar is
the strongest form of vinegar you
can use to effectively clean your
home.

Use 2 different spray bottles for your vinegar – some household

cleaning chores will require you to use 100 percent undiluted
white vinegar, whereas other chores will require you to dilute the
vinegar with water.

Fill 1 spray bottle completely with white vinegar and fill the other bottle with 50 percent water and 50
percent vinegar solution and label them accordingly.

Removing Odors
1.1 Remove unpleasant or lingering odors from rooms

Place a place bowl of vinegar in any room with bad odors at

night time, then remove the bowl from the room the following
morning after the smell has dissipated.

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1.2 Remove odors from sinks and garbage disposals

Pour at least 1 cup (236.58 milliliters) of white vinegar

into the sink or garbage disposal, then rinse with fresh
water after at least 1 hour has passed.

1.3 Remove odors from jars to containers

Clean the jars and containers with unpleasant odors

such as garlic or fish mixture of 50 percent vinegar and
50 percent water, then rinse the jars with fresh water.

1.4 Remove unpleasant odors from your dog

 Mix together 1 cup (236.58 ml) of vinegar and 2

gallons (7.57 liters) of water in a large bucket
 Rinse your dog completely with fresh water,
then pour the water and vinegar mixture on
your dog.
 Dry your dog off with a towel without rinsing the
vinegar solution from your dog’s coat.

1.5 Removing Stains and Spills

 Use a sponge or an absorbing cloth to soak up

the liquid from the carpet spill.
 Spray a mixture of 50 percent water and 50
percent vinegar mixture over the affected
carpet area.

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  Let the vinegar and water mixture soak into the carpet for at least two minutes,
then blot the affected area with a fresh towel or sponge to remove the mixture
from the carpet.

1.6 Remove stains from carpet

 Mix together 1 tsp. (4.92 ml) of vinegar, 1 tsp

(4.92 ml) of liquid dishwashing soap and 1 cup
(236.58 ml) of warm water.
 Pour the mixture into an empty spray bottle,
and then spray the mixture over the stain to
cover it completely.
 Allow the mixture to soak into the carpet for 2
minutes, and then blot the wet area using a
sponge or towel.

1.7 Remove Toilet bowl stains

 Spray vinegar on the inside of the toilet

bowl, then use a toilet brush to scrub away
the stains.

1.8 Remove stains from clothing. Tough stains such as ketchup, chocolate, wine, and jelly can
be removed with vinegar.

o Rub vinegar directly on the stain with a soft cloth, then wash your clothes in the washing machine as
usual.

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 Cleaning surfaces

1.1 Clean Windows with Vinegar

o Spray a glass window with a 50 percent water, 50 percent vinegar solution, then wipe down with a sof
cloth.

1.2 Clean and shines floors - vinegar is safe to use on no-wax flooring

o Add 1 cup (236.58 milliliters) of vinegar to every 1 gallon (3.78 liters) of water, then use the mixture to
clean and shine floors.

1.3 Use vinegar as an all-purpose surface cleaner in the kitchen. Vinegar can effectively clean
kitchen counter tops, stove tops, and the tops of refrigerators and other appliances.

o Spray undiluted vinegar over the surface of appliances and counters in your kitchen, then wipe away
using paper towels or a soft, clean rag.

Removing Soap Residue

1.1 Remove soap scum from bathroom and kitchen faucets

 Mix together 1 part salt with 4 parts vinegar, then

moisten a rag with the solution.

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  Use the rag to rub away built-up soap scum from bathroom and kitchen faucets.

1.2 Remove soap scum from shower odors

o Spray undiluted vinegar on shower doors, then wipe the doors dry with a soft rag or paper towels.

1.3 Remove leftover soap residue from the inside of your washing machine

o Add 1 cup (236.58 milliliters) of vinegar to an empty laundry cycle without clothing, then run as usual.

Learning Outcome # 2
CLEAN AND SANITIZE PREMISES

Nominal Duration:

Assessment Criteria:
1. Cleaning schedules are followed based on enterprise procedures
2. Chemicals and equipment for cleaning and/or sanitizing are used
safely
3. Walls, floors, shelves and working surfaces are cleaned and/or
sanitized without causing damage to health or property
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 4. First aid procedures are followed if an accident happens
Conditions/Resources
Equipment Surfaces Supplies

 Kitchen utensils  Walls Chemical dispensers

 Pots, pans, dishes  Floors
 Food storage Containers  Shelves Supplies
 Chopping boards  Benches and working surfaces  Paper towels
 Garbage bins  Ovens, stoves, cooking  Cleaning agents
equipment and appliances  Sanitizers
 Cold storage equipment
 Store rooms and cupboards

Contents:
1. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and techniques
2. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
3. Waste management and disposal procedures and practices

Actual Demonstration with Oral Questioning:

1. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and techniques
2. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
3. Waste management and disposal procedures and practices

Institutional Assessment:
1. Assessment may be done in the workplace or in a simulated
workplace setting (assessment centers)
2. Assessment activities are carried out through an accredited
assessment center

Information sheet 1.2-1

Cleaned and sanitized large and small equipment/utensils commonly found in a

commercial/institutional kitchen

Environmental Considerations

Detergents can be significant contributors to the waste discharge (effluent). Of primary

concern is pH. Many publicly owned treatment works limit effluent pH to the range of 5
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to 8.5. So it is recommended that in applications where highly alkaline cleaners are
used, that the effluent be mixed with rinse water (or some other method be used) to
reduce the pH. Recycling of caustic soda cleaners is also becoming a common practice
in larger operations. Other concerns are phosphates, which are not tolerated in some
regions of the U.S., and the overall soil load in the waste stream that contributes to the
chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD).

Chemistry of Detergents

Detergents and cleaning compounds are usually composed of mixtures of ingredients

that interact with soils in several ways:

 Physically active ingredients alter physical characteristics such as solubility or

colloidal stability.
 Chemically active ingredients modify soil components to make them more
soluble and, thus, easier to remove.

In some detergents, specific enzymes are added to catalytically react with and degrade
specific food soil components.

Physically Active Ingredients

The primary physically-active ingredients are the surface active compounds termed
surfactants. These organic molecules have general structural characteristic where a
portion of the structure is hydrophilic (water-loving) and a portion is hydrophobic (not
reactive with water). Such molecules function in detergents by promoting the physical
cleaning actions through emulsification, penetration, spreading, foaming, and wetting.

The classes of surfactants are as follows:

 Ionic surfactants that are negatively charged in water solution are

termed anionic surfactants. Conversely, positively charged ionic surfactants are
termed cationic surfactants. If the charge of the water soluble portion depends upon
the pH of the solution, it is termed an amphoteric surfactant. These surfactants
behave as cationic surfactants under acid conditions, and as anionicsurfactants
under alkaline conditions. Ionic surfactants are generally characterized by their high
foaming ability.
 Nonionic surfactants, which do not dissociate when dissolved in water, have the
broadest range of properties depending upon the ratio of hydrophilic/hydrophobic
balance. This balance are also affected by temperature. For example, the foaming
properties of nonionic detergents is affected by temperature of solution. As
temperature increases, the hydrophobic character and solubility decrease. At the
cloud point (minimum solubility), these surfactants generally act as defoamers, while
below the cloud point they are varied in their foaming properties.

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It is a common practice to blend surfactant ingredients to optimize their properties.
However, because of precipitation problems, cationicand anionic surfactants cannot be
blended.

Chemically Active Ingredients

Alkaline Builders

Highly Alkaline Detergents (or heavy-duty detergents) use caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide) or caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). An important property of these
highly alkaline detergents is that they saponify fats: forming soap. These cleaners are
used in many CIP systems or bottle-washing applications.

Moderately Alkaline Detergents include sodium, potassium, or ammonium salts of

phosphates, silicates, or carbonates. Tri-sodium phosphate (TSP) is one of the oldest
and most effective. Silicates are most often used as a corrosion inhibitor. Because of
interaction with calcium and magnesium and film formation, carbonate-based
detergents are of only limited use in food processing cleaning regimes.

Acid Builders

Acid Detergents include organic and inorganic acids. The most common inorganic acids
used include phosphoric, nitric, sulfamic, sodium acid sulfate, and hydrochloric. Organic
acids, such as hydroxyacetic, citric, and gluconic, are also in use. Acid detergents are
often used in a two-step sequential cleaning regime with alkaline detergents. Acid
detergents are also used for the prevention or removal of stone films (mineral stone,
beer stone, or milk stone).

Water Conditioners

Water conditioners are used to prevent the build-up of various mineral deposits (water
hardness, etc.). These chemicals are usually sequestering agents or chelating agents.
Sequestering agents form soluble complexes with calcium and magnesium. Examples
are sodium tripolyphosphate, tetra-potassium pyrophosphate, organo-phosphates, and
polyelectrolytes. Chelating agents include sodium gluconate and ethylene
diaminetetracetic acid (EDTA).

Oxidizing Agents

Oxidizing agents used in detergent application are hypochlorite (also a sanitizer) and--to
a lesser extent--perborate. Chlorinated detergents are most often used to clean protein
residues.

Enzyme Ingredients

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Enzyme-based detergents, which are amended with enzymes such as amylases and
other carbohydrate-degrading enzymes, proteases, and lipases, are finding acceptance
in specialized food industry applications.

The primary advantages of enzyme detergents are that they are more environmentally
friendly and often require less energy input (less hot water in cleaning). Uses of most
enzyme cleaners are usually limited to unheated surfaces (e.g., cold-milk surfaces).
However, new generation enzyme cleaners (currently under evaluation) are expected to
have broader application.

Fillers

Fillers add bulk or mass, or dilute dangerous detergent formulations that are difficult to
handle. Strong alkalis are often diluted with fillers for ease and safety of handling. Water
is used in liquid formulations as a filler. Sodium chloride or sodium sulfate are often
fillers in powdered detergent formuations.

Miscellaneous Ingredients

Additional ingredients added to detergents may include corrosion inhibitors, glycol

ethers, and butylcellosolve (improve oil, grease, and carbon removal).

Sanitizing
Thermal Sanitizing

As with any heat treatment, the effectiveness of thermal sanitizing is dependant upon a
number of factors including initial contamination load, humidity, pH, temperature, and
time.

Steam

The use of steam as a sanitizing process has limited application. It is generally

expensive compared to alternatives, and it is difficult to regulate and monitor contact
temperature and time. Further, the byproducts of steam condensation can complicate
cleaning operations.

Hot Water

Hot-water sanitizing--through immersion (small parts, knives, etc.), spray (dishwashers),

or circulating systems--is commonly used. The time required is determined by the
temperature of the water. Typical regulatory requirements (Food Code 1995) for use of
hot water in dishwashing and utensil sanitizing applications specify immersion for at
least 30 sec. at 77°C (170°F) for manual operations; and a final rinse temperature of
74°C (165°F) in single tank, single temperature machines and 82°C (180°F) for other
machines.
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Many state regulations require a utensil surface temperature of 71°C (160°F), as
measured by an irreversibly registering temperature indicator in warewashing machines.
Recommendations and requirements for hot-water sanitizing in food processing may
vary. The Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance specifies a minimum of 77°C (170°F) for
5 min. Other recommendations for processing operations are 85°C (185°F) for 15 min.,
or 80°C (176°F) for 20 min.

The primary advantages of hot-water sanitization are relatively inexpensive, easy to

apply, and readily available, generally effective over a broad range of microorganisms,
relatively non-corrosive, and penetrates into cracks and crevices. Hot-water sanitization
is a slow process that requires come-up and cool-down time; can have high energy
costs; and has certain safety concerns for employees. The process also has the
disadvantages of forming or contributing to film formations and shortening the life of
certain equipment or parts thereof (gaskets, etc.).

Chemical Sanitizing

The ideal chemical sanitizer should:

 Be approved for food contact surface application.

 Have a wide range or scope of activity.
 Destroy microorganisms rapidly.
 Be stable under all types of conditions.
 Be tolerant of a broad range of environmental conditions.
 Be readily solubilized and possess some detergency.
 Be low in toxicity and corrosivity.
 Be inexpensive.

No available sanitizer meets all of the above criteria. Therefore, it is important to

evaluate the properties, advantages, and disadvantages of available sanitizer for each
specific application.

Regulatory Considerations

The regulatory concerns involved with chemical sanitizers are antimicrobial activity or
efficacy, safety of residues on food contact surfaces, and environmental safety. It is
important to follow regulations that apply for each chemical usage situation. The
registration of chemical sanitizers and antimicrobial agents for use on food and food
product contact surfaces and on nonproduct contact surfaces is through the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (Prior to approval and registration, the EPA
reviews efficacy and safety data, and product labeling information.)

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is primarily involved in evaluating
residues form sanitizer use that may enter the food supply. Thus, any antimicrobial
agent and its maximum usage level for direct use on food or on food product contact
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surfaces must be approved by the FDA. Approved no-rinse food contact sanitizers and
nonproduct contact sanitzers, their formulations and usage levels are listed in the Code
of Federal Regulations (21 CFR 178.1010). The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
also maintains lists of antimicrobial compounds (i.e., USDA List of Proprietary
Substances and Non Food Product Contact Compounds), which are primarily used in
the regulation of meats, poultry, and related products by USDA's Food Safety and
Inspection Service (FSIS).

Factors Affecting Sanitizer Effectiveness

Physical Factors

Surface Characteristics. Prior to the sanitization process, all surfaces must be clean

and thoroughly rinsed to remove any detergent residue. An unclean surface cannot be
sanitized. Since the effectiveness of sanitization requires direct contact with the
microorganisms, the surface should be free of cracks, pits, or crevices which can harbor
microorganisms. Surfaces which contain biofilms cannot be effectively sanitized.

Exposure Time. Generally, the longer time a sanitizer chemical is in contact with the
equipment surface, the more effective the sanitization effect; intimate contact is as
important as prolonged contact..

Temperature. Temperature is also positively related to microbial kill by a chemical

sanitizer. Avoid high temperatures (above 55°C [131°F]) because of the corrosive
nature of most chemical sanitizers.

Concentration. Generally, the activity of a sanitizer increases with increased

concentration. However, a leveling off occurs at high concentrations. A common
misconception regarding chemicals is that "if a little is good, more is better". Using
sanitizer concentrations above recommendations does not sanitizer better and, in fact,
can be corrosive to equipment and in the long run lead to less cleanability. Follow
manufacturer's label instructions.

Soil. The presence of organic matter dramatically reduces the activity of sanitizers and
may, in fact, totally inactivate them. The adage is "you cannot sanitize an unclean
surface".

Chemical Factors

pH. Sanitizers are dramatically affected by the pH of the solution. Many chlorine

sanitizers, for example, are almost ineffective at pH values above 7.5.

Water properties. Certain sanitizers are markedly affected by impurities in the water.

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Inactivators. Organic and/or inorganic inactivators may react chemically with sanitizers
giving rise to non-germicidal products. Some of these inactivators are present in
detergent residue. Thus, it is important that surfaces be rinsed prior to sanitization.

Biological Factors

The microbiological load can affect sanitizer activity. Also, the type of microorganism
present is important. Spores are more resistant than vegetative cells. Certain sanitizers
are more active against gram positive than gram negative microorganisms, and vice
versa. Sanitizers also vary in their effectiveness against yeasts, molds, fungi, and
viruses.

Specific Types of Chemical Sanitizers

The chemicals described here are those approved by FDA for use as no-rinse, food-
contact surface sanitizers. In food-handling operations, these are used as rinses,
sprayed onto surfaces, or circulated through equipment in CIP operations. In certain
applications the chemicals are foamed on a surface or fogged into the air to reduce
airborne contamination.

Chlorine-based Sanitizers

Chlorine Compounds. Chlorine, in its various forms, is the most commonly used

sanitizer in food processing and handling applications. Commonly used chlorine
compounds include liquid chlorine, hypochlorites, inorganic chloramines, and organic
chloramines. Chlorine-based sanitizers form hypochlorous acid (HOCl, the most active
form) in solution. Available chlorine (the amount of HOCl present) is a function of pH. At
pH 5, nearly all is in the form of HOCl. At pH 7.0, approximately 75% is HOCl. The
maximum allowable level for no-rinse applications is 200ppm available chlorine, but
recommended usage levels vary. For hypochlorites, an exposure time of 1 min at a
minimum concentration of 50ppm and a temperature of 24°C (75°F) is recommended.
For each 10°C (18°F) drop in temperature, a doubling of exposure time is
recommended. For chloramines, 200ppm for 1 min is recommended.

Chlorine compounds are broad spectrum germicides that act on microbial membranes,
inhibit cellular enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, have a lethal effect on DNA,
and oxidize cellular protein. Chlorine has activity at low temperature, is relatively cheap,
and leaves minimal residue or film on surfaces.

The activity of chlorine is dramatically affected by such factors as pH, temperature, and
organic load. However, chlorine is less affected by water hardness when compared to
other sanitizers (especially the quaternary ammonium compounds).

The major disadvantage to chlorine compound is corrosiveness to many metal surfaces

(especially at higher temperatures). Health and safety concerns can occur because of

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skin irritation and mucous membrane damage in confined areas. At low pH (below 4.0),
deadly Cl2(mustard gas) can form. In recent years, concerns have also been raised
about the use of chlorine as a drinking water disinfectant and as an antimicrobial with
direct food contact (meat, poultry and shellfish). This concern is based upon the
involvement of chlorine in the formation of potentially carcinogenic trihalomethanes
(THMs) under appropriate conditions. While chlorine's benefits as a sanitizer far
outweigh these risks, it is under scrutiny.

Chlorine dioxide. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is currently being considered as a

replacement for chlorine, since it appears to be more environmentally friendly.
Stabilized ClO2 has FDA approval for most applications in sanitizing equipment or for
use as a foam for environmental and non-food contact surfaces. Approval has also
been granted for use in flume waters in fruits and vegetable operations and in poultry
process waters. ClO2 has 2.5 times the oxidizing power of chlorine and, thus, less
chemical is required. Typical use concentrations range from 1 to 10ppm.

CLO2's primary disadvantages are worker safety and toxicity. Its highly concentrated
gases can be explosive and exposure risks to workers are higher than that for chlorine.
Its rapid decomposition in the presence of light or at temperatures greater than 50°C
(122°F) makes on-site generation a recommended practice.

Iodine

Use of iodine as an antimicrobial agents dates back to the 1800s. This sanitizer exists in
many forms and usually exists with a surfactant as a carrier. These mixtures are termed
iodophors. The most active agent is the dissociated free iodine (also less stable). This
form is most prevalent at low pH. The amount of dissociation from the surfactant is
dependent upon the type of surfactant. Iodine solubility is very limited in water.
Generally recommended usage for iodophors is 12.5 to 25ppm for 1 min.

It is generally thought that the bactericidal activity of iodine is through direct

halogenation of proteins. More recent theories have centered upon cell wall damage
and destruction of microbial enzyme activity.

Iodophors, like chlorine compounds, have a very broad spectrum: being active against
bacteria, viruses, yeasts, molds, fungi, and protozoans. Iodine is highly temperature-
dependent and vaporizes at 120°F. Thus, it is limited to lower temperature applications.
The degree to which iodophors are affected by environmental factors is highly
dependant upon properties of the surfactant used in the formulation. Iodophors are
generally less affected by organic matter and water hardness than chlorine. However,
loss of activity is pronounced at high pH.

Iodine has a long history of use in wound treatment. However, ingestion of iodine gas
does pose a toxicity risk in closed environments. The primary disadvantage is that
iodine can cause staining on some surfaces (especially plastics).

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Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs)

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are a class of compounds that have the
general structure as follows (Figure 1):

The properties of these compounds depend upon the covalently bound alkyl groups (R
groups), which can be highly diverse. Since QACs are positively charged cations, their
mode of action is related to their attraction to negatively charged materials such as
bacterial proteins. It is generally accepted that the mode of action is at the membrane
function. The carbon length of R-group side chain is, generally, directly related with
sanitizer activity in QACs. However, because of the lower solubility in QACs composed
of large carbon chains, these sanitizers may have lower activity than short chain
structures.

QACs are active and stable over a broad temperature range. Because they are
surfactants, they possess some detergency. Thus, they are less affected by light soil
than are other sanitizers. However, heavy soil dramatically decreases activity. QACs
generally have higher activity at alkaline pH. While lack of tolerance to hard water is
often listed as a major disadvantage of QACs when compared to chlorine, some QACs
are fairly tolerant of hard water. Activity can be improved by the use of EDTA as a
chelator. QACs are effective against bacteria, yeasts, mold, and viruses.

An advantage of QACs in some applications is that they leave a residual antimicrobial

film. However, this would be a disadvantage in operations such as cultured dairy
products, cheese, beer, etc., where microbial starter cultures are used.

QACs are generally more active against gram positive than gram negative bacteria.
They are not highly effective against bacteriophages. Their incompatibility with certain
detergents makes thorough rinsing following cleaning operations imperative. Further,
many QAC formulations can cause foaming problems in CIP applications.

Under recommended usage and precautions, QACs pose little toxicity or safety risks.
Thus, they are in common use as environmental fogs and as room deodorizers.
However, care should be exercised in handling concentrated solutions or use as
environmental fogging agents.

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Acid-Anionic Sanitizers

Like QACs, acid-anionic sanitizers are surface-active sanitizers. These formulations

include an inorganic acid plus a surfactant and are often used for the dual function of
acid rinse and sanitization.

Whereas QACs are positively charged, these sanitizers are negatively charged. Their
activity is moderately affected by water hardness. Their low use pH, detergency,
stability, low odor potential, and non-corrosiveness make them highly desirable in some
applications.

Disadvantages include relatively high cost, a closely defined pH range of activity (pH 2
to 3), low activity on molds and yeasts, excessive foaming in CIP systems, and
incompatibility with cationic surfactant detergents.

Fatty Acid Sanitizers

Fatty acid or carboxylic acid sanitizers were developed in the 1980s. Typical
formulations include fatty acids plus other acids (phosphoric acids, organic acids).
These agents also have the dual function of acid rinse and sanitization. The major
advantage over acid anionics is lower foaming potential. These sanitizers have a broad
range of activity, are highly stable in dilute form, are stable to organic matter, and are
stable to high temperature applications.

These sanitizers have low activity above pH 3.5 - 4.0, are not very effective against
yeasts and molds, and some formulations lose activity at temperatures below 10°C
(50°F). They also can be corrosive to soft metals and can degrade certain plastics and
rubber.

Peroxides

Peroxides or peroxy compounds contain at least one pair of covalently bonded oxygen
atoms (-O-O-) and are divided into two groups: the inorganic group, containing
hydrogen peroxide (HP) and related compounds; and the organic group, containing
peroxyacetic acid (PAA) and related compounds.

Hydrogen peroxide (HP), while widely used in the medical field, has found only limited
application in the food industry. FDA approval has been granted for HP use for
sterilizing equipment and packages in aseptic operations.

The primary mode of action for HP is through creating an oxidizing environment and
generation of singlet or superoxide oxygen (SO). HP is fairly broad spectrum with
slightly higher activity against gram-negative than gram-positive organisms.
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High concentrations of HP (5% and above) can be an eye and skin irritant. Thus, high
concentrations should be handled with care.

Peroxyacetic Acid (PAA) has been known for its germicidal properties for a long time.
However, it has only found food-industry application in recent years and is being
promoted as a potential chlorine replacement. PAA is relatively stable at use strengths
of 100 to 200ppm. Other desirable properties include absence of foam and phosphates,
low corrosiveness, tolerance to hard water, and favorable biodegradability. PAA
solutions have been shown to be useful in removing biofilms.

While precise mode of action mechanisms have not been determined, it is generally
theorized that the PAA reaction with microorganisms is similar to that of HP. PAA,
however, is highly active against both gram-positive and gram-negative
microorganisms. The germicidal activity of PAA is dramatically affected by pH. Any pH
increase above 7-8 drastically reduces the activity.

PAA has a pungent odor and the concentrated product (40%) is a highly toxic, potent
irritant, and powerful oxidizer. Thus, care must be used in its use.

A general comparison of the chemical and physical properties of commonly used

sanitizers is presented in Table 3.

Equipment and Utensil Cleaning and Sanitization

The importance of proper cleaning can be appreciated when one realizes that
contaminated equipment (equipment and utensils which are not clean) is another major
cause of foodborne disease outbreaks.

Cleaning comprises many operations in the food establishment, and the process is
usually specific to the type of cleaning necessary. No cleaning task in the food
establishment is as important as the cleaning and sanitization of food contact surfaces
of equipment and utensils.

CLEANING FOOD CONTACT SURFACES

Food contact surfaces of equipment and utensils are those surfaces with which food
normally comes into contact. These surfaces also include surfaces from which food may
drain, drip or splash back onto surfaces normally in contact with food. For example, the
interior of a microwave oven is considered a food contact surface because food on the
sides or ceiling of the oven could drip into other foods being warmed in the oven.
Effective cleaning and sanitization of food contact surfaces of equipment and utensils
serve two primary purposes:

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 • Reduces chances for contaminating safe food during processing,
preparation, storage and service by physically removing soil, bacteria and
other microorganisms; and

• Minimizes the chances of transmitting disease organisms to the consumer by

achieving bacteriologically safe eating utensils.

Although we all know about the practice of "washing," many do not understand and/or
appreciate the principles and exactness of the process. For the most part, chemistry
plays a very important part in the cleaning and sanitization process. Washing equipment
and utensils until visibly clean is just not enough.

WAREWASHING CYCLE

The following numerated list and comments pertaining to the wash cycle of food contact
surfaces will help supervisors and managers appreciate why there is a particular order
in the process.

1. Equipment and Utensils Clean Prior to Use. Properly

cleaned and sanitized equipment and utensils should be bacteriologically
safe prior to use. Should contamination be suspected, the equipment
and/or utensils should not be used, but recleaned and sanitized.
2. Soiled Equipment and Utensils. During use, equipment and
utensils become soiled and contaminated with bacteria.
3. Scraping, Preflushing and Presoaking. Scraping, preflushing
and presoaking, as necessary, are methods for removing gross amounts
and stubborn soil from equipment and utensils.
4. Cleaning. There are four steps in the cleaning process –
washing, rinsing, sanitizing and air drying: Washing, when using proper
detergents, cleaners, chemicals and abrasives, removes the remaining
soil from equipment and utensils. This is a physical and a chemical
process. The soil and bacteria, as well as cleaning compounds, are
suspended in the wash water; and Rinsing removes most of the
suspended soil, bacteria and cleaning compounds from the equipment
and utensils.

Although the equipment and utensils look visibly clean at this point, they
are still contaminated with many bacteria.

5. Sanitizing. Sanitizing kills the remaining pathogenic

organisms on the equipment and utensils. Sanitization will occur when
certain specific chemical concentrations, temperature requirements, time
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 requirements and water conditions are satisfied. These conditions are
crucial for effective sanitization. Therefore, precise measurements of the
sanitization process are made periodically. NO RINSING OR ANY OTHER
CLEANING PROCESS SHOULD TAKE PLACE AFTER THE SANITIZING
PROCESS.
6. Air Drying. The only acceptable method of drying equipment
and utensils is air drying. The use of towels for drying, polishing or any
other purpose re-contaminates equipment and utensils with bacteria.
7. Proper Storage and Handling. Proper storage and handling
of cleaned and sanitized equipment and utensils is very important to
prevent recontamination prior to use. Cleaned and sanitized equipment
and utensils must be:
 Stored on clean surfaces; and
 Handled to minimize contamination of food contact surfaces.

SANITIZATION PROCEDURE

Chemical sanitization requires greater controls than hot water sanitization. The following
factors must be considered in order to obtain effective sanitization by chemical
sanitization methods:

 Amount of water used;

 pH of the water;
 Hardness of the water;
 Temperature of the water; and
 Contact time.

The pH and hardness needs to be determined. Should the water supply be from a
municipal supply, the water company may already have this information. If not, the
water will need to be tested periodically.

MANUAL SANITIZATION

The following table provides information pertaining to minimum and maximum chemical
sanitization requirements for manual operations (in parts per million - ppm). To use the
chart, identify which chemical compound your food establishment uses for sanitization
purposes. The “Temp” column refers to the temperature of the water used. The pH
column indicates the strength of the sanitizer to use, according to the pH of the water.
For example, if the water pH is 9.0, and the water temperature is 100°F (warm) the
concentration of chlorine sanitizer needs to be 50 parts per million. The “Maximum”
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column refers to the maximum strength of sanitizer. The “Contact” column refers to the
minimum time that the utensils or surfaces should be in contact with the sanitizer
solution. If the pH of the water is less than 5.0, Iodine should be used as the sanitizer.

Chemical pH Solutions Temp (˚F) 10 or less 8 or less Maximum Allowed 120˚ 25 ppm
25 ppm 200 100˚ 50 ppm 50 ppm 200 75˚ 50 ppm 100 ppm 200 Chlorine 55˚ 100 ppm
100 ppm 200 < Iodine 75˚+ 12.5 25 Quarts** 75˚+ As specified by manufacturer, see
label; hardness 500 ppm or less* 200

 *unless container label specifies a higher pH and/or water hardness limit

 ** Quaternary ammonium compounds

OBTAINING PROPER SANITIZATION

All chemical sanitizer instructions call for a given amount of sanitizer per gallon of water.
The following are two methods of determining the amount of water used for sanitization:

 Use a gallon container and pour a gallon of water at a time into the sink until the
water is at a suitable depth; or
 Use the following formula: width x length x water depth = total gallons 231 (cu. in.
in one gallon)

The following will serve as an example:

Length of sink = 24" Width of sink = 24" Depth of sink = 16" 24 x 24 x 16 = 9,216 = 40
gallons 231 231

 Use the test kit each time and adjust water amount or sanitizer amount until
proper concentration is obtained. In the first two methods, the same amount of
water must be used each time, unless the amount is recalculated.

Another problem in measuring the right amount of sanitizing chemical is the method of
measure stated on the label. The following table provides equivalents of various
measurements:

Drops ml. tsp. tbsp. f.o.

1 ml. 20 -- -- -- -- 1 tsp. 60 5 -- -- -- 1 tbsp. -- 15 3 -- -- 1 f.o. -- -- 6 2 -- 1 cup -- -- -- 16 8

 ml. = milliliter tbsp. = tablespoon

 tsp. = teaspoon f.o. = fluid ounce

Household bleach is often used as a sanitizer. When used, only pure bleach (without
additives) is acceptable.“Ultra” or “Extra Strength” bleach is not acceptable. Mixing

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bleach with detergent will result in the bleach not being able to effectively sanitize any
surfaces. The amounts of bleach (which contains 5.25% sodium hypochlorite) needed
to obtain certain concentrations are as follows:

Concentration Amount of bleach/gallon(s)

water 25 ppm 3/4 teaspoon/2 gallons 1 1/2 teaspoons/4 gallons 1 tablespoon/8 gallons
50 ppm 3/4 teaspoon/1 gallon 1 1/2 teaspoons/2 gallons 1 tablespoon/4 gallons 1/4
cup/16 gallons 100 ppm 1 1/2 teaspoons/1 gallon 1 tablespoon/2 gallons 1/2 cup/16
gallons 200 ppm 1 tablespoon/1 gallon 1 cup/16 gallons

MANUAL WAREWASHING METHODS

When a two-compartment sink cleaning method is used, a special sanitization

formulation must be used in both sink compartments.

ALTERNATE MANUAL WAREWASHING METHODS

When equipment is too large or fixed for cleaning as specified above, cleaning and
sanitization can be done by swabbing or pressure spraying.

Swabbing Method

1. Disassemble;
2. Rough clean to remove gross food
particles;
3. Detergent wash with water >95°F;
4. Clear water rinse; 5. Chemical sanitize
at TWICE the strength required; and
5. Air dry.

Pressure spraying procedure has the same essential steps as swabbing except high
pressure spray equipment is used. Follow equipment manufacturer's operating
instructions.

MECHANICAL WAREWASHING METHODS

Mechanical warewashing methods must be according to manufacturer's operating

instructions.

THERMOMETERS AND TEST KITS

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Thermometers and/or test kits are required in all food establishments with warewashing
operations. The purposes are as follows:

 To confirm sanitizing solution strength and proper water temperature for manual
warewashing operations;
 To check sanitizing solution strength and water temperature during the
warewashing period. Temperature and sanitizer concentrations need to be
checked throughout the cleaning process. This is because the effective strength
of the sanitizing solution may be reduced because of the carryover of organic
matter and because of a drop in temperature.
 To check water temperature for hot water sanitization; and
 To check proper operation of mechanical ware washing equipment.

SPECIAL CLEANING AND SANITIZATION

Food processing equipment and some vending equipment that requires in-place
cleaning shall be designed and fabricated so that:

1. Washing and sanitizing solutions can be circulated

throughout a fixed system using an effective cleaning and sanitizing procedure;
and
2. Cleaning and sanitizing solutions will contact all food contact
surfaces;
3. The system is self-draining or capable of being completely
evacuated; and
4. The procedures utilized result in thorough cleaning of the
equipment.

Equipment used in production-line food processing shall be cleaned and sanitized

according to the following schedule:

1. Each time there is a change in

processing between types of animal products;
2. Each time there is a change from raw to
ready-to-eat foods;
3. After substantial interruptions;
4. After each shift change and/or every 4
hours;
5. Throughout the day as necessary; and
6. After final use each working day.

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Bulk water hauling equipment needs to be cleaned and sanitized, and the procedure
shall be similar to food processing equipment. For specific recommended procedures,
see EPA technical bulletin entitled Guidelines for the Preparation of Tank Trucks for
Potable Water Use.

SUMMARY

• Contaminated equipment is another major cause of foodborne disease outbreaks.

• Food contact surface is the surface of equipment and utensils with which food
normally comes into contact and those surfaces from which food may drain, drip or
splash back onto surfaces normally in contact with food.

• Washing equipment and utensils until visibly clean does not complete the process. A
sanitization step must also be completed.

• Proper sanitization is one of the most important steps in the warewashing cycle.

• No rinsing or any other cleaning process should take place after the sanitizing
process.

• Equipment and utensils must be air dried only.

• The sanitization procedure is an exact process.

• Swabbing can be utilized when the sanitizing solution is twice the strength required.

• Thermometers and test kits are required.

Disposed wastes according to sanitary regulations, enterprise practices and standard

procedures

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 PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
ELEMENT Italicized terms are elaborated in the Range of Variables
1. Clean, sanitize 7. Chemicals and clean potable water are selected
and store equipment and used for cleaning and/or sanitizing kitchen
equipment utensils, and working surfaces
8. Equipment and/or utensils are cleaned and/or
sanitized safely using clean/potable water and
according to manufacturer’s instructions
9. Clean equipment and utensils are stored or stacked
safely in the designated place
10. Cleaning equipment and supplies are used
safely in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions
11. Cleaning equipment are assembled and
disassembled safely
12. Cleaning equipment are stored safely in the
designated position and area

2. Clean and sanitize 2.1 Cleaning schedules are followed based on

premises enterprise procedures
2.2 Chemicals and equipment for cleaning and/or
sanitizing are used safely
2.3 Walls, floors, shelves and working surfaces are
cleaned and/or sanitized without causing damage
to health or property
2.4 First aid procedures are followed if an accident
happens

3. Dispose of waste 3.1 Wastes are sorted and disposed according to

sanitaryregulations, enterprise practices and
standard procedures
3.2 Cleaning chemicals are disposed safelyaccording
to standard procedures

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RANGE OF VARIABLES

VARIABLE RANGE
1. Equipment May include but are not limited to:
1.1 Kitchen utensils
1.2 Pots, pans, dishes
1.3 Food storage Containers
1.4 Chopping boards
1.5 Garbage bins

2. Surfaces May include but are not limited to:

2.1 Walls
2.2 Floors
2.3 Shelves
2.4 Benches and working surfaces
2.5 Ovens, stoves, cooking equipment and appliances
2.6 Cold storage equipment
2.7 Store rooms and cupboards

3. Cleaning equipment May include but not limited to:

and supplies
Equipment
3.1 Chemical dispensers

Supplies
3.2 Paper towels
3.3 Cleaning agents
3.4 Sanitizers

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EVIDENCE GUIDE

2. Critical aspects ofAssessment requires evidences that the candidate:

Competency 2. Cleaned and sanitized all food preparation and
presentation areas in accordance with food safety
and occupational health and safety regulations
3. Cleaned and sanitized large and small
equipment/utensils commonly found in a
commercial/institutional kitchen
4. Demonstrated sanitizing procedures and techniques
5. Disposed wastes according to sanitary regulations,
enterprise practices and standard procedures
3. Required Knowledge 1. Various types and uses of chemicals and
equipment for cleaning and sanitizing
2. Occupational health and safety requirements for
bending, lifting, carrying and using equipments
3. Logical and time-efficient work flow
4. Environmental-friendly products and practices in
relation to kitchen cleaning
5. Sanitation and cross-contamination issues related to
food handling and preparation
4. Required Skills 4. Sanitizing and disinfecting procedures and
techniques
5. Using and storing cleaning materials and chemicals
6. Waste management and disposal procedures and
practices
5. Resource The following resources MUST be provided
Implications 4. Access to fully equipped commercial/institutional
kitchen and storage areas
5. Access to relevant cleaning materials and equipment
for kitchen areas
5. Methods of Competency may be assessed through:
Assessment 1. Direct observation of the candidate while cleaning a
kitchen
2. Written or oral questions to test knowledge of
candidate’s on cleaning materials and equipment
and issues
3. Review of portfolios of evidence and third party
workplace report of on-the-job performance of the
candidate

6. Context for 6.1 Assessment may be done in the workplace or in a

Assessment simulated workplace setting (assessment centers)
6.2 Assessment activities are carried out through an
accredited assessment center

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