1

Unit – I
F OOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION
 INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are among the perishable commodities and important in human diet due to its
high nutritive value and significant nutritional contribution. So, if they are supplied whole year than
the status of national dietary picture will improve. Their production and wastage is of very large
amount due to the lack of knowledge and facilities. This results in market glut and become
unavailable during off season. It has been engaging the attention of policy makers as it can contribute
to the economic development of rural population. The post-harvest loses of these commodities are
estimated to be 40% and only 1% are processed. All the processed products are not in the reach of
the rural population. In order to avoid the glut and to utilize the surplus during the season it is
necessary to employ the modern techniques of preservation.
The fruit and vegetable processing have been setup or have to be setup in the developing
countries due to the following reasons:

 Economic diversification
 Reduce dependence on export commodities. Reduce loses.
 Simulate agriculture production.
 General employment.
 Improve nutrition status.
 New value-added products.
 New source of income.

PRINCIPLE AND METHOD OF PRESERVATION

Food preservation can be defined as the sciences that deals with the method of preservation of
perishable foods such as fruit and vegetables, thus allowing it to be stored in a fit container for
further use.

Directions for control of spoilage of the food are as follows:

 Through examination of food.

 Proper hygienic condition.
 Use clean and disinfected equipment.
 Proper vacuumed condition of packaging material.
 Very short duration between sealing and processing operation.
  Contaminated materials should be avoided.
 Proper storage condition for final product

Freshly prepared products soon deteriorate in quality due the following reasons:

 Enzymatic activity
 Reaction
 Contamination
 Trace metal reaction
 False storage
 Use of unhygienic equipment.
 Improper sealing after use.

Principle of preservation:

There are three basic principle of preservation, which are as follows

1. Delay of microbial decomposition.

2. Delay of self-decomposition.
3. Damage of physical and biological injuries.

Method of preservation:
Based on different principle of preservation these are method of preservation. On the basis of the
most generally need methods of preservation they are as follows:

1. asepsis
2. Chemical Preservation
3.Preservation by altering temperature
4.Preservation by dehydration
5.Preservation by fermentation
1. Asepsis:
It means preventing the entire entry of microorganism in the food. Maintain the general cleanliness
while different processing operation increases their keeping quality. Wiping of raw material should
be done properly as dust particles act as source of contamination.

2.Chemical Preservation:
Microbial spoilage can also be controlled by the application of class I and class II preservatives.
The inhibitory action of preservation is due interfering with the biological activities of
microorganism and dehydration.

Preservation properties:

 Not injurious to health

 Not irritable
 Easy to detect
 Easy to estimate
 Low cost
 Highly effective
 Broad application

3. Preservation by altering Temperature:

Coagulation of protein and inactivation of enzymes and the application of the temperature leads to
preservation of food.

 Type of organism to be eliminated.

 Nature of food.
 Other means of preservation other than temperature.

4. Preservation by dehydration:

Microorganism needs moisture for growth and development, so reducing the

concentration of water effectively cut down their growth and multiplication rate. This is the oldest
known method of preservation. By practicing it we can preserver food up to 2-3 month depending
on the nature of food, method of preservation and condition of preservation.
5. Preservation by fermentation:

Decomposing of fats and carbohydrate by enzymatic action of microorganism is called

fermentation. It is one of the oldest methods of preservation and is due to reduction of pH and
production of acids alcohols. Care should be taken that no secondary fermentation takes places.

1. MIX PICKLE
Pickle is very famous in Indian household, almost every house makes pickles. Pickle is commonly
made up of easily available vegetables and fruits such as mango, carrot, cucumber, aonla, chili, etc.
Pickle is common form of preserving fruits and vegetable; the preservation in pickle is mainly due
to the brine or salt content in it. Modern pickle uses preservatives such as Sodium benzoate and
Acetic acid. The addition of chemical preservatives in pickle increases the shelf life of the pickle.

Ingredients:
Fruits/Vegetable: 5kg

Salt: 500g

Turmeric Powder: 100g

Chilli Powder: 100g

Garam Masala Powder: 150g

Fennel: 100g

Fenugreek: 50g

Mustard Oil: 1.5kg

Asafoetida: 10g fig ~ mix pickle

Sodium Benzoate: 5g

Acetic Acid: 20g

Preparation of mixed pickle:

Mixed pickles are pickles made from a variety of vegetables mixed in the same pickling process.
Mixed pickles are eaten much like other pickles: in small amounts to add flavour and to accent a
meal.
Remove the unwanted parts and cut into small pieces. Mount a vessel on flame with mustard oil. Put
Vegetable, turmeric powder, salt, garam masala and coriander powder into the heating vessel and fry
it over for 4-5 minutes. Lower the vessel and let it cool, once cool enough add sodium benzoate and
acetic acid and mix it properly and fill it into pickle jar, the pickle is ready.

Flow Sheet (Mixed Pickle)

Vegetable

Washing

Cutting

Blanching of mixture

Heat the oil in utensil

Mix all the Ingredients

Lower the vessel and cool the mixture (spices)

Adding sodium benzoate and acetic acid

Put in jar with an air tight cap

 2. JAM
Jam is a substance made up of fruit pulp cooked with water and sugar to activate the
pectin before being put into the container. The jam production is a method of preserving
surplus fruit and avoiding the spoilage. The jam has 68% sugar content and the high sugar
content act as a preservative. Jam can be made out of papaya, plum, plum, pineapple, mango etc.
I ngredients:
1. Papaya - 5kg.
2. Sugar - 5kg.
3. Water - 500ml.
4. Citric acid - 50gm.
5. Colour - 20 ml. Or as you like
6. Essence - 5 ml.
7. Sodium benzoate - 3 gm.

P reparation of papaya jam:

Papayas are to be washed properly, then sliced into small pieces or grate it. The sliced are than mixed
with 500 ml of water. The mixture is than cooked in a pressure cooker till they are completely melted.
The mixture is than filtered by the help of either stainless steel or aluminium strainer separating the
pulp from seeds and its peel. Now the obtained pulp is mixed with proper amount of sugar and then
cooked in an aluminium vessel over a high temperature. The mixture must be stirred constantly so
that the lower portion is not burned. After cooking 10-15 minutes citric acid is added and then stirs
constantly. After a few moments, the jam is ready, the prepared jam should have 68% sugar content,
and it can check by the help of refractometer. The household method for checking properly cooked
jam is to place a spoon of cooked jam in a plate, if there is no water flowing from the corners of the
jam than it is cooked fine. Once the jam is cooked add colour, sodium benzoate and essence in an
adequate amount. The mixture is than cooked for a while and then filled in a jar and then use air tight
cap after the jam has cooled down. The jam obtained from 4 kg of apple is around 6 kg. The weight
of prepared jam can also be used to check the quality of jam
 F LOW SHEET (PAPAYA JAM)

Papaya

Washing

Slicing (Grating)

Cooking in 500 ml water (in pressure cooker)

Straining

Adding of sugar and cooking

Adding citric acid (constant stirring)

Cook till 65% sugar content

Adding of colour, essence and sodium benzoate

Pouring into jar and letting it cool

Covering with air tight cap

 3. . TOMATO CHUTNEY
Chutney is of Indian origin and was originally intended to be eaten soon after production, but now
the modern chutney is prepared which can be preserved using preservatives such as sodium
benzoate that allows us to keep it for longer period. Some chutney has high sugar percent about
68%, that helps it to obtain longer shelf life.

I ngredient

1.Tomato - 2.5 kg.

2.Sugar - 2 kg
3.Salt- 100 gm.
4.Garlic-ginger paste - 50 gm.
5.Chili powder - 50 gm.
6.Gram masala - 25 gm.
7.Sodium benzoate - 2 gm.
8.Acetic acid - 15 ml.
9.Dry fruits - 100 gm.

P reparation of tomato chutney:

Tomatoes are washed properly and cut into small pieces. Add ginger-garlic paste and start cooking
the sliced tomato on low heat for 20 minutes. Then add sugar, chili powder, garam masala and
continue stirring to avoid burning at bottom. After cooking for 15 minutes the mixture becomes
thick and when the sugar is 65% add salt, sodium benzoate, raisin and colour. Lastly add acetic acid
and fill the chutney into the wide jar, as the chutney cool down, close the jar with air tight cap.
Chutney obtained from 2.5 kg tomatoes is around 3.5 kg.
 10

FLOW SHEET (TOMATO CHUTNEY)

Tomato

Washing and cutting

Add salt and cook for 15-20min

Add ginger-garlic paste and stir well

Add sugar and mix well

Add garam masala, chilli powder and mix well

Add food colour, sodium benzoate and let it cook by covering the top for some time

Add dry fruits mix well and wait for some time

Let it cool and pour into jar, level it and store.

 11

4. . JELLY
A jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear, strained solution of pectin containing
fruit extract, free from pulp, after the addition of sugar and acid. A perfect jelly should be transparent,
well-set, but not too stiff, and should have the original flavour of the fruit. It should be of attractive
colour and keep its shape when removed from the mould. It should be firm enough to retain a sharp
edge but tender enough to quiver when pressed. Guava, sour apple, plum, karonda, wood apple,
loquat, papaya and goose-berry are generally used for preparation of jelly. Apricot, pineapple,
strawberry, raspberry, etc. can be used but only after addition of pectin powder, because these fruits
have low pectin content.

I ngredients:
1. Guava - 3 kg
2. Sugar - 3 kg
3. Citric acid - 15 gm.
4. Water - 500 ml.
5. Colour - 15 gm.
6. Essence - 5-8 ml.

P reparation of guava jelly;

Wash and cut guava into thin slices and cook with water until very soft. Put this mixture in a
coarse cloth and allow the juice to drip through into a bowl underneath and leave it for 12 hours. Do
not squeeze the bag. Use the mixture in the bag for guava cheese. Measure the juice and add 3 cups
of sugar to each pint of juice. Heat the sugar, guava juice and stir until it is dissolved. Strain the juice,
add lemon juice and cook on a hot fire until settling point is reached. Then cool and pour into airtight
jars.
 FLOW CHART (GUAVA JELLY)

Guava fruit

Washing

Peeling

Pulping (remove seed and core)

Addition of sugar (add water if necessary)

Boiling (with continuous stirring)

Addition of citric acid

Judging of end-point

By further cooking up to 105° C or 68-70% TSS by sheet test

Filling hot into sterilized bottles

Cooling

Waxing

Capping

Storage (at ambient temperature)

 5 . ORANGE SQUASH

Squash is made of fruit juice or pulp mixed with sugar syrup. It is one of the nonfermented
beverages produced to preserve the fruit. It is mixed in water at 1:4 ratio to make it drinkable. It
contains 40-50% sugar and 25% pulp. Citric acid is added to acquire sour and tangy taste. Colour and
flavour are added as per required. The preservation used is potassium Meta bi-sulphite (KMS), it is
added 1 gm per kilogram. Squash is prepared using fruits such as oranges, lemon, mango, litchi, etc.

I ngredients:
1. Orange - 2 kg
2. Sugar - 2 kg
3. Water - 1 lit.
4. Citric acid - 30 g
5.K. M. S - 4g
6.Colour - 2g
7.Essence - 5 ml

Preparation of orange squash:

Prepare sugar syrup by boiling the mixture of sugar, water and citric acid. The syrup prepared is then
filtered with the help of a muslin cloth and left to cool down the juice of orange is then extracted by
the help of juice extractor or by squeezing the cut oranges with hands. Add 2 spoon of sugar into the
juice to reduce bitterness of the extracted juice. Strain the juice and pour it into the cooled sugar
syrup. Add colour and K. M. S into the mixture by dissolving them in a small amount of water. The
squash is now ready and have to be filled in narrow neck bottle with air tight cap. Mind to leave 1-
inch gap between squash and cap. 2 kg of oranges give around 4 kg of squash.
 FLOW SHEET (ORANGE SQUASH)

Oranges

Washing

Peeling

Juice extraction

Straining

Syrup preparation (sugar, water, acid)

Filtration

Mixing with fruit juice

Addition of preservatives (KMS), colour and essence

Bottling with an air tight cap

 6. CARROT MARMALADE
Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruit boiled with sugar and
water. The peel imparts a bitter taste. Marmalade is generally distinguished from jelly by its fruit

peel. Ingredients
1. Carrot - 2 kg
2. Sugar - 1-1.5 kg
3. Water - 500 ml.
4. Citric acid - 5-7 gm.
5. Colour - 15 gm.
6. Essence - 6-8 ml

Preparation of carrot marmalade:

Wash and peel thin the orange and lemon (used with the absence of citric acid) ring being careful not
to get the inner white membrane of the rind. Put through the food chopper. Remove thin white
membrane from orange section and slices into small pieces. Squeeze the lemons and add the juice to
the mixture and allow it all to stand overnight.

FLOW CHART (CARROT MARMALADE)

Carrot fruit

Washing

Peeling

Boiling

Addition of sugar, citric acid (1.5-3 gm. Per kg pulp) and pectin (1%)

Cooking till (TSS 65%)

Hot filling

Cooling

Lidding

Storage.
 7 . AMLA CANDY

Amla candy or Indian gooseberry is probably the most-healthiest candy.it is loaded with all the
benefits of amla.

I ngredients:
Amla: 2 kg
Sugar: 1 - 1.5 kg
Water: 1-2l
Colour: 5 g or as you like
Acetic Acid: 2 – 5 g or as you like

Preparation of amla candy

Boil water in a large vessel. When water starts boiling add all the amlas in the boiling water. Boil
amlas in the boiling water for 2 minutes. Switch off the flame. Let it stay in the boiling water for 2
more minutes and strain the amlas. Allow it to cool. When they become cold, cut them using knife.
Put these amlas in a large vessel, pour 325gms of sugar so that it covers the amlas entirely. Powder
the remaining 25 g (2 tbsp of sugar) of sugar. This powdered sugar will be used later on after amlas
sun dried. Close the vessel and keep it aside for 3 days. After First day sugar gets turned into syrup
and amla pieces will be floating in the syrup. Stir the syrup and cover keep it aside for 2 more days.
After third day amla settles down at the bottom of the vessel and syrup at the top. Sieve the amla
pieces and put them in sunlight to dry. Sun dry these pieces for 2 - 3 days till it turns brown in colour.
After drying coat these amla pieces with powdered sugar. Amla sugar candy is ready to use. Store it
in air tight containers. You can consume 1 - 2 pieces every day.
FLOW CHART (AMLA CANDY)

Amla

Wash

Boiling Water

Add amla

Cool the boiled amla

Cut the amla, remove the seed

Boiled water add sugar make sugar solution

Add amla in sugar solution

Cool the solution

Dry the amlas

Mixes with sugar powder

Stored.
 s ummary

Food preservation technology has become an integral part of food processing industry in India.
FMGC is the 4th largest sector in Indian economy and with the potential of growth in this sector,
there is immense need for food preservation products. One of the main reason for why this food
preservation is being considered as important is that there is a gap between production and
consumption of food. Thus, this preservation technique is sole technology to maintain those gaps and
meet out our need of foods without being spoiled. As, such due to the upgradation of preservation,
many industries are also being developed and successfully supplying the food product in market.
Moreover, govt. of India is aiming to provide all those preservation facilities directly to the farmers,
so as to preserve their agriculture product from field level. Many institutes, training centre, industries,
colleges and research centre for food preservation has been established to achieve the goal of
reduction in food wastage due to spoilage and increasing the food availability in our nation.
 UNIT-II

APICULTURE
20
 20

INTRODUCTION
Man has a several occasions proved his intelligence and superior skill by converting the wondrous
capabilities of the animal world to his material advantage. One of the finest discoveries in this line is
our knowledge regarding the procurement of honey collected by bees. The use of honey was known
to man since the earliest of times in India as well as in the other parts of the world, because it is a
nourishment of high food values. In olden days and in many places
still, the method utilize for obtaining honey from the hive is very
crude. Crushing of hive to extract honey destroyed the endeavoring
efforts of bees which they serve during the formation of comb and
in providing nourishment to the developing larvae. Not only are the
comb and larvae destroyed, this method also give very unhygienic
honey. Modern investigators have overcome these difficulties by
using scientific methods of beekeeping which is known as Apiculture.

Apiculture is defined as the scientific management and study of honey bees. It is derived from the
Latin word “apis” meaning bee and “culture” meaning rearing.

Attributes of Bee-keeping:
Bee-keeping provides sustainable livelihood options for economical, vulnerable communities
because of its following attributes:

 Provide employment, food and cash income without ownership of land.

 Non extractive and sustainable.
 Most suited enterprise when disasters happen.
 Require little investment and infrastructure.
 Hive products are low volume, high value with good shelve life.
 Most attractive enterprise to earn foreign change.
 Enhance productivity levels of agriculture, horticultural and fodder crop through pollination
service.
 Help in overcoming the problems of malnutrition and human health.
 Bee pollination is vital for life on earth in terms of biodiversity conservation.
 Provide effective linkage to other farming system with positive ecological consequences.
 21

ORGANIZATION OF BEE COLONY

Types of honey bee:

 Apis dorsata (rock bee)
 Apis florea (florea)
 Apis indica (Indian bee)
 Apis mellifera (European bee)

It is also called the European honey bee or the Italian honey bee and was introduce in India by Prof.
A.S. Atwal. Initially the bee was introduced into Himachal Pradesh and Punjab but now it has
acclimatized and spread to almost all states of India. The behavior and appearance of A.mellifera is
similar to that A.cerana. It makes its nest in enclose spaces in parallel combs and is endowed with all
good quality of hive bee, i.e. has a prolific queen, swarm less, gentle tempered, and so domesticable,
good honey gatherer and can guard its nest against enemies. The average honey yield is 20-25kilo
per colony, but elite beekeepers have obtained an average yield of 50 kg per colony.

Castes of honey bee:

Honey bee is a social insect. The most of the honey of the bee is known as the bee-hive. A hive in
summer consist of 32-50 thousands individual, depending on the locality. A colony is termed ‘weak’
or ‘strong’ according to the number of the worker bees it possesses. There are three types of individual
in a colony, namely the queen, worker and drone. Due to the existence of several morphological
forms, bees are said to be a polymorphic species. All these three caste depend on each other for their
existence.
LIFE CYCLE OF HONEY BEE:

Fig: Life cycle of honey bee

EGG LARVA PUPA TOTAL
Queen 3 days 5- ½ days 7- ½ days 16 days
Worker 3 days 6 days 12 days 21 days
Drone 3 days 6- ½ days 14- ½ days 24 days

BEE-KEEPING

Essentials for Starting A Bee Hive:

1. The hive should be placed in a locality rich in vegetation especially the flowering plant. If
several hives are kept in a plot, the distance between two hives should be at least six feet.
2. The hive should face east. It should receive sunlight during morning and evening and some
shade during the mid-day.
3. Water should be available nearby and an open space in front of the hive entrance.
4. It is advisable and economical to collect bees from a particular locality.
 5. Spring is the best season for starting bee-keeping as during this season swarming occurs and
bees can be easily procured to live.
Bee Hive and Other Tools Connected With Beekeeping

i) Bee Hive:
The bee hive is based on certain principles and is called “movable frame hive”. Hive is made
of wooden box. The box is made double walled. Double wall
is hive is used because it provides sufficient insulation that
keeps the hive warm in winter and cool in summer.

The hive has a basal plate or a bottom board on which is

placed a wood box called the “Brood Chamber”. A bottom
pores in brood chamber act as bee’s entrance. Inside the
brood chamber has several frames hanging vertically from
the top. These frames can be removed independently, bee hive that’s why the hive is called the
movable frame hive.

The distance between two frames is called “bee space”. This space serves as a passage for the
movement of the bees and at the same time it is very important because it is the space in which the
bee should not form a comb. There is another similar chamber above the brood chamber called as
“super”. This chamber is meant for the storage of honey only and here queen is never allowed to
enter. To prevent the entrance of queen into super, queen excluder is used between the brood and
super chamber. On the top of the super there is an inner covering and then a roof.

ii ) Queen Excluder:
This consists of a frame fitted with a metallic wire net assembled together 0.15 inches apart. It is
utilized for preventing the queen’s entrance from the brood chamber to the super chamber. The holes
in the net do not cause any inconvenience to the workers to pass through it.

Comb Foundation:

It is a sheet of bee wax on both sides of which exact shape of different cells of the comb is made in
advance. The sheet is cut to the size of hanging frame and is fitted inside it. It can be used for several
years.
iii) Bee gloves:

They are leather gloves used by beekeepers to protect their hands from sting of bees.

iv) Bee veil:

A bee veil is a covering to protect the keeper’s face from the sting of bees. It is made up of fine net,
usually silken through which bees cannot pass.

Smoker: It is a device used by keepers to subdue the bees if irritated during hive inspection.
The materials use for producing smoke are anything like rotten wood, chips, wood latches, waste
papers etc.

Fig: Tools for beekeeping

v) ) Hive tool:
It is a flat, narrow and long piece of iron which help in scraping the dirty materials deposited by the
bees especially bee glue and superfluous pieces of comb on the inner walls of the hive.

vi) Uncapping knife:

It is a long, broad iron piece which helps in removing cap of the hive for inspection at regular
intervals.

vii) Bee brush:

It is a large brush often employed to brush off bees from honey comb particularly at the time of
extraction.
 viii) Queen introducing cage:
It is a pipe made up of wire net through which the queen cannot pass, both the pipe are
opened. This toll is used for keeping the queen arrested in the hive for about 24 hours, so that she
gets acquainted with the hive as well as the worker bees. After putting the queen in the cage both
the ends of the pipe is closed with “queen candy” (made by kneading fine powdered sugar with
little honey). Now the cage is place inside the hive. In about 24 hours’ time a hole is made in
candy due to eating of candy by workers as well as queen, there by releasing the queen. If the
bees fail to eat the candy within 48 hours, the queen should be release directly.

ix) Feeder:

During drought and lack of natural food these are fed with artificial food. Sugar syrup are
taken in the bottle is place over the frame of brood chamber to prevent the bees from sinking in
the syrup.

x) Honey extractor

This instrument is used for extracting honey

from frame without any destruction to the comb. It is a
drum made up of metal, having several pockets around
the rotating wheels. The collected honey is taken out
from the drum through the hole at the bottom. After
extraction of honey the comb and frame are utilized
again.
FIG: HONEY EXTRACTOR

Xi) Hive entrance guard:

During swarming season a device similar to the queen excluder is place in front of the
hive entrance which prevents the escape of queen.
Collection of bees:
For collection of bees, spring is the best
season as swarming occurs in this season. A swarm
is collected from branches of trees, corner of houses,
or from cavities. The bees are place in cloth bag and
immediately the mouth of the bag is closed. The
collected bees are then release in the hive. Before
releasing the bees, the queen is placed in the hive in
a “queen introducing cage”. Then sugar syrup is
FIG: QUEEN GATE
given to the bees as an artificial diet. Within
 24hours the queen and the workers get familiar to each other as well as the hive. In this way they
establish the colony. For a few days, hive entrance guard is used to prevent the escape of queen.

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING

Sugar syrup solution:

The proportionate ratio of sugar and water used to prepare the artificial feeding is as follows:

a) Summer = 1 part sugar: 2 part water

b) Rainy season = 1 part sugar: 1 part water
c) Autumn = 2 part sugar: 1 part water
d) Winter = 1 part sugar : 1 part water.
Note: artificial feeding should be done in the evening to avoid robbing.

Winter:

 There is dearth of nectar and pollen in this season. Starvation takes great toll in the
colonies. Therefore sugar syrup feeding is a must
 Egg laying capacity decreases to a great extent. Therefore uncovered comb should be
remove and preserved for next season.
 Para-di-chlorobenzene (PDB) may be used for preservation of the combs.
Rainy season:
  Bees are very inactive and the colonies become weak.
 Artificial feeding becomes necessary.

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING

MAJOR ACTIVITIES OF HONEY BEES

SWARMING:

This is a natural process of multiplication of colonies when the strength of the bees in the colony
increases and bees feel over-crowding. They make preparation of swarming. The old queen flies away
from the hive with thousands of workers to form a new colony. In the first swarming, the mother
queen leaves with 50-70% of the workers. There may be a farther swarming with a virgin queen.
Repeated swarming reduces the number of workers each time, which leave the colony too weak to
survive.

Symptoms of swarming:

a) The number of drone cells and drones in the colony increases.

b) Queen cells are seen at the edges of combs.
 c) Bee cluster at hive entrance.
d) Bees hover around the hive making a piping sound
e) There are many bees flying a short distance from the existing hive and clustering on a
nearby tree branch or similar place.
Causes:

a) Genetic trait.
b) Congestion in the colony.
c) Lack of space in the colony.
d) Lack of space for hive food storage.
e) Increase in temperature.
f) Delay in re-queening.
Season and time:
Swarming takes place when there is a sufficient flow of pollen and nectar.

The most favorable time is spring and autumn at lower attitudes and May, June and July in high hills

Swarming generally occurs in the forenoon between 10am-12pm but occasionally it is notice

at the other part of the day. Swarming does not occur when its rainy or stormy.

Prevention:
a) Inspection of the colony at regular intervals.
b) Allow sufficient space in the brood and super for brood rearing and honey storage.
c) Add new comb foundations so that the bees can make more comb cells for egg and
collection of the nectar and pollen.
d) Destroy unnecessary queen cells.
e) Remove any comb with unnecessary drone cells.
f) Enable good ventilation with full air circulation in the hive.
g) Re-queen the colony with the quality queen each year.
h) Place the queen guard at the hive entrance if there are signals indicating the swarming.
Absconding and migration:

Absconding is the process in which the honey

bee colony is completely abandoned a hive as a result
of problem. Absconding can result from unfavourable
conditions, especially during the dry season or dearth
period and in hot or rainy weather. Absconding usually
take place during the day between 10am-3pm. Two
types of absconding can occur: planned and
emergency.
FIGURE; ABSCONDING OR MIGRATION

Symptoms of absconding:

a) Workers create a non-laying environment for the queen 15days before absconding.
b) The number of eggs, larvae, pupae in the colony is reduced.
c) Stores of nectar and pollen are depleted.
d) Fewer bee flights (incoming and outgoing) are seen at the entrance.
e) Many workers fly around the hive making piping sound. Bees take off fast and fly higher.
Causes:

1) Lack of food during dearth period due to harvesting all the honey at the end of the honey
flow season.
2) Endemic disease and attack by pest.
3) Inadequate and inappropriate seasonal management of the colony.
4) Transfer of the colony from a traditional to an improved hive at an unfavourable time of
year.
5) Disturbance to bees as a result of poor method of colony inspection.
6) Lack of an appropriate and safe side and obstacles in the part of bees flying to and from
the entrance.
Control and management of absconding:

1) Leaves some honey while harvesting at the end of the flow period.
2) Feed with sugar syrup continuously for a period of three days if the brood combs don’t
have any food stores.
 30

3) Do not disturb the colony with over frequent colony inspection.

4) Under take seasonal management practices to protect the colony from cold, hot and moist
condition.
5) Place bee hive at an appropriate side that protects the bee colonies from cold, heat and
other disturbances like smoke, vehicles, noise and animal transit.
6) Re-queen the colony every year.
7) Have a skill technician transfer a colony from a traditional to an improved hive during
favourable seasons using appropriate technology.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

a) Brood Foul: One of the most dreadful contagious

disease found prevalent among bees are “Brood Foul”.
The larva suffering from this disease show uneasy
movement in the cell, the colour of the body changes
from pearly white to yellow, skin become flaccid and
opaque and death occur soon. It is a contagious disease and the main source of its
spreading from one hive to another is man. It is cause by the different genera of fungi to
which a common name “Schizomycetes” is applied.

b) Nosema disease and Amoeba disease: these diseases are cause by protozoan
parasites, Nosema apis and Vahlkampfia mellifica. Nosema affects the stomach and
small intestine which become grayish white as compare to yellowish of a normal bee.
Amoeba disease on the other hand affects the malphighian tubules.

c) “Isle of wight” or Acarine disease: This disease occurs due to blocking of the
trachea of bee by small parasitic mite, Acarapiswoodi. A mixture of safrol oil, Nitro
 31

BEE PRODUCTS

Honey: It is a sweet, viscous, edible fluid obtained by honey bees from nectar and pollen secreted
by plants. When the bee sucks the nectar from the flower it passes them to its honey sac where it gets
mixed with its acid secretion. These nectar and pollen are dropped in particular channels in the hive.
Further processing of temperature in the hive is done by workers through flapping of their wings. The
actual process of honey formation is not possible to enumerate in detail. However, it is believe that
the cane sugar of the nectar is converted into dextrose and laevulose inside the honey sac by the action
of certain enzymes. After regurgitation it finally changes into honey which is stored in the hive for
future use.

Fig: Honey

It is a wax of high melting point (about 140 0F) secreted by wax glands of worker bees. It is utilized
in the construction of hive. This wax is used by human beings for several purposes like manufacturing
of cosmetics, cold creams. Shaving creams, polishes, candles, ointments, lipsticks, lubricants, in
model works etc. it is also by beekeepers in the formation of comb-foundation bases for modern bee
live.

Royal jelly: royal jelly is the secretion of hypo pharyngeal gland

of workers bees normally of 5-15 days of age. It is fed to queen
throughout their larval life and adult lives and also fed to young
workers and drone larva. Royal jelly is rich in vitamin-B also
contains Vit-C but lacks in Vit-E. It also contain a substance 10-
hydroxy decenoic acid, which exhibit anti biotic activity against
many bacteria and fungi. It is believed to be a general tonic and FIG. ROYAL JELLY
cure against common cold. In natural form, it is use as face cream and is applied on skin to clear
blemishe and eczema.
Marketing:

 Marketing of honey is done generally in the local market.

 The rate of honey it depend on the quality and the size of the bottle.

Fig: Marketing of honey

 Summary

In India about 16 lakh people are engaged in beekeeping and allied activities. Beekeeping generally
means honey production, but a beekeeper can produce other commodities for sale and generate
income. These include queen rearing, package bees, pollen, propolis collection, wax, royal jelly, bee
venom and renting colonies for pollination. The honey itself can be sold in bulk or can be bottled for
retail selling. Further it can be produce as comb honey or creamed honey which is sold at a higher
price. Honey can also be used in the production of alcoholic drinks. The production and marketing
strategies would depend on the type of operation and the kind of colony to be used.

The most significant feature of beekeeping industry in India is the export of honey to other country
which started at a reasonable scale in 1995-96. It is apparent now that there is a great potential of
beekeeping in the country and world market is ready to purchase any amount of honey from India.
 UNIT-III
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
 INTRODUCTION

Dehradun has a congenital climate for growing Pluerotus species of mushroom without any
artificial cooling or heating system throughout the year around depending on the different altitudes
where temperature ranges between 20-30° C.
Artificially grown mushrooms are not only delicious but they are also rich in nutritional food
value and are free from dangers of poisoning as compared to wild mushrooms. They are easy to grow
on a maize stalk etc. Requiring minimum space, shorter gestation period and low investment cost
with higher net returns to the farmer as compared to other crops.

Fig: Preparation of substrate bed

Mushrooms are fleshy fungi. In Latin ‘fugo’ means to flourish. In Greek the term “mushrooms” was
derived from the word “sphonggos” which means “sponge” and refereed to the sponge-like structure
of the same species. Mushroom lacks the usual green matter (chlorophyll) present in other plants.
After the mycelium has grown profusely and absorbed sufficient food materials, it forms the
reproductive structures which we commonly refer to as ‘Mushroom’
Mushrooms produces millions of minute seeds, which are called spores look like powder. The spores
germinate under favourable condition on suitable substrate (wood, soil, compost etc.) and give rise
to new mushroom mycelium that again produces mushroom in growing season. In some kind of
mushrooms, fruiting bodies are formed underground e.g. Tuber spp. Mushrooms vary in size, shapes
and colour. They grow in a variety of climatic condition and on various types of soil and other
substrate. In rainy season they are commonly seen.
There are edible and non-edible mushroom. Some of the edible mushrooms are:
 Agricus arvensis
 Agricus bisporus
 Amanita caesaria
 Coprinus atramentarius
 Pluerotus otreatus
 Lentinula edodes
Mushroom is good source of energy. Mushroom is a good source of carbohydrates, fats, minerals,
protein, vitamins.

Approximation analysis of edible mushrooms fresh weight basis percent:

Mushrooms Moisture Ash Protein Fat Crude fibre
Agricus bisporus 89.5 1.25 3.94 0.19 1.09
Pleurotu ssp 90.0 0.97 2.78 0.65 1.08
Pleurotus ostreatus 92.5 - 2.15 - -
Volvariella diplasia 90.4 1.10 3.90 0.25 1.57
Volvariella volvacea 88.4 1.46 4.98 0.74 1.38

Use of mushroom as medicine:

Many mushrooms today have been used for medical purposes. Polyporus officinalis was used as a
remedy for all complaints and disorders, It is use mainly for the treatment of lung diseases,
tuberculosis, jaundice, intestinal worms. Auricularia auricular is used as a poultice for inflamed
eyes and inflammation of throat. Amanita muscular is used as a medicine or swollen glands and heart
ailment. Volvariella volvacea is used for lower blood pressure and tumor cells and influenza.
Mushrooms which are brought to artificial cultivation:
Oyster mushroom is being grown in Arunachal Pradesh such as Calocyb indica and Lentinula edodes
have been grown on experimental basis. Mushroom development centre, Itanagar, Provide
training and guidance. The Objective of choosing the course was to learn cultivation techniques of
popular mushrooms.
 IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOM

Mushroom is good source of energy. Mushroom is a good source of carbohydrates, fats, minerals,
protein, vitamins.

Approximation analysis of edible mushrooms fresh weight basis percent:

Mushrooms Moisture Ash Protein Fat Crude fibre

Agricus bisporus 89.5 1.25 3.94 0.19 1.09
Pleurotu ssp 90.0 0.97 2.78 0.65 1.08
Pleurotus ostreatus 92.5 - 2.15 - -
Volvariella diplasia 90.4 1.10 3.90 0.25 1.57
Volvariella volvacea 88.4 1.46 4.98 0.74 1.38

Use of mushroom as medicine:

Many mushrooms today have been used for medical purposes. Polyporus officinalis was used as a
remedy for all complaints and disorders, It is use mainly for the treatment of lung diseases,
tuberculosis, jaundice, intestinal worms. Auricularia auricular is used as a poultice for inflamed
eyes and inflammation of throat. Amanita muscular is used as a medicine or swollen glands and heart
ailment. Volvariella volvacea is used for lower blood pressure and tumor cells and influenza.

CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

Pleurotus is the scientific name for the mushroom which is called the “Oyster Mushroom” and parts
of India as the “Dhingri”. This mushroom includes many species e.g. Pleurotus ostreatus,
O.sajorcaju, P.Florida, P.sapidus, P.Flabellatus, P.Eryngii and many other edible species.
Individuals seeking information on the cultivation of
mushroom’s are frequently misled by the notion that
it is a field requiring high technical know-how and
that the method used are very sophisticated and
outside their purview and therefore discouraged they
even venture into the task. On the other hand other
people have been misinformed by overzealous
people that mushroom growing is a very simple
process and that it is an occupation offering unusual
opportunities for profit with little effort and
FIG. OYSTER MUSHROOM
experience. Mushroom growing is not totally either of the above but it is an occupation requiring
perseverance, patience, intelligent observation and a skill that can be developed only through
intelligent experience. Pleurotus mushroom requires a temperature of 20-30°C both for its vegetative
growth (spawn run) and reproductive phase i.e. for formation of fruits bodies. These temperatures are
prevalent widely in most parts of Meghalaya under natural condition and can successfully be grown
at the following different altitudes without artificial heating or cooling system.
1. High altitude (1100-1500 meters AMSL)-March to October
2. Mid altitude (600-1100 meters AMSL)- February to May, September to November
3. Low altitude (Below 600 meters AMSL)
Oyster mushroom is becoming popular worldwide and has more potential in india. It ranks second
after button in terms of production. Oyster mushroom grows well in moderate range temperature i.e.
22-28°C and requires 80-85% relative humidity. It is mainly grown on paddy straw under indoor
condition. It has got several advantages over other cultivated mushrooms due to low cost and easy
growing technology. It can be easily dried and canning is not essential. It can be cultivated on most
lingo cellulosic waste/by-products like paddy straw saw dust, maize cobs (hearts) bagasse etc. After
cultivation these spent subtract can be used as cattle feed or manure because Oyster mushrooms have
capability of reducing organic and increasing the nitrogen content of plant residues. It has several
other advantages over other cultivated mushrooms. It can be cultivated in poly-bags, trays, baskets
etc. These can be arranged on shelves in growing rooms thus vertical space can be utilized. It grows
quickly and first crop can be harvested within 2 week after spawning (seeding). It can be easily sun
dried/oven dried and canning is not required. It also has excellent taste, flavour and texture. Due to
increasing popularity of fast food in these days there is a good scope for growing and selling this
mushroom. Presently it is grown in commercial scale in Bangalore. It is getting popular in Assam
and north-eastern hill states because of favourable climate and easy availability of paddy straw

Growing Season: March to October in mid hills and November to March in valleys.

Crop Duration: 45-60 days

Yield:-B 800-900g fresh W.t/kg of dry paddy straw.

Growing Methods: Poly-bags and block culture methods are common. The latter is more suitable
for commercial cultivation because it is faster and cheaper.
Materials required:
1. Paddy straw- Fresh golden yellow paddy straw free from moulds and properly stored in dry
place not exposed to rain.
2. Plastic Sheets of 400-gauge thickness- 1Sq.m. of plastic sheet is required for making one
block.
3. Wooden Mould- Wooden moulds of 45x30x15 cm=ms size each having no top or bottom but
having a separate wooden cover 44x29cms dimension.
4. Hand chopper or Chaff cutter for cutting the straw.
5. Drums for boiling straw (minimum two).
6. Jute rope, coconut ropes/plastic ropes, gunny bags.
7. Spawn or mushroom seeds- These-spawn can be obtain from the Assistant Pathologist,
Mushroom Development Centre, Clock tower and one packet required for each block.
8. One sprayer
9. Straw Storage Shed 10x8 size.
10. Mushroom houses or rooms. 8

STEP IN CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

Objective: Isolation and culture mushroom fungus
Procedure:
a. In a clean and sterilized laminar air flow the test tubes are then introduced with small amounts
of culture of mushroom in front of a burner so as to avoid contamination.
b. The test tubes are kept in cold storage and incubated at a constant temperature of 26° C.
c. If mushroom cultures are not available, isolation can be made from fruit body of mushroom
by transferring small bits of surface sterilized mushroom to culture media.

1. Making the spawn ready:

a. Clean a plastic tray with Dettol solution (1 ml Dettol in 100 ml of water). Wash hands with
Dettol solution.
b. Disinfect the hooked iron rod with Dettol (option).
c. Swab the surface of the spawn bottle with the above solution. Remove the cotton plug and insert
the hooked iron rod into the spawn bottle and remove the spawn (option).
d. Collect the spawn in the disinfected tray and break the solid spawns with fingers to individual
grains.
 40

e. Divide the spawn into two equal halves.

f. Again a portion one half of spawn into five equal parts.
2. Making the polythene bags ready:
a. Take polythene bag of 60 x 30 cm size. Put two holes of 1 cm diameter in the Centre of the bag
on each side. These holes may also be provided after the completion of bed.
b. Tie the bottom of the bag with jute thread, this provides flat circular bottom for the
bed when prepared.
Spawning the bed:
hop the straw either manually or mechanically into bits 3-5 cms in length and packed in
gunny bags.
Boil water in a drum. When the water comes to boiling, place the gunny bag along with the straw in
the boiling water and boil for about 15-20 minutes. Then remove the gunny bag from the drum and
leave as such for 8-10 hrs to allow the excess water to run off and also for the straw to cool.
After spawn running, remove the rope as well as from the block. Tie the block the plastic sheets
vertically with coconut rope and hang it in cropping room. From this stage onwards the relative
humidity of the room should not be less than 85%. This can be maintained by periodically spraying
water on the walls and floor on one room. If it a cemented floor, it is advisable to pour water on the
floor so that water always remains on the floor. If the block show signs of drying light spraying can
be done with the help of a sprayer.
With a week to 10 days, tiny pins heads will be seen on the surface of the block and these will grow
into full size mushrooms within a day or two.

b. When fruit bodies start forming the requirement of air is increased. Therefore, once fruit
bodies start forming it is essential that there is an exchange of fresh air every 6-12 hrs, by
opening the ventilator provided at the front and back side of the room.
c. The fruiting bodies (mushrooms) are ready for picking just when the periphery of the cap
starts turning upwards. This will be evident as small crinkles on the sides of the pileus (cap).
d. To harvest the mushroom take hold of the stipe (stalk) at the base with thumb and fore finger
and with a gentle clockwise twist, the mushroom is neatly detached from the straw without
disturbing the straw or any small mushroom growing alongside.
e. Do not use knife of scissors fir harvesting. The blocks will again come to fruiting after about
a week.
 41

Spawn running room is one where the beds are kept for spawn running. This room needs
ventilation but does not require light. Temperature in the room should be between 24 to 28°C.
Mushroom Shed:
Mushroom shed should be preferable thatched. It should have a door. The thatched portions
can be covered with chicken mesh to prevent entry of snakes, rats and squirrels. The floor of the shed
may be filled with sand to a height of 15 cm and watered. Racks are to be erected inside the
mushroom house to accommodate the mushroom beds. The inner side of the mushroom shed can be
lined with gunny bags and watered twice daily to keep the room cool. The shed may be laid in east
west to avoid direct effect of sun and to reduce the temperature inside the cropping room.

STORAGE ROOM
Storage room is one where the closed mushroom bags are kept after completion of spawn
running. The temperature should be between 23 to 25°C. Most of the growers use the same room for
spawn running and cropping. The polythene bag is opened by cutting with a sterile blade on 16 th day
of spawning for white oyster mushroom (opening dates differ as per variety). The moisture level of
the beds are observed and watered accordingly. The mushroom beds with excess moisture will lead
to contamination. Pin heads appear on third or fourth day of opening of the beds and fully grown
mushroom appear within three to four days appearance of pin heads. The mushroom should be
harvested early morning before watering the bed. After the first harvest is completed the beds are
scrapped one to two cm deep from the entire surface of the bed. The second crop appears within
another week. Three to four crops of mushroom can be over in about 35-40 days for white oyster
mushroom (days differ as per variety). The harvested mushroom can be stored for one to three days
under refrigeration. The shelf life is about 12-16 hours at room temperature (differs as per variety).

FIG. mushroom room

 DISEASE CONTROL

If the compost, casing materials and the room for keeping mushroom beds are made germ
free, the incidence of diseases will not take place. The excess humidity, temperature and poor
ventilation are likely to cause disease infection. The clean and tidy environment helps to keep diseases
at bay.

Some of the important diseases and their control measure are given in the table below:-

Disease Casual organism Symptoms Control

Cobweb Cladobotrym apiculatum White cottony growth on the Spray bavistin
C.verticillatum substrate, small brown irregular @0.05%
C.variospermum sunken spots or fluffy growth on fruit
bodies, soft rot and decay of
sporophores emitting foul smell
Green Gliocladium virens Fruits bodies covered by mycelium Spray bavistin
blotch G.deligeuscens and green spots; young pin heads or benomyl
become soft, brown, pale yellow and @0.01%
decay. Mature fruit bodies show
brown spots enclose by yellow halo.
Brown rot Arthrobotrys pleuroti Fluffy growth on substrate and fruit Spray bavistin
bodies, infected tissues turn yellow, @0.05%
water logged and rot.
Sibirina Sibirina fingicola Powdery white growth on stipe, gills Proper aeration
rot and the primordia, primordia shows and RH is
brownish discolouration and soft rot essential, spray
and mature bodies turn fragile benomyl twice.
Yield:
Mushrooms appear in flushes. About 2-3 flushes may be harvested from a single cube. The
yield of the first flush is more and then gradually decreases, giving a total yield of 1.5 kg to 2 kg, of
fresh mushroom form one cube. Then the cube is discarded and dump in a pit situate far from the
cropping room or can be used as a manure in garden field.
 SUMMARY

Plant residues such as straw, leaves and also wastes from agriculture, forest and industry
mostly remain unused. These are disposed of by burning some other wasteful methods. However
these residues can be converted into substrate for the cultivation of mushroom and the spent substrate
can be utilized as manure .Another advantage of mushroom is that they are grown in rooms, for which
the wasteland may be utilized. Being grown in vertical stacks, mushroom come into production very
rapidly make mushroom growing a profitable venture.
Mushroom is also called white vegetables or boneless vegetarian meats contain ample
amounts of proteins, vitamins fibers and medicines. Mushroom contains 20-35%protein (dry weight)
which is higher than those of vegetables and fruits and is of superior quality. It is considered ideal
for patients of hyper-tension and diabetics.
Mushroom has a huge domestic and foreign market. It is estimated that there is a world
market for 20lakh tones per annum in which the contribution of India is negligible. In the domestic
market also the availability of mushroom is limited to cities and big town only. Mushroom can be
not only in raw form but also in dried form
There is huge international demand for dried mushroom and the mushroom and the farmers
get farm price of around Rs. 250 per kg for dried oyster mushroom. There are exporters in the market
who are willing to supply the spawn (seed material) and also buy the dried mushroom.
The cultivation of oyster mushroom of Pluerotus spp. is relatively simple and it can be a
homestead project. The mushroom industry is gradually taking root but the pace is rather slow
because of insufficient scientific support and inadequate training programs. At present there is no
organized spawn producing units and therefore, spawn supply to growers is limited and uncertain. A
few research workers engaged in this activity have to attend to various other researches, training an
advisory service that they are unable to do full justice. But the cultivation of mushroom in Arunachal
Pradesh is of special relevance because the straw and plant residues are easily available to the growers
and the environment is conducive for their cultivation. Hence, the future of this industry in the state
is very bright.
 UNIT-IV

SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY

 INTRODUCTION

ocio economic is the study of the society and its economic status. The survey is conducted
annually to record the number of persons living in a particular area. In which the adults are interviewed
to collect data about their economic status, employment, education, schemes and projects introduced
by the government, development in the area, health status, etc. Every item of the survey behaves as a
wide and vivid range of grades so that no systematic or defined scale can be taken to measure it.
The wellbeing of the society and its members is generally measured by the social status and
the economic achievement. The socio-economic status may be measured through the quantum respect
and reverence afforded by the other members of the closed group society.
Socio economic survey is a complex exercise and no single function can be attributed to it
for defining the survey results. Every item of the survey behaves as a wide and vivid range of grades
so that no systematic or defined scale can be taken to measure it. The methodologies to be used and
the result analysis solely depends on objective of the study.

OBJECTIVE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY:

The development of the area depends on Socio-economic setting of the area. Small units
like a village help for collecting data of various socio-economic conditions, so the study of the local
area is very essential to the students, planners, administrators and implementers.
The following are the needs to study the socio-economic survey:
1. To know about the local area, it’s past and present and various problems of socio-economic
nature.
2. To get acquainted with the change in the Social environment.
3. To be able to appreciate the rural heritage.
4. To study the status and facilities of education in the study area and its impact status.
5. To study the economic and living standard of the families.
6. To know about the living standards of the villagers.
7. To study the transportation and communication facilities of the village.
8. To study the population dynamics, their views their views and concerns about population
growth.
9. To study the health and hygiene of the villagers and the medical facilities available in the area.
10. To study the status of basic amenities of the village.
11. To study the role and uses of forest by the villagers.
 12. To study the impact of Government endeavors in the village life.

Village location and Nearest Towns:

The Buddi village is the village situated in the Dehradun district with code no.
060.Dehradun is the sub- District ,is a low level administrative division of a district of this village,
having the sub district code 00304.The gram panchayat for this village is Buddi ,Dehradun

METHODOLOGY OF RURAL SURVEY

In Rural survey to know the socioeconomic condition of rural areas in Uttarakhand, we made an
experimental household profile to know social status of those people who lives in villages of
Dehradun,

In this process we visited some random villages, and within this village we went to some random
house to collect data to know the socio-economic condition of that village and to understand the rural
sociology of Uttarakhand.
50
51
DEMOGRAPHIC

Uttarakhand is situated in the Northern part of India. It has a population of 10,116,752 inhabitants as
per the census. The state had a growth rate of 19.17% over the last census. The male to female ratio
is 1000: 963. The population density is 189 per sq. km. The literacy rate of Uttarakhand is 79.63%.
The state borders Tibet, Nepal, Himachal Pradesh and the Uttar Pradesh plains districts. Dehradun,
the state's capital is about 240 km away from India's capital, New Delhi. There are 13 districts in
Uttarakhand: Pithoragarh, Almora, Nainital, Bageshwar, Champawat, Uttarkashi, Udham
Singh Nagar, Chamoli, Dehradun, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri Garhwal, Rudra prayag and
Haridwar.
GALLERY